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UPPSC Batch

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science

Lecture – 06
Digestive System & Nutrition Part -2
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Digestive System & Nutrition Part -2

Digestion:
❖ The process of conversion of complex food substances to simple absorbable forms is called digestion and is
carried out by the digestive system by mechanical and biochemical methods.
❖ The digestive system converts carbohydrate into glucose, fats into fatty acids, and proteins into amino
acids, making them absorbable by the body.
Steps of digestion of food in humans:
❖ Ingestion: The digestive process commences with the ingestion of food through the buccal cavity.
❖ Digestion: In this step, ingested food (complex food) is broken down into simpler forms.
❖ Absorption: This step involves the uptake of digested nutrients into the bloodstream and lymphatic system.
Absorption of substances takes place in different parts of the alimentary canal, like mouth, stomach, small
intestine and large intestine. However, maximum absorption occurs in the small intestine.
❖ Assimilation: The absorbed substances finally reach the tissues which utilize them for their activities. This
process is called assimilation.
❖ Excretion: Any undigested or unabsorbed material is moved to the large intestine and eventually expelled
from the body as waste, completing the digestive cycle.
The digestive system is divided into two main parts:
❖ Alimentary canal: Its length is up to 9-10 meters.
➢ Buccal cavity
 Tongue
 Teeth
 Pharynx
➢ Oesophagus / Food pipe
➢ Stomach
➢ Intestine
➢ Small Intestine
 Duodenum
 Jejunum
 Ileum
➢ Large intestine
 Caecum
 Colon
 Rectum
❖ Digestive glands
➢ Salivary glands
➢ Liver
➢ Pancreas
Buccal cavity:
❖ The alimentary canal begins with an
anterior opening called the mouth and ends posteriorly at the anus.
❖ The mouth leads into the buccal cavity, also known as the oral cavity.
❖ The oral cavity contains a number of teeth and a muscular tongue.
Lips
❖ The lips hold the fluid in the mouth, saliva.
❖ The lips do not have oil glands.
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Tongue:
❖ The tongue is a freely movable muscular organ attached to the floor of the
oral cavity by the frenulum.
❖ The upper surface of the tongue has small projections called papillae, some of
which bear taste buds.
Functions of tongue
❖ The tongue helps in speaking.
❖ The tongue helps in identifying taste.
❖ The tongue helps in mixing saliva in food.
❖ The number of taste buds is 2000-10000. Women have more taste buds than
men.

Hyoid Bone:
❖ The hyoid bone is unique as the only "floating" bone in the human body, lacking direct connections to other
bones and instead being supported by ligaments, muscles, and cartilage.
❖ The hyoid bone also provides support for various structures in the neck, including the tongue, muscles in
the mouth, larynx, epiglottis, and pharynx.
Teeth:
❖ Teeth are embedded in jaws. This type of attachment is called thecodont.
❖ Animals with monophyodont teeth develop only one set of teeth in their lifetime. These teeth are not
replaced once lost or worn out.
❖ Most mammals, including humans, develop two sets of teeth during their lifetime:
➢ A temporary set called milk teeth or deciduous teeth,
➢ Followed by a permanent set called adult teeth.
➢ This type of dentition is called diphyodont.
❖ The study of the structure, development, and diseases or abnormalities of teeth is called odontology.
❖ The number of monophyodont teeth is 12.
❖ The number of diphyodont teeth is 20.
❖ Man has 32 permanent teeth set in 2 jaws, namely incisors (I), canines (C), premolars (PM) and molars (M)
❖ Canines are called eye teeth.
❖ Wisdom teeth are useless teeth.
❖ The protruding tooth of an elephant is called a tusk.
❖ Dental formula for adults – 2123/2123
❖ Dental formula for the child - 2102/2102
❖ The hard chewing surface of the teeth, made up of enamel, helps in the mastication of food. Enamel is
made up of calcium phosphate.
Wisdom Teeth (Third Molars)
❖ Wisdom teeth are also known as third molar teeth.
❖ They are located at the back of the upper and lower jaws.
❖ These are the last teeth to emerge in the oral cavity.
❖ Wisdom teeth usually erupt between the ages of 17 and 25.
❖ They are called "wisdom teeth" because they appear during the "age of wisdom", a more mature stage of
life.
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Types of Teeth:
The number of teeth in adults is 32. Whereas the number of teeth in children is 20.
Temporary (Milk) Teeth:
❖ Number: There are a total of 20 milk teeth.
❖ Types:
➢ Incisors: 8
➢ Canines: 4
➢ Molars: 8
➢ Premolars: Absent
❖ Replacement: They fall out to be replaced by permanent teeth starting around age 6-8 years.
Permanent Teeth:
❖ Appearance: They begin to appear around the age of 6-8 years after the milk teeth fall out.
❖ Number: There are a total of 32 permanent teeth.
❖ Types:
➢ Incisors: 8
➢ Canines: 4
➢ Premolars: 8
➢ Molars: 12 (including wisdom teeth)
Incisors:
❖ Location: Front of the mouth.
❖ Quantity: Eight in total (four upper, four lower).
❖ Form: Sharp edges.
❖ Function: Cutting food into small, chewable pieces.
Canines (Cuspids):
❖ Location: Situated at the corners of the dental arches.
❖ Quantity: Four in total (two upper, two lower).
❖ Form: Sharp, elongated, and pointy surface.
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❖ Function: Gripping and tearing tough food, such as meat.

Premolars (Bicuspids):
❖ Location: Behind the canines.
❖ Quantity: Eight in total (two on each side of the jaws).
❖ Form: Flat surface with ridges.
❖ Function: Crushing and grinding food into smaller portions.
Molars:
❖ Location: Positioned at the back, largest and strongest teeth.
❖ Quantity: Twelve in total (six in each jaw).
❖ Form: Large and flat biting surface.
❖ Function: Well-adapted for grinding food.
❖ Special Note: Includes four wisdom teeth (third molars), emerging between ages 17 to 25.
Salivary glands:
❖ Saliva is mainly produced by three pairs of salivary glands, the parotids (cheek), the sub-maxillary/sub-
mandibular (lower jaw) and the sublinguals (below the tongue). These glands situated just outside the buccal
cavity secrete salivary juice into the buccal cavity.
❖ Saliva contains:
➢ Human saliva comprises 99.5% water, and also contains many important substances, including
electrolytes, mucus, antibacterial compounds and various enzymes.
➢ The saliva secreted into the oral cavity contains electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3-)
➢ Enzymes: salivary amylase/ ptyalin and lysozyme (Lysozyme present in saliva acts as an antibacterial
agent that prevents infections).
➢ Maltase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of the disaccharide maltose to the simple sugar
glucose.
➢ Mucus to lubricate and adhere masticated food particles into a bolus.
❖ Salivary amylase initiates the chemical digestion process in the oral cavity. About 30 percent of starch is
hydrolysed by this enzyme (optimum pH 6.8) into a disaccharide – maltose.

Mumps
❖ Mumps is a contagious viral disease.
❖ It causes painful swelling of the parotid salivary glands.
❖ The disease spreads from person to person, usually through saliva or respiratory droplets.
❖ The MMR vaccine (Measles, Mumps, Rubella) provides protection against mumps.
Muscles of the Buccal Cavity:
❖ Masseter Muscle
➢ It helps in raising the lower jaw (mandible).
➢ It is one of the strongest muscles in the human body.
➢ It plays a major role in chewing (mastication).
❖ Pterygoid Muscle
➢ There are two types: Medial and Lateral Pterygoid muscles.
➢ The major functions of Medial Pterygoid muscle are:
 Help in side-to-side movements of the jaw during chewing (mastication).
 Elevates the mandible
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❖ The major functions of Lateral Pterygoid Muscle are:

➢ Bilateral contraction: protrudes and depresses the mandible (helps open the mouth).
➢ Allows for alternating side-to-side movements during chewing.
❖ Buccinator Muscle
➢ The buccinator muscle forms the lateral (side) wall of the oral cavity.
➢ It helps in chewing (mastication) by keeping the food (bolus) between the teeth.
Pharynx and Oesophagus
❖ The oral cavity opens into a short pharynx, which acts as a common passage for both food and air.
❖ The pharynx connects to both the oesophagus (food pipe) and the trachea (wind pipe).
❖ A cartilaginous flap called the epiglottis prevents food from entering the wind pipe (glottis) during
swallowing.
❖ The oesophagus is a thin, long muscular tube that passes through the neck, thorax, and diaphragm.
❖ The movement of food through the oesophagus to the stomach is facilitated by a wave-like muscular
contraction called peristalsis.
Stomach
❖ The stomach is located between the oesophagus and the small intestine. In the body, this organ is found in the
left part of the abdomen, a little below the diaphragm.
❖ Normally the length of the stomach is about 30 cm and the width is about 10 cm.
❖ In the digestive system, the food reaches the stomach after the oesophagus. Its last end remains connected to
the oesophagus.
❖ The stomach is a J-shaped organ.
❖ There are two gates in the stomach. The first gate is the one through which the food enters the stomach. It is
connected to the food pipe. The second gate of the stomach is the one through which the food comes out of
the stomach and reaches the small intestine. This gate of the stomach is called the 'gastric outlet gate' or 'pyloric
gate'.
❖ The stomach can be divided into three parts- the left large part is the cardiac part, the right small pyloric
part and the fundic part in between the two.
❖ Gastric glands are found in the walls of the stomach. The gastric juice secreted from them helps in the digestion
of food.
❖ The opening of the stomach into the duodenum is guarded by the pyloric sphincter.
Storage and Churning:
❖ Stomach stores food for 4-5 hours.
❖ Churning movements of the stomach's muscular wall mix food thoroughly
with acidic gastric juice. The resulting mixture is called chyme.
Gastric glands:
Mucosa of the stomach contains gastric glands.
Gastric glands have three major types of cells:
❖ Mucous neck cells secrete mucus.
❖ Peptic or chief cells secrete the proenzyme pepsinogen.
❖ Parietal or oxyntic cells secrete HCl and intrinsic factors (essential for vitamin B12 absorption).
Peptic cells:
Pepsinogen Activation:
❖ Exposure to hydrochloric acid in the stomach converts pepsinogen into the active enzyme pepsin.
❖ Pepsin is the proteolytic enzyme responsible for breaking down proteins.
❖ Pepsin converts proteins into proteoses and peptones (peptides).
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Rennin in Infants:
❖ Rennin is a proteolytic enzyme found in the gastric juice of infants.
❖ It aids in the digestion of milk proteins.
Additional Enzymes:
❖ Small amounts of lipases are also secreted by gastric glands. Lipase is an enzyme that breaks down fats during
digestion.
Lubrication and Protection:
Mucus and bicarbonates in gastric juice:
❖ Play a crucial role in lubrication.
❖ Protect the mucosal epithelium from damage by concentrated hydrochloric acid.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) in gastric juice serves the following functions in the stomach, including:
❖ Optimal pH for Pepsins: HCl provides an acidic environment (pH 1.8) in the stomach, which is ideal for the
activity of pepsins, enzymes that help break down proteins.
❖ Inactivation of Salivary Amylase: HCl inactivates salivary amylase (ptyalin) which is active in a neutral to
slightly alkaline pH, thereby halting carbohydrate digestion started in the mouth.
❖ Destruction of Bacteria: HCl acts as an antimicrobial agent, killing or inhibiting bacteria in ingested food to
prevent infection.
Functions of Stomach
❖ The enzymes pepsin and rennin of the gastric juice secreted by it work to digest protein.
❖ The hydrochloric acid secreted by the stomach wall provides the necessary pH for the protein-digesting
enzymes.
❖ It also kills the bacteria that come with the food.
❖ By mechanical digestion of food, it turns it into pulp-like chyme.
❖ It works as a temporary storage of food for digestion.
❖ Casein protein is a protein found in milk that gives milk its white color.
Curdling of Milk in Infants: Role of Renin and Calcium Ions
Role of Renin (Chymosin)
❖ Renin is a protein-degrading enzyme present in the gastric juice of infants.
❖ It helps coagulate (curdles) the milk so that it can be digested more easily.
❖ Renin is absent in adults; in adults, pepsin performs a similar function.
Role of Calcium Ions
❖ Calcium ions (Ca²⁺) are essential in this process.
❖ In the presence of calcium ions:
➢ Soluble casein is converted into insoluble paracasein by renin.
➢ Paracasein binds with calcium to form calcium paracaseinate, which is further digested by pepsin to
peptones.
Gallbladder:
❖ The gallbladder is a pear-shaped organ that stores bile, which is produced by the liver.
Liver:
❖ The liver, the largest gland in the human body (weighing 1.2-1.5 kg), has a remarkable regenerative
capacity.
❖ It detoxifies the body, converting poisonous substances like ammonia to a much less toxic substance called
urea, which is released into the blood. Urea is then transported to the kidneys and passes out of the body in
urine.
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❖ The liver produces bile, a substance that aids in the digestion of fats.
❖ Secreted bile is stored and concentrated in the gallbladder.
❖ Bile released into the duodenum contains bile pigments (bilirubin and biliverdin), bile salts, cholesterol,
and phospholipids but no enzymes.
❖ Bile assists in the emulsification of fats, breaking them down into very small micelles, and activates
lipases.
❖ Jaundice, also known as hyperbilirubinemia, is defined as a yellow discolouration of the body tissue resulting
from the accumulation of excess bilirubin.
Pancreas:
❖ The pancreas is the second largest gland in the human body.
❖ It is also called a mixed gland or Heterocrine gland.
❖ The pancreas is a compound (both exocrine and endocrine) elongated organ situated between the limbs of
the ‘C’ shaped duodenum.
❖ The exocrine portion secretes an alkaline pancreatic juice containing enzymes and the endocrine portion
secretes hormones, insulin and glucagon.
❖ The islets of Langerhans constitute the endocrine part of the pancreas gland.
❖ The pancreatic juice contains inactive enzymes – trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase,
amylases, lipases and nucleases.

Pancreatic juice contains enzymes essential for digestion:

❖ Amylase: Converts starch to maltose.
❖ Lipase: Breaks down fats into fatty acids or glycerol.
❖ Protease: Converts proteins into amino acids.
❖ Trypsin and Pepsin: Aid in protein digestion.
❖ Erepsin: Breaks down proteins into amino acids.
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The pancreatic islets each contain four varieties of cells:

Alpha Cell:
❖ Hormone Produced: Glucagon.
❖ Function: Releases glucagon in response to low blood glucose levels, aiding in blood glucose regulation.
Beta Cell:
❖ Hormone Produced: Insulin.
❖ Function: Releases insulin in response to elevated blood glucose levels, facilitating glucose uptake.
Insulin: Discovered in 1921 by Frederick Banting and Charles Best.

Diabetes Insipidus:
❖ Diabetes insipidus is a rare disorder that causes the body to produce an abnormally large amount of urine.
❖ Caused by impaired synthesis/release of ADH, leading to reduced kidney ability to conserve water and
subsequent dehydration.
❖ This condition leads to frequent urination, known as polyuria, and excessive thirst, known as polydipsia,
causing affected individuals to drink large amounts of liquids.
Are Diabetes Insipidus and Diabetes Mellitus the Same?
No, diabetes insipidus and diabetes mellitus are not the same, despite sharing some similar symptoms like
increased thirst, high liquid intake, and frequent urination.
❖ Diabetes Mellitus: This condition involves high levels of glucose (blood sugar) in the blood.
❖ Diabetes Insipidus: In this condition, blood glucose levels remain normal, but the kidneys are unable to
properly concentrate urine due to a deficiency of ADH, leading to excessive urine production and the
inability to retain water effectively.
Delta Cell:
❖ Hormone Produced: Somatostatin.
❖ Function: Releases somatostatin, an inhibiting hormone that inhibits the release of both glucagon and insulin.
PP Cell (Pancreatic Polypeptide Cell) or gamma cells:
❖ Hormone Produced: Pancreatic polypeptide hormone.
Small Intestine:
❖ The small intestine present in the human body is a part of the alimentary canal.
❖ The small intestine is highly coiled and is about 6.7 to 7.5 m long.
❖ It receives secretions from the liver and the pancreas. Besides, its wall also secretes juices.
❖ Maximum absorption and digestion take place in the small intestine.
❖ The small intestine is coiled in the lower abdominal cavity below the stomach.
❖ It is the longest part of the alimentary canal.
Subdivisions:
❖ Duodenum: First part and shortest section of the small intestine.
❖ Jejunum: Coiled middle portion of the small intestine.
❖ Ileum: Highly coiled, the last and longest section of the small intestine; where food spends the most time
and is absorbed the most water and nutrients.
❖ Ileocecal valve: the transition between the small and large intestine
Enzymes Present in the Small Intestine:
❖ Maltase: Breaks down maltose (a disaccharide) into glucose.
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❖ Sucrase: Catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose into glucose and fructose.

❖ Lactase: Breaks down lactose (a disaccharide found in milk/ milk sugar) into glucose.
❖ Lipase: Converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
Function:
❖ Chyme moves from the stomach to the small intestine, where it is mixed with intestinal juice, bile juice
produced by the liver, and pancreatic juice produced by the pancreas.
❖ The small intestine is where the digestion of protein, fats, and carbohydrates is completed.
❖ The small intestine contains finger-like projections called villi that increase the intestine's surface area
and the absorption efficiency of nutrients.
Large Intestine:
❖ The large intestine in the human body is a part of the alimentary canal.
❖ Undigested and unabsorbed substances move into the large intestine.
❖ The large intestine is a long, tube-like organ that is connected to the small intestine at one end and the anus at
the other end.
❖ The ileum opens into the large intestine.
❖ No significant digestive activity occurs in the large intestine.
❖ It consists of caecum, colon and rectum.
➢ The caecum is a small blind sac that hosts some symbiotic
micro-organisms.
➢ A narrow finger-like tubular projection, the vermiform
appendix which is a vestigial organ, arises from the caecum.
➢ The caecum opens into the colon.
➢ The colon is divided into four parts – an ascending, a
transverse, a descending part and a sigmoid colon.
➢ The descending part opens into the rectum which opens out
through the anus.
Functions of the Large Intestine:
❖ Absorption: The large intestine absorbs water, minerals, and
certain drugs from the undigested material passing through.
❖ Secretion: It secretes mucus, which aids in adhering waste particles together and lubricates them for easy
passage.
Process of Waste Movement:
❖ Undigested, unabsorbed substances (faeces) enter the caecum of the large intestine through the ileo-caecal
valve.
❖ The ileo-caecal valve prevents the backflow of faecal matter.
❖ Faeces are temporarily stored in the rectum until defaecation occurs.

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UPPSC Batch
Science DMP–03
Digestive System & Nutrition Part - 2 -Practice Questions
1. The growing prevalence of diabetes in India is a major public health concern. Discuss.
(12 Marks, 200 Words)
How to approach the question:
❖ Introduction: Briefly mention India's rising diabetes cases in 20-30 words.
❖ Main Body: Discuss the causes like diet, inactivity, stress, and pollution. Highlight health risks and
economic impact in 130-140 words.
❖ Conclusion: Write a conclusion by highlighting the preventive measures like awareness, screening,
lifestyle changes, and government policies in 20-30 words..
Model Answer:
Introduction:
The increasing prevalence of diabetes in India is particularly alarming, posing significant challenges to public
health and the economy. By 2019, diabetes cases surged to 77 million, and projections suggest 134 million
cases by 2045. Urban areas, especially cities like Delhi and Chennai, report 22-24% prevalence among
adults (20 years and above), rising to 40% by age 55.
Main Body:
Causes of the Diabetes Epidemic
❖ Dietary Changes
➢ Traditional high-fiber, whole-grain diets have been replaced by polished rice, refined wheat, and
processed foods.
➢ Increased consumption of sugary beverages, fast food, and high-fat diets has led to rising obesity
and insulin resistance.
❖ Decline in Physical Activity
➢ Urbanization and technological advancements have reduced manual labour and active lifestyles.
❖ Stress and Lifestyle Factors
➢ Long working hours, night shifts (especially in IT and call centres), sleep disturbances, and
increased mental stress contribute to diabetes.
❖ Environmental and External Factors
➢ Pollution, pesticide exposure, and food adulteration are linked to metabolic disorders, including
diabetes.
Health and Economic Impact
❖ Increased risk of complications: Uncontrolled diabetes can lead to heart disease, kidney failure,
blindness, amputations, and stroke.
❖ Economic burden: High healthcare costs for treatment, loss of productivity, and absenteeism negatively
affect individuals, families, and the national economy.
Strategies for Prevention and Control
❖ Early Screening and Awareness: Routine blood sugar tests and lifestyle counselling can detect pre-
diabetes early.
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❖ Promoting a Healthy Diet: Reduce intake of refined carbohydrates, sugars, and trans fats. Increase
consumption of vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts, and healthy fats (e.g., mustard oil, groundnut
oil).
❖ Encouraging Physical Activity: At least 30 minutes of brisk walking, five days a week (150 minutes
per week).
❖ Reducing Stress and Environmental Risks: Practicing yoga, meditation, and relaxation techniques
can help manage stress.
Conclusion:
Diabetes is a preventable disease if addressed through early screening, dietary modifications, physical
activity, and stress management. Public health policies, government initiatives, and individual awareness
must work together to control this epidemic before it becomes an overwhelming crisis. The time to act is
now.

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