ASIGNATURA: MECANICA DE SUELOS

CITEC / PROF. ING. MARCO ANTONIO BERUMEN RODRIGUEZ

2.- Analysis of settlements
Consolidationistheprocessofsoilsetlement.
when they are saturated and subjected to load increases due to dissipation of the
pore pressure.

This is referred to as soil consolidation, a process of volume reduction.

of cohesive fine soils (plastic clays and silts), caused by the action of
loads (stresses) on its mass and what happens over the course of time
generally long. They produce seats, that is, vertical sinkholes, in the
constructions that can break if produced with great amplitude.

The consolidation test is a fairly complicated test because it has a

complex procedure, in which we must see how the volume of soil varies
when applying the load, with a duration of approximately 2 weeks. This test is
standardized by the North American standard ASTM D-2435.

CONSOLIDATION: When a saturated soil is subjected to pressure

permanent, for example, that provided by the weight of the overlying soil or the load
From a foundation, its volume will decrease.

When considered incompressible, both solid particles and water

existing in the pores, the decrease in volume can only occur if the water is
expelled from the pores, thus reducing their size and allowing for the
solid particles come close to each other. This process is called consolidation. The
Vertical descent caused by the change in volume is called settlement.

The amount of consolidation produced by a unit increase in pressure

depends on a property of the soil called compressibility. The speed at which it
It will produce the settlement, depending on how easily the water exits the soil.
and therefore, it relates to the permeability of it. Both factors combine in
a composite factor, called soil consolidation coefficient.

Primary or unidimensional consolidation

This method assumes that consolidation occurs in a single dimension. The data from
laboratories used have allowed to construct an interpolation between the deformation or the
void ratio and effective stress on a logarithmic scale. The slope of the
interpolation is the compression index. The equation for the settlement of consolidation of
a normally consolidated soil can then be determined as:

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CITEC / PROF. ING. MARCO ANTONIO BERUMEN RODRIGUEZ

where:
δcit is the entry due to consolidation.
Ccit is the compression index.
e0it is the initial void index.
H is the height of consolidatable soil.
σzfit is the final vertical tension.
σz0it is the initial vertical tension.

Ccit can be replaced by Cr(recompression index) to be used in soils

overconsolidated where the effective final stress is less than the stress of
pre-consolidation, or in other words, for soils that would have been consolidated with more
intensidad en el pasado. Cuando la tensión final efectiva sea mayor que la tensión de
preconsolidation, the two equations must be used in combination with a model
set as follows:

where σzc it is the preconsolidation pressure of the soil.

There are many causes that produce the settling of structures, among the
the main ones are the consolidation and distortion of the subsoil, directly related.
with the load that is transmitted to it.

A process of volume reduction that takes place over a certain period of time,
caused by the increase of loads on the ground, it is called process of
consolidation.

It often happens that during the consolidation process, the relative position of the
solid particles on the same horizontal plane remain essentially the same, thus,
the movement of soil particles occurs only in the vertical direction. This is the
unidirectional or unidimensional consolidation.

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CITEC / [Link]. MARCO ANTONIO BERUMEN RODRIGUEZ

Below is a summary of the formulas of the theory of the theory of the
consolidation used frequently for settlement calculation.

Permeability coefficient:

Formulas to calculate the settlement by consolidation of a layer of thickness H:

Formula to calculate the settlement by consolidation in the virgin section of the curve of
consolidation

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SUBJECT: SOIL MECHANICS

CITEC / [Link]. MARCO ANTONIO BERUMEN RODRIGUEZ

Secondary consolidation

The secondary consolidation takes place after the primary consolidation.

consequence of more complex processes than the simple flow of water such as
reputation, viscosity, organic matter, creep or water bonded by link
some clays. In sands, the secondary seat is imperceptible but can occur.
to be very important for other materials such as peat.

Secondary consolidation can be estimated using the following formula:

Where H0it is the average consolidation height

e0it is the initial index of voids
Cait is the secondary compression index

UNIT 2
SUBJECT: SOIL MECHANICS

CITEC / [Link]. MARCO ANTONIO BERUMEN RODRIGUEZ

Difference between consolidation and compaction

Consolidation is a coupled process of flow and deformation produced in

Soils are completely saturated. Therefore, it is not possible to talk about consolidation in lands.
in which the degree of saturation is less than 1 since in that case we talk about
compaction. As a result, we talk about compaction when the ground is not
totally saturated and forces such as the capillary suction of water act on the ground
interstitial.

In these cases and in other similar ones, the characteristics of the consolidation of the
clay strata can be investigated qualitatively, with reasonable approximation,
conducting tests such as an oedometer test or triaxial tests on specimens
representatives of the soil, extracted in an unaltered form.

It is possible to calculate the magnitude and speed of the probable settlements as

applied loads as well as the consolidation time. When predicting the settlement by
consolidation and its speed in real field conditions, the engineer has to make
various simplifying assumptions. These refer to the compression ratio, to the
consolidation coefficient, to the preconsolidation pressure, to the conditions of
drainage and the thickness of the clay layer. The stratification of the soil is not always
uniform and with ideal properties; consequently, the behavior in the field is
it deviates from what was predicted, requiring adjustments during construction.

In engineering terms, settlement is defined as the vertical movement or

differential of a structure that can result in failures on it. The type of failure
It can be simply architectural, functional (serviceability), or structural damage.

UNIT 2
SUBJECT: SOIL MECHANICS

CITEC / PROF. ENG. MARCO ANTONIO BERUMEN RODRIGUEZ

Some of the most common causes of settlement are consolidation of
low density or weathered soils, settlement of deep fills, and the
development of cavities or tubing. Foundations can also experience
settlements due to natural disasters such as earthquakes or floods.

There are other factors that influence the tolerable settlement in structures, due to
Example, the differential and total settlement also depend on the flexibility and
complexity of the structure, including type of material and type of connections or joints. A
In this regard, there is a text by Terzaghi (1938) that says: 'Differential settlement must be
considered inevitable for each foundation, unless the foundation is supported
through solid rock. The effect of differential settlement in construction depends greatly
measure of the type of construction.

The angular distortion δ/L is defined as the differential settlement between two points.
divided by the distance between them. According to comparative studies (Skempton and
MacDonald, 1968), when there is an angular distortion of more than 1/300, it is observed
functional damage and when it exceeds 1/150, structural damage can be anticipated. The
the angular distortion criteria of 1/150 and 1/300 are derived from observations in several
buildings, so this criterion is only intended to be a guide, and does not replace the
visual and physical evidence of a particular case.

Foundations subject to settlement are usually affected by the

combination of vertical and horizontal movement. For example, a common cause of the
The foundation's affectation is due to the settlement of the fill. A settlement in the fill.
causes both displacements (vertical and horizontal). In these cases, the movement
Lateral is a secondary result of the primary vertical movement due to settling.
of the foundation.

A deep filling has been defined as that filling which has a thickness greater than
of 6 meters (20 feet) (Greenfield and Shen, 1992). After the end of the mass of
filling, water can seep into the subsurface due to infiltration, heavy rains, or
leaks in pipes. This situation can cause hydrocompression at a certain thickness of
filling due to increases in the moisture of the filling. These increases in moisture
they can also be attributed to the alteration of surface drainage surfaces that
allow rainwater to accumulate or puddle near the foundation.

There are several possible causes for the relative compaction of a fill to be
change over time, for example: There may be compression of the filling caused by the
self-weight of the fill and the structures on it, there may also be settlement due to
vibrations or seismic activity affecting granular fills.

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ELASTIC THEORY. The elastic theory allows for the resolution of many problems of
deformation under very diverse conditions of the elastic medium as long as it is done
regarding that means, simplifying behavioral hypotheses.

First of all, it must be mentioned that due to the fact that the soils are not homogeneous and
anisotropic, decisively depart from the hypotheses usually attributed to the medium
elastic. The most important fact is that soils are not elastic, even less so.
linearly elastic. On the other hand, the Poisson's ratio is very difficult to measure in the
practice, apart from varying with a large number of factors. However, in many cases
practical stress distributions obtained through the application of the theory
elastic, have been satisfactory.

It is common in practice to employ the simplistic hypothesis that considers the transmission of
the pressures caused by a footing are distributed uniformly at an angle α,
usually of 30°. (See figure in appendix XII). In this case, the formula is used:

The term Cs that appears in the formula is obtained from Appendix XII.

Elastic settlement

Elastic settlement based on the theory of elasticity

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The elastic settlement of a shallow foundation is estimated using theory.
of elasticity and applying Hooke's law.

Theoretically, if the foundation is perfectly flexible, the settlement can

to express oneself as:

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CITEC / PROF. ENG. MARCO ANTONIO BERUMEN RODRIGUEZ

Elastic settlement of flexible and rigid foundations

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SUBJECT: SOIL MECHANICS

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To calculate the settlement at the center of the foundation, we use:

To calculate the settlement at a corner of the foundation:

When Df=0, the value of If=1

The elastic settlement of a rigid foundation can be estimated with:

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ASIGNATURA: MECANICA DE SUELOS

CITEC / [Link]. MARCO ANTONIO BERUMEN RODRIGUEZ

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UNIT 2
SUBJECT: SOIL MECHANICS

CITEC / [Link]. MARCO ANTONIO BERUMEN RODRIGUEZ

Due to the non-homogeneous nature of soil deposits, the magnitude of E,

it can vary with depth. For this reason, Bowles (1987) recommends using a
weighted average of E.

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Compression index Cc

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This describes the variation of the vacuum index as a function of the variation of the
effective tensionefrepresented on the logarithmic scale:

Void index versus effective stress σef

Therefore, it represents one of the deformation characteristics of overconsolidated soil:

Where: Δe Variation of the vacuum index

ΔlogσefVariation of the effective tension

Range of compression index Cc(Naval Facilities Engineering Command Soil Mechanics

DESIGN MANUAL 7.01): A typical compression index range is from 0.1 to 10.

For slightly overconsolidated clays and controlled silts in the USA Louisiana Kaufmann
and Shermann (1964) presents the following values:

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CITEC / [Link]. MARCO ANTONIO BERUMEN RODRIGUEZ

Prof. Juan M. Pestana-Nascimento (University of California, Berkeley) offers the following

typical values of compression index Cc:

In addition, the empirical expression is available to approximately determine the value of C.c
(compression index) for silts, clays, and organic soils; its application, however, is
more or less local:

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UNIT 2
SUBJECT: SOIL MECHANICS

CITEC / [Link]. MARCO ANTONIO BERUMEN RODRIGUEZ

WLLL : Liquid limit

A value that is widely used in the calculation of settlements of structures for

normally consolidated soils is the following, given by Terzaghi and Peck, called
Compression index:

Cc = 0.009 (L. L.-10)

The compressibility of soils can be expressed as follows:

Lower - Ccfrom 0.0 to 0.19

Media ―Cc from 0.2 to 0.39

High - Cc0.4 or more

The value of Ccit can be determined, according to authors, by:

Cc= 0.156e0+ 0.0107, for all clays

Cc= 0.30 (e0- 0.27), for inorganic clays, clay loams, and silts, according to
Hough.

Cc = 0.75 (e0- 0.5), for low plasticity soils.

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UNIT 2
SUBJECT: SOIL MECHANICS

CITEC / [Link]. MARCO ANTONIO BERUMEN RODRIGUEZ

PRECONSOLIDATION

A preconsolidated and overconsolidated soil is the same. A soil

overconsolidated is one in which the stress it is subjected to is less than the

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SUBJECT: SOIL MECHANICS

CITEC / [Link]. MARCO ANTONIO BERUMEN RODRIGUEZ

historical maximum (for example, a ground where an erosive process has occurred that
it has been downloaded).

A normally consolidated soil is one whose current stress (due to

generally to its own weight) is the maximum it has endured in all its 'history' (for
example, a recently deposited marsh soil.

The concept is important because the behavior of the soil is not the same in
loading or reloading (unlike an elastic material). For that reason, in general the
Normally consolidated soils are more deformable than overconsolidated soils.

A soil is said to be normally consolidated when during its past

geological never was subjected to effective pressures higher than those currently
experiments. It is defined in opposition to when a soil is preconsolidated.

One of the possible methods to define the initial state of consolidation or the
what is the same, whether a soil is preconsolidated or not. That is, through the calculation of
OCR (over consolidation ratio) of σ'vc (preconsolidation pressure). It is defined
OCR as the relationship between the maximum vertical pressure to which the soil was subjected and
the current pressure. And σ’vc is the maximum pressure to which the sample has been subjected.

If O.C.R. > 1 it will be soil over consolidated, and if O.C.R. ≤ 1 it will be normally consolidated soil.
consolidated (if it is greater than 5 it is very over consolidated)

The degree of consolidation is a value that also depends on depth; in

in certain soils, at shallow depths, the O.C.R. can be 5 or 8, and at great
depth tends to be 1.

A soil layer can become preconsolidated due to different causes among

which can be named: erosion and thawing that decrease the weight on the
stratum, and the desiccation and lowering of the groundwater table that generate high pressures
effective. It is possible that for a cemented soil, the compressibility curve obtained
from a consolidation test, show an apparent preconsolidation pressure
(Bjerrum 1967).
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UNIT 2
SUBJECT: SOIL MECHANICS

CITEC / [Link]. MARCO ANTONIO BERUMEN RODRIGUEZ

The deposits that are in a state such that the only load of
consolidation that has acted throughout its history is the current geostatic, and what is the
maximum supported so far, it is said that they are normally consolidated.

The deposits that have been subjected to one or more cycles of discharge, are
it says they are pre-consolidated; in them, the current load is not the maximum tension to which
have been subjected throughout their history.

Clays: In clays that have never been subjected to pressures greater than those that
they are currently supporting, which are due to the soil layers that are above
them, in those clays, (normally consolidated), experience indicates that the
natural moisture content (w) is commonly found near the limit
liquid (WL or L.L.)

If the humidity (w) is much lower than the liquid limit (WL or L.L.), the sensitivity of
the clay is exceptionally low. If the moisture (w) is much greater than the limit
liquid (WL or L.L.), the clay will be of high sensitivity.

Sensitivity: It is the effect that kneading has on the consistency of the clay.
The degree of sensitivity varies for different clays, and even within the same clays.
It can be different for different levels of humidity. It is measured by the ratio between the
unconfined compressive strength of undisturbed clay with the strength to
simple compression of the kneaded clay, that is:

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