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ELECTRONIC DEVICES

CHAPTER 1
Semiconductor and P-N Junction

Instructor : Hoàng Quang Huy

Department of Electronics
School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Hanoi University of Science and Technology
Email: hoangquanghuy@[Link]
Web: [Link]
Special thanks to Dr. Đào Việt Hùng, Dept of Electronics, for kindly sharing the teaching materials.
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Contents

1. Semiconductor material
2. Semiconductor diodes
3. Applications of diodes
4. Types of diodes
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1 - Semiconductor material

▪ Basic concepts
▪ N-type and P-type semiconductors
▪ Electron and hole current
▪ P-N junction
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1.1 Basic concepts
▪ Conductors, insulators, and semiconductors:
– Electrical resistivity (ρ) is a fundamental property of a material
that quantifies how strongly that material opposes the flow of
electric current.
– Electrical conductivity (σ) is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.
– Resistivity/conductivity of materials may depend on:
• Temperature, light, pressure, …
• Electric field, magnetic field, …
• Impurities …

Materials  ( cm) Charge carriers

Conductor 10-6 – 10-3 Electron

Insulator 10+9 – 10+18 Electron and ion
Semiconductor 10-4 – 10+10 Electron and hole

– Semiconductor = semi (1/2) + conductor

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1.1 Basic concepts
▪ Single-element semiconductors: antimony (Sb),
arsenic (As), astatine (At), boron (B), polonium (Po),
tellurium (Te), silicon (Si), and germanium (Ge).

Because of advantages, silicon is the most

commonly used semiconductor.

▪ Compound semiconductors: gallium arsenide

(GaAs), indium phosphide (InP), gallium nitride
(GaN), silicon carbide (SiC), and silicon germanium
(SiGe), etc.

➔ Why is “semi”? …… → explained in next slides …

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1.1 Basic concepts
▪ Energy levels:
– In an atom, each discrete
distance (orbit) from the
nucleus corresponds to a
certain energy level.
– The orbits are grouped into
energy levels known as shells.
– A given atom has a fixed
number of shells; each shell
has a fixed maximum number
of electrons.
– The outermost shell is known
as the valence shell or
valence band.
Bohr model of
– Electrons in the valence shell an atom
are called valence electrons.
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1.1 Basic concepts

▪ Band gap:
– When a valence electron (e) acquires enough
additional energy, it can leave the valence shell/band
→ exists in a so-called conduction band.
– Electron in conduction band is free to move
throughout the material and is not tied to any given
atom → similar to free e in metals.
– The difference in energy between the valence band
and the conduction band is called an energy gap or
band gap.
→Band gap is the amount of energy that a valence e
must have in order to jump from the valence band to
the conduction band.
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1.1 Basic concepts
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1.1 Basic concepts

▪ Energy diagrams:
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1.1 Basic concepts
▪ Electron-hole pair generation:
– Silicon crystal at room temperature has sufficient heat
(thermal) energy for some valence e to jump the gap from
the valence band into the conduction band → becoming
free e or conduction electrons.
– A vacancy is left in the valence band within the crystal →
becoming a hole (h).
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1.1 Basic concepts
▪ Recombination:
– Occurs when a conduction-band electron loses energy and falls
back into a hole in the valence band.
– Recombination releases energy, which can be in the form of
photons (radiative-recombination) or thermal lattice vibrations
known as phonons (non-radiative recombination).
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1.2 N-type and P-type semiconductors

▪ Intrinsic semiconductive materials (I-type):

– In Si or Ge crystal, each atom (with its four
Si
valence e) shares an e with each of its four
neighbors. +14

– Sharing of valence e produces the covalent

bonds that hold the atoms together.
→ In general, the I-type has few free e and h →
poor conductivity.

Ge

+32
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1.2 N-type and P-type semiconductors
▪ A so-called doping process makes semiconductive materials
become impure.
▪ There are 2 types of extrinsic (impure) materials:
N-type P-type
Pentavalent impurity atom: has 5 e → Trivalent impurity atom: has 3 e → a
→ a free e. Sb atom has the extra e → hole is created. B atom needs one more
donor atom. e → acceptor atom.

➔ Doping increases the number of free carriers

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1.2 N-type and P-type semiconductors
N-type has: P-type has:
• many e → majority carriers • many h → majority carriers
• a few h → minority carriers • a few e → minority carriers

Hole Electron Hole Electron

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1.3 Electron and hole current
→ → Free e → →

Electric field vector (E)

→ → Valance e → →

 Hole “moves” 
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1.3 Electron and hole current
▪ Conductivity:
– I-type:  i = q(n +  p )ni
– N-type:
– P-type:
n= qnND
p= qpNA
Where: σ: conductivity
N: concentration of e and h
μ: mobility of e (μn) and h (μp)

Ge:μn = 3800 cm2/Vs, μp = 1800 cm2/Vs

Si: μn = 1800 cm2/Vs, μp = 500 cm2/Vs

→ e vs. h: which is “better” charge carrier?

→ N-type vs. P-type: which has better conductivity?
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1.4 P-N junctions

▪ Many types of junctions:

P-N junction
(will be taught)

M-S junction
(self-study)

PIN junction
(self-study)
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1.4 P-N junction
▪ P-N junction:

At the instant of formation At equilibrium

Depletion: vùng nghèo

Junction: tiếp xúc, tiếp giáp, chuyển tiếp
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1.5 P-N junction
▪ Initially:
– N side: many e, a few h
– P side: many h, a few e
▪ When P-N junction is formed:
– Diffusion current (Idiff):
• e move N → P
• h move P → N
– Idiff: gradually decreases because
barrier potential gradually increases.
– Forming a depletion region: no charge
carrier, high resistance, and Ubarrier =
~0.7 V for Si, ~0.3 V for Ge
– Drift current (Idrift): flow in opposite
direction of Idiff
– When external electric field = 0
|Idiff|= |Idrift|
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1.5 P-N junction
▪ Energy diagrams:

At the instant of formation At equilibrium

majority: đa số
minority: thiểu số
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Contents

1. Semiconductor material
2. Semiconductor diodes
3. Applications of diodes
4. Types of diodes
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2 - Semiconductor diodes

▪ Structure and operation

▪ Characteristic curve
▪ Diode approximations
▪ Diode datasheet
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types

Actual diodes A cross section

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A P-N junction

Diode pin
Diode pin

The most
Epoxy packaging
important part
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2.1 Structure and operation
▪ Structure:
– A PN junction diode (simply diode) is formed by a P-N junction

Symbol

Practical polarity
marking
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2.1 Structure and operation
▪ Forward bias: VP > VN (P+, N-)
– Eext is in opposite direction of Ebar → E = Eext − Ebar
– If E > 0 → Idiff increases fast and diffusion region
becomes narrower

Diffusion current
(majority carriers)

Majority
carriers Majority
carriers
E Ebar
External electric field (Eext)
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2.1 Structure and operation
▪ Forward bias: VP > VN (P+, N-)

No bias Forward bias

– The voltage drop across diode is called forward

voltage (UF or UD)
– Logically, |UF| = |Ubar| = ~0.7 V for Si, 0.3 V for Ge
– In fact, forward voltage slightly increases when Idiff
increases because UAK = Ubar + Udue to resistance of diode
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2.1 Structure and operation
▪ Reverse bias: VP < VN (P-, N+)
– Eext and Ebar have same direction → E = Eext + Ebar
– Diffusion region becomes wider, Idiff become much smaller

Majority
carriers Majority
carriers

External electric field (Eext)

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2.1 Structure and operation
▪ Reverse bias: VP < VN (P-, N+)
– Eext pulls the minority carriers → Idrift
– Idrift is: very small (nA, pA), not dependence on Eext,
but temperature dependent

Drift current

Minority
carriers Minority
carriers
External electric field (Eext)
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2.2 Characteristic curve

▪ Forward bias:
– Current increases fast when UD (or VF) reaches |Ubar|
– The slop changes → diode has a dynamic resistance

r'D = ΔVF/ ΔIF

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2.2 Characteristic curve
1.2 12

1.1 1N4007 11 RF1001NS2D

MUR320
1.0 1N4148 10
MUR120
0.9 9
1N4007

0.8 8 1N4148

0.7 7
Current (A)

Current (A)
0.6 6

0.5 5

0.4 4

0.3 3

0.2 2

0.1 1

0.0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Voltage (V) Voltage (V)
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2.2 Characteristic curve
▪ Reverse bias Breakdown
– Idrift is very small (nA, pA) voltage Small Idrift
– If UR reaches UBR → Electric
force is high enough to free
electrons from its covalent
bond → Current increases
rapidly → P-N junction could
be destroyed.
– Zener breakdown:
• High electric force frees
electrons from its covalent
bond
• Does not result in damage of
diode Zener or
– Avalanche breakdown: avalanche
• Because of high electric force breakdown
first…
• … and then because of
collision
• Large current → heat → diode
is destroyed.
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2.2 Characteristic curve

▪ Temperature dependent:
– When tº increases: Idrift
increases but UF decreases

Why?
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2.2 Characteristic curve
▪ Shockley equation:
 mU
UD

ID = IS  e T − 1
 
  Saturation
current, IS
IS: saturation current, when reverse bias
UD: voltage across the diode
m: ideality factor, = 1÷2 (ideal is 1)
UT: thermal voltage kT
UT =  0.026 V(@25C )
q

→ Calculating the current flow through a diode

→ If tº = constant, ID = f(UD)
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2.2 Characteristic curve

▪ Trying to plot the equation by Excel:

– Comment: UD > 0 → similar to I-V curve of diode

12

10 IS = 1 nA
UT=0.026 (T = 25 C)
Question: when 8 m = 1.2
ID (A)

UD < 0, is same? 6

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
UD (V)
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2.3 Diode approximations

▪ Internal resistance of diode:

– DC resistance
UD
rD =
ID
– AC resistance

UD
r =
'
D
ID
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2.3 Diode approximations

▪ Ideal model:
– UF = 0
– r'D = 0
– Frequency independent

Forward
bias

Ideal diode Reverse

(Di) bias
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2.3 Diode approximations

▪ Practical model (r'D = 0):

– UD0 = Ubar (0.7 V for Si, 0.3 V for Ge)
– r'D = 0

Actual diode UD0 Di

Actual diode UD0 Di

R R

U U
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2.3 Diode approximations

▪ Complete model:
– UD0 = Ubar
– r'D ≠ 0
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2.3 Diode approximations
2.6 13

2.4 1N4007 12 MUR320

2.2 11
Piecewise linear approx. Piecewise linear approx.
2.0 (Vk = 0.85 V, rd = 0.063 Ω) 10 (Vk = 0.77 V, rd = 0.015 Ω)

1.8 9

1.6 8
Current (A)

Current (A)
1.4 7

1.2 6

1.0 5

0.8 4

0.6 3

0.4 2

0.2 1

0.0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Voltage (V) Voltage (V)
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2.3 Diode approximations

▪ Model selection (*):

– Ideal:
• r'D << Rtot = (R + internal resistance of the power source)
• UD0 << U
– Practical (r'D = 0):
• r'D << Rtot
• UD0 is significant compared to U
– Complete:
• r'D is significant compared to Rtot
• UD0 is significant compared to U

(*) at low frequency only

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2.3 Diode approximations

▪ Example:
If: R = 1500 Ω, U = 3.3 V
UD0 = UF = 0.7 V, r'D = 1 Ω, IS = IR = 1 μA

– Select the most suitable approximation

D D

R R
U U
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2.3 Diode approximations

▪ Diode model at high frequency:

Ctt

Cbar + Ckt

UD0 rD DLT LS
A rS K

0,1  10 1  5nH

Sơ đồ tương đương tần số thấp

Low frequency
model LTspice simulation

LTspice
simulation
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2.4 Diode datasheet
▪ Important information:
– Maximum rating:
• Max reverse voltage
• Max average forward current
• Max peak forward current
…
– Electrical characteristics:
• Forward voltage
• Reverse current
• Junction capacitance
• Curves
…
– Mechanical data:
• Case (package), dimension, material
…
– Features and typical applications:
• At beginning of datasheet → helpful for quick selection
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Bonus
▪ Diode reverse recovery time:
– The time required for the current to fall to a specified low level of
reverse current, when turning diodes from ON to OFF
– This is an “advanced” parameter, but important for senior
hardware engineers
Recovery

recovery time
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Contents

1. Semiconductor material
2. Semiconductor diodes
3. Applications of diodes
4. Types of diodes
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3 - Applications of diodes

▪ Rectifiers
▪ Voltage multipliers
▪ Diode limiters and clampers
▪ Other applications
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3.1 Rectifiers
▪ Basic DC power supply:
– Function: converts a high AC voltage to lower DC voltages
– Input AC voltage:
• US: 120 V, 60 Hz JP: 100 V, 50 or 60 Hz
• EU: 220 V, 50 Hz VN: 220 V, 50 Hz
– Output DC voltages: 1.8, 2.5, 3.3, 5, 12, 24, … (V)

Diode L, C
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3.1 Rectifiers

▪ Half-wave rectifiers

LTspice simulation

LTspice
simulation
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3.1 Rectifiers

▪ Half-wave rectifiers:
0.318 = 1/π
– Average output voltage:
• Uavg = 0.318 (Up − UD0)
• Ideal diode: Uavg = 0.318 Up
– Average current: I = Uavg/Rload
– Maximum reverse voltage: Up How do we get
the full-wave?
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3.1 Rectifiers

▪ Center-tapped full-wave rectifier:

LTspice simulation

LTspice
simulation
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3.1 Rectifiers

▪ Center-tapped full-wave rectifier:

– Average output voltage:
• Uavg = 0.636 (Up − UD0)
• Ideal diode: Uavg = 0.636 Up
– Average current: I = Uavg/Rload
– Maximum reverse voltage: 2Up

Up
2Up

Up
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3.1 Rectifiers

▪ Bridge full-wave rectifier:

– Similar to the Wheatstone bridge
– Formed by 4 diodes
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3.1 Rectifiers

▪ Diode bridges:
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3.1 Rectifiers

▪ Bridge full-wave rectifier:

LTspice simulation

LTspice
simulation
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3.1 Rectifiers

▪ Bridge full-wave rectifier:

– Average output voltage:
• Uavg = 0.636 (Up − 2UD0)
• Ideal diode: Uavg = 0.636 Up
– Average current: I = Uavg/Rload
– Maximum reverse voltage: Up
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3.1 Rectifiers

▪ Full-wave rectifiers:

Center-tapped
Criteria Bridge rectifier
rectifier

Input AC voltage U+U U

Dropout (loss) UD0 2UD0

Minimum breakdown 2Um Um

Costly → not used in Compact, low-cost →

Applications
modern designs popular
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3.1 Rectifiers
▪ Power filter

– With filters, Uout is significantly increased

– With a good filter: Uout ≈ Up
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3.1 Rectifiers

▪ Capacitor filter

LTspice simulation

LTspice
simulation
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3.2 Voltage multipliers

▪ Half-wave voltage doubler

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3.2 Voltage multipliers

▪ Full-wave voltage doubler

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3.2 Voltage multipliers

▪ Voltage tripler, quadrupler, …

LTspice simulation

LTspice
simulation
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3.3 Diode limiters and clampers

▪ Limiters (clippers):
– Limit/clip a part of the input voltage
– There are 3 types:
• Positive limiter
• Negative limiter
• Positive and negative limiter
– Each type has a corresponding
variation:
• Positive biased limiter
• Negative biased limiter
• Positive and negative biased limiter
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3.3 Diode limiter and clampers

▪ Positive limiter
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3.3 Diode limiter and clampers

▪ Negative limiter

▪ Positive and negative limiter

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3.3 Diode limiter and clampers

▪ Positive biased limiter

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3.3 Diode limiter and clampers

▪ Positive biased limiter

Ideal Practical
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3.3 Diode limiter and clampers

▪ Negative biased limiter

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3.3 Diode limiter and clampers

▪ Negative biased limiter

Ideal Practical
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3.3 Diode limiter and clampers

▪ Positive and negative biased limiter

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3.3 Diode limiter and clampers

▪ Biased limiters with voltage-dividers

Note: The bias resistors must be small compared to R1 so that the

forward current through the diode will not affect the bias voltage
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3.3 Diode limiter and clampers

▪ Clampers:
– Add a DC level to an AC voltage → the voltage strip
chart is moved up/down vertically
– There are two types:
• Positive clamper
• Negative clamper
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3.3 Diode limiter and clampers

▪ Positive clamper
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3.3 Diode limiter and clampers

▪ Negative clamper

LTspice simulation

LTspice
simulation
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3.4 Other applications
▪ Some typical apps.:
– Rectifiers, limiters, clampers
– Function generator, waveform shaping
– Demodulation (point contact diode)
– Variable capacitor (varicap diode)
– Protection:
• Reverse polarity protection (normal diode)
• Input overvoltage protection (normal or high speed diode)
• Snubber for inductive loads: relays, motors, coils, … (high speed diode,
TVS diode)
▪ And atypical apps:
– As a temperature sensor
– Simple low-voltage-regulator (0.6 ÷ 0.7 V)
– Connecting DC power supplies in parallel for redundancy
– Electronic analog switch
…
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3.4 Other applications

Input overvoltage protection

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3.4 Other applications

Snubber for inductive load

(relay coil)
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3.4 Other applications

As a
temperature
sensor
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3.4 Other applications

Regulated 0.6 V
dropout Power supply in a parallel connection
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3.4 Other applications

As analog switches

ON/OFF control
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Contents

1. Semiconductor material
2. Semiconductor diodes
3. Applications of diodes
4. Types of diodes
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4 - Types of diodes

▪ Small/large signal diodes

▪ Zener diodes
▪ Optical diodes
▪ Special-purpose diodes
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4.1 - Small/large signal diodes

Small signal Large signal

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4.1 - Small/large signal diodes
Small signal diodes Large signal diodes
Criteria
(typical) (typical)

Case size Small → small power Bigger → high power

Junction area Small → small capacitance Large → large capacitance

Max forward current (A) <1 1 ÷ n.10

Speed High Low

Breakdown voltage (V) 20 ÷ 100 50 ÷ 1000

Applications Signal processing circuits Rectifiers, protectors, …

An actual example 1N4148 1N400x series

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4.1 - Small/large signal diodes
▪ Note:
– When handling a very high forward current, can several
diodes be connected in parallel?
→ Problem: this sharing is not fair because the diodes are not
really identical (even in a same manufacturing batch).
➔ Solution: add current sharing resistors (ballast resistors).

– When working with very high reverse voltage, can several

diodes be connected in series?
→ Problem: the voltage do not distribute equally because the
leakage current of diodes vary from unit to unit.
➔ Solution 1: add high-value resistors in parallel with diodes.
➔ Solution 2: use avalanche rectifier diodes.
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4.2 - Zener diodes
▪ Proper operating region:
– Reverse biased
– IZ(min) ≤ IZ ≤ IZ(max)
▪ In this region, the reverse
voltage is unchanged:
UKA = constant ≈ UZ
→ Zener diodes can regulate
voltage as long as:
IZ(min) ≤ IZ ≤ IZ(max)
▪ Main parameters:
UZ, IZ(min), IZ(max), r'Z
▪ Other parameters:
IZ0 = (IZ(min) + IZ(max))/2
PZ(max) = IZ(max) × UZ
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4.2 - Zener diodes
▪ Actual regulated voltage:  R 
Uin − UZ  1 + 
Uout = Ureg = UZ + IZ.r'Z  R L 
IZ =
If: [Link]'
R + rZ +
'

– Diode is ideal: r'Z = 0 RL

– No load: RL = ∞ General
formula

Practical problems:
– Given: circuit and load R I Uout IL
→ Calculate: range of Uin
IZ
– Given: Uin and load Uin
→ Calculate diode parameters
(or choose diode type) UZ, r'Z
RL
– Given: range of Uin and circuit
→ Calculate: range of load
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4.2 - Zener diodes
EX1: UZ = 10 V, r'Z = 0, IZ(min) =
R I Uout IL
1 mA, IZ(max) = 100 mA, R
= 100 Ω, RL = 1 kΩ. Zener
IZ
diode is regulating at the Uin
proper voltage.
Q: Range of Uin? UZ, r'Z
RL

EX2: Uin = 20 V, UZ = 10 V, r'Z =

0, IZ(min) = 1 mA, IZ(max) = U 
100 mA, R = 100 Ω. Uin = I.R + UZ =  Z + IZ  R + UZ
 RL 
Zener diode is regulating
at the proper voltage. Uin − UZ
Q: Range of IL? IL = I − I Z = − IZ
R
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4.3 - Optical diodes
▪ LED (Light Emitting Diode):
– In a forward-biased P-N
junction: e recombines with h
→ release energy in the form
of photon.
– Photons depend on the band
gap → light color depends on
materials
– Forward voltages differ from
color to color
▪ LD (Laser Diode) emits
laser beam

LED color
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4.3 - Optical diodes

▪ Photodiode
– Operation:
• When a P-N junction is reverse
biased: the leakage (drift) current
is almost zero
• Incoming photons: free e-h pairs in
the depletion region → leakage
current increases
– Applications: light sensor
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4.4 - Special-purpose diodes
▪ Schottky diode: using a metal–
semiconductor junction
▪ PIN diode: using a P-I-N junction
▪ Step-recovery-diode (SRD): doping
density is extremely small near
junction area
▪ Tunnel diode: using a heavily doped
P-N junction (~1000 times)
▪ Current regulator diodes (CRD) or
current-limiting diode (CLD): JFET + R
▪ Transient voltage suppression diode
(TVS diode)
▪ Varicap or varactor diode
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4.4 - Special-purpose diodes
▪ An example:
varicap/varactor diode
– Operated in the reverse-
biased state → as a capacitor
– Capacitance (of P-N junction)
is inversely proportional to the
square root of applied voltage
– Applications:
• Voltage-controlled oscillators
(VCO)
• Automatic frequency control
(AFC)
• Frequency modulation (FM)
…
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Summary

▪ Studied:
– Semiconductor material
– Semiconductor diodes
– Applications of diodes
– Types of diodes
▪ Important, for GPA & CPA enhancement:
– Operation of the P-N junction
– I-V characteristics, Shockley equation
– Diode approximations
– Rectifiers, limiters, regulators
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Instructor : Hoàng Quang Huy

Department of Electronics
School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Hanoi University of Science and Technology
Email: hoangquanghuy@[Link]
Web: [Link]