Molecules & Compounds
1. Covalent Bonds in Complex Molecules
(Extended Tier Only)
Atoms form covalent bonds when they share electrons to achieve a full outer shell
(stable electronic structure like a noble gas).
But sometimes one pair of shared electrons is not enough.
So atoms may share two or three pairs of electrons.
2. Double Bonds
When two atoms share TWO pairs of electrons, they form a double covalent bond.
Example: Ethene (C₂H₄)
● The two carbon atoms share two pairs of electrons.
● So the C=C bond is a double bond.
● Each carbon also forms single bonds with hydrogen atoms.
This double bond makes ethene more reactive than alkanes.
3. Triple Bonds
When two atoms share THREE pairs of electrons, they form a triple covalent bond.
Example: Nitrogen molecule (N₂)
● Each nitrogen atom has 5 electrons in the outer shell.
● To complete their octet, the two nitrogen atoms share three pairs of electrons.
● This produces a very strong triple bond (N≡N).
Because of this strong triple bond:
● Nitrogen gas is very unreactive.
● The bond requires a lot of energy to break.
4. Example Molecules with Covalent Bonding
Methanol (CH₃OH)
● Contains only single covalent bonds.
● Carbon bonds to:
○ 3 hydrogens (single bonds)
○ 1 oxygen (single bond)
● Oxygen bonds to:
○ carbon
○ hydrogen
● Oxygen contains two lone pairs of electrons.
Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)
● Carbon forms two double bonds, one with each oxygen:
○ O = C = O
● Linear shape.
● All atoms complete their outer shells through sharing.
5. Examiner Tips (Very Important for the Exam!)
Tip 1: Identify whether a compound is ionic or covalent before drawing
● Metal + non-metal → Ionic
○ Draw ions separately
○ Use square brackets
○ Show charges: Na⁺, Cl⁻
● Non-metal + non-metal → Covalent
○ Draw overlapping shells
○ Show shared pairs of electrons
Common mistakes to avoid:
● Drawing ions when the compound is actually covalent.
● Forgetting to show all outer electrons.
● Forgetting brackets and charges for ionic compounds.
● Not showing double or triple shared pairs correctly.
Properties of Simple Molecular Compounds –
What are simple molecular compounds?
These are substances made of small molecules containing just a few non-metal atoms
joined by covalent bonds.
Examples:
● H₂, O₂, N₂
● H₂O (water)
● CO₂
● CH₄ (methane)
Key Properties of Simple Molecular Compounds
1. Low melting and boiling points
● Covalent bonds hold atoms within each molecule.
● But the forces between molecules (intermolecular forces) are very weak.
● So only a small amount of energy is needed to separate molecules.
Result:
They are usually gases or liquids at room temperature.
Examples: oxygen (gas), water (liquid).
As molecules get larger
● They have more electrons → stronger intermolecular forces.
● So melting and boiling points increase.
Example:
CH₄ (gas) → C₆H₁₄ (liquid) → C₂₀H₄₂ (solid)
2. Poor electrical conductivity
Simple molecular compounds:
● Have no free ions
● Have no delocalised electrons
Therefore:
They cannot conduct electricity, whether solid or liquid.
They are insulators.
Examples of insulating covalent materials:
● Plastic (wire coating)
● Rubber
● Wood
Explaining the Properties
Bonding vs Intermolecular Forces
It is crucial to distinguish between the two:
Within a molecule
● Atoms are linked by strong covalent bonds.
● These bonds do NOT break when the substance melts or boils.
Between molecules
● Only weak intermolecular forces exist.
● These do break when the substance melts or boils.
Strength comparison
● Covalent bond: very strong
● Intermolecular force: about 1/10th the strength
Example with water:
● O–H inside the water molecule: covalent bond
● Water molecules attracting each other: intermolecular force
Why melting and boiling points are low
Because only weak intermolecular forces need to be overcome, not covalent bonds.
Summary Table
Property Explanation
Low melting/boiling point Weak intermolecular forces require little
energy to overcome
Usually gases or liquids Due to low melting/boiling points
Larger molecules → higher More electrons → stronger intermolecular
boiling point forces
Do not conduct electricity No free ions or delocalised electrons
Strong covalent bonds inside These do not break when melting/boiling
molecules
Diamond & Graphite (Allotropes of Carbon)
Both are giant covalent structures made only of carbon atoms, but their bonding
arrangements are different, giving them very different properties.
1. Structure of Graphite
Bonding
● Each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbons.
● This forms flat layers of hexagons.
● The fourth electron becomes delocalised (free to move).
Forces between layers
● Strong covalent bonds within each layer.
● Weak intermolecular forces between layers.
Structure summary
● Layers of carbon atoms arranged in hexagons.
● Layers can slide over each other.
● Delocalised electrons exist between layers.
2. Structure of Diamond
Bonding
● Each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbons.
● Arrangement forms a tetrahedral 3D shape.
● All bonds are strong covalent bonds.
● No delocalised electrons.
Structure summary
● A rigid, 3D lattice.
● An extremely strong and hard giant covalent structure.
● No layers → no sliding.
3. Properties and Uses of Graphite
(a) Conducts electricity
● Has delocalised electrons between layers.
● These electrons move and carry charge.
Use: Electrodes, brushes in electric motors.
(b) High melting point
● Giant covalent structure.
● Many strong covalent bonds must be broken.
(c) Slippery and soft
● Layers slide easily due to weak forces between them.
Uses:
● Pencil “lead”
● Lubricant in machinery
4. Properties and Uses of Diamond
(a) Does NOT conduct electricity
● All outer electrons are involved in bonding.
● No free electrons or ions.
(b) Very high melting point
● Giant covalent lattice.
● Many strong covalent bonds require large amounts of energy to break.
(c) Extremely hard and dense
● Each carbon forms four strong covalent bonds.
● Rigid 3D structure.
Use:
● Cutting tools (e.g., drills, saw tips)
● Jewellery
5. Quick Comparison Table
Property Graphite Diamond
Structure 3 bonds per carbon; layered 4 bonds per carbon;
hexagons tetrahedral
Intermolecular Weak between layers None (no layers)
forces
Electrical Yes (delocalised electrons) No
conductivity
Hardness Soft, slippery Hardest natural material
Melting point Very high Very high
Uses Pencils, lubricants, electrodes Cutting tools, jewellery
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Silicon(IV) Oxide (SiO₂)
1. What is Silicon(IV) Oxide?
● Also called silicon dioxide or silica
● Chemical formula: SiO₂
● Found naturally in:
○ Sand
○ Quartz
It is a macromolecular (giant covalent) structure — similar to diamond.
2. Structure of Silicon(IV) Oxide
Bonding
● Each silicon atom (Si) is covalently bonded to four oxygen atoms (O).
● Each oxygen atom (O) is covalently bonded to two silicon atoms.
● This arrangement forms a continuous 3D network.
Shape
● Around each silicon atom, a tetrahedral shape is formed.
● This is similar to diamond (each carbon bonded to 4 others).
Key point
● SiO₂ is a giant covalent structure, so there are:
○ Strong covalent bonds throughout
○ No intermolecular forces
(Just like diamond.)
3. Comparing Diamond & Silicon(IV) Oxide
Feature Diamond Silicon(IV) Oxide (SiO₂)
Type of structure Giant covalent Giant covalent
Atoms Carbon only Silicon & Oxygen
Bonding C–C (4 bonds per Si–O (4 bonds per silicon, 2 bonds per
carbon) oxygen)
Electrical conduction Does NOT conduct Does NOT conduct
Melting/Boiling point Very high Very high
Hardness Extremely hard Very hard
Solubility Insoluble Insoluble
Forces between Covalent bonds only Covalent bonds only
particles
Why they are similar
Both:
● Have strong covalent bonds throughout the structure
● Have no free electrons → do not conduct electricity
● Have very high melting points
● Are very hard
● Are insoluble in water
4. Uses of Silicon(IV) Oxide
SiO₂ is cheap and naturally abundant, so it is used for:
✔ Sandpaper
Hard structure helps grind and smooth surfaces.
✔ Lining furnaces
Very high melting point → resistant to heat.
✔ Also found in:
● Glass manufacturing
● Concrete
● Ceramics
5. Key Exam Points
✔ Silicon forms 4 covalent bonds
→ tetrahedral arrangement
→ giant covalent lattice
✔ Oxygen forms 2 covalent bonds
✔ No intermolecular forces
→ only strong covalent bonds throughout
✔ Do NOT say “SiO₂ has simple molecules”
This is a giant covalent structure.
✔ Properties link directly to bonding
● High melting point → strong covalent bonds
● No conduction → no free electrons
● Hard → strong bonds in a rigid 3D network
● Insoluble → covalent network doesn’t break
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Metallic Bonding
1. Structure of a Metal
Key idea
Metals have a giant lattice (giant structure).
What happens to the atoms?
● Metal atoms lose their outer (valence) electrons.
● They become positive metal ions arranged in layers.
● The electrons they lost are delocalised:
○ not attached to any one atom
○ move freely through the structure
This creates a “sea of delocalised electrons”.
Metallic bond definition
The metallic bond is the strong electrostatic attraction between:
● positive metal ions, and
● negative delocalised electrons.
This bonding occurs in:
● pure metals
● metal alloys (mixtures of metals)
2. Properties of Metals (Explained using bonding)
A. High melting & boiling points
● Strong attraction between:
○ positive metal ions
○ delocalised electrons
● A lot of energy is needed to break these bonds → high melting/boiling points.
B. Good conductors of heat & electricity
● Delocalised electrons are free to move.
● They carry charge (electricity) and thermal energy through the metal.
C. Malleable
● Malleable → can be hammered into shape.
● When force is applied:
○ layers of positive ions slide over each other.
○ Metallic bonds do NOT break because electrons move with the layers.
D. Ductile
● Ductile → can be drawn into wires.
● Again due to:
○ layers of ions sliding
○ delocalised electrons holding the structure together
Both malleability and ductility come from the same reason: sliding layers + mobile
electrons.
Formulae
1. Molecular Formulae
A molecular formula tells you:
● Which atoms are present (element symbols)
● How many of each atom (subscripts)
Example:
H₂O → 2 hydrogen atoms, 1 oxygen atom
2. Chemical Symbols
Every element is represented by a symbol from the Periodic Table.
Examples:
Element Symbol Element Symbol
Lithium Li Calcium Ca
Aluminium Al Sulfur S
Chromium Cr Gold Au
3. The Seven Diatomic Elements
These elements exist as molecules containing two atoms, X₂:
🔹 H₂ – Hydrogen
🔹 N₂ – Nitrogen
🔹 O₂ – Oxygen
🔹 F₂ – Fluorine
🔹 Cl₂ – Chlorine
🔹 Br₂ – Bromine
🔹 I₂ – Iodine
A common exam question is “Which elements exist as diatomic molecules?”
Memory trick: Have No Fear Of Ice Cold Beer (H₂, N₂, F₂, O₂, I₂, Cl₂, Br₂).
These are also simple molecules.
4. How Molecules Form
Atoms combine in fixed ratios to gain full outer shells.
The ratio becomes the molecular formula.
Examples:
Substance Molecular Formula Made From
Hydrogen H₂ 2 H atoms
Chlorine Cl₂ 2 Cl atoms
Water H₂O 2H+1O
Methane CH₄ 1C+4H
Ammonia NH₃ 1N+3H
Sulfuric Acid H₂SO₄ 2H+1S+4O
5. Interpreting Molecular Diagrams
Coloured-sphere diagrams usually follow a colour code:
● Hydrogen = white
● Oxygen = red
● Carbon = black
These help you deduce the formula and see the arrangement of atoms.
Example (water, H₂O):
● Oxygen in the middle
● Two hydrogens attached
● Not in a straight line → a “V” shape (bent)
6. Worked Example
Q: What is the molecular formula of this molecule?
(Butane structural diagram with 4 carbons in a chain)
Answer:
● Count C atoms → 4
● Count H atoms → 10
✔ Molecular formula = C₄H₁₀