MODULE-1

Computer network -- A computer network is a system that connects two or more devices—
like computers, printers, and servers—to share data, resources, and services over physical
cables or wireless connections.
INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION--

Data Communication--
Data communication refers to the process of transmitting and receiving data between two or
more devices over a communication channel. It involves the conversion of data into signals
that can be transmitted and then decoding those signals at the receiving end. Effective data
communication requires the use of appropriate protocols, encoding techniques, and hardware
devices.
Components of Data Communication--
Data communication systems consist of several components that work together to enable the
transfer of data. These components include:
 Sender: The device or system that initiates the data transmission.
 Receiver: The device or system that receives the transmitted data.
 Medium/Channel: The physical pathway through which data is transmitted, such as
cables or wireless connections.
 Protocol: A set of rules and conventions that govern the transmission and reception of
data.
 Modem: Short for modulator-demodulator, a device that converts digital signals into
analog signals for transmission and vice versa.
Types of Data Transmission--
Data transmission can occur in two primary ways:
Serial Transmission: In serial transmission, data is transmitted bit by bit over a single
communication channel. It is commonly used for long-distance communication and is more
reliable but slower compared to parallel transmission.
Parallel Transmission: In parallel transmission, multiple bits are transmitted
simultaneously over separate communication channels. It allows for faster data transfer but
is more susceptible to errors in long-distance transmissions.
Network application—
A network application is a software program which operates over a network and allows
communication and data sharing between multiple devices and users. Various essential
technologies, often referred to as building blocks, serve as foundational elements that
developers can utilize to create scalable and effective applications within a networking
infrastructure.
There is a wide range of network applications that are used on different devices like
smartphones, tablets, laptops, servers, etc. In fact, every device connected to a network relies
on some form of network application to communicate effectively within that network.
Types of network applications
Network applications come in various forms, each serving different purposes and use cases.
Here are some common types:
 Client-server applications
These applications involve a client requesting services or resources from a server. The
server then provides the requested information or performs the necessary actions.
Examples include web browsers accessing web servers and email clients
communicating with mail servers.
 Peer-to-peer applications
Unlike client-server applications, peer-to-peer (P2P) applications enable direct
communication between devices without relying on a central server. Popular examples
include file-sharing programs like BitTorrent and communication tools like Skype.
 Real-time applications These applications require low latency and high-speed data
transfer to function effectively. Examples include video conferencing tools like Zoom
and online gaming platforms, where real-time interaction is crucial.
 Batch applications Batch applications process data in batches rather than in real-time.
They are often used for tasks such as data backup, file transfer, and large-scale data
processing. Examples include automated backup systems and batch file transfer utilities.

Network Hardware—
Network hardware is a set of physical or network devices that are essential for interaction and
communication between hardware units operational on a computer network. These are
dedicated hardware components that connect to each other and enable a network to function
effectively and efficiently.
Network hardware plays a key role as industries grow as it supports scalability. It integrates
any number of components depending on the enterprise’s needs. Network hardware helps
establish an effective mode of communication, thereby improving the business standards. It
also promotes multiprocessing and enables sharing of resources, information, and software
with ease.
Network equipment is part of advancements of the Ethernet network protocol and utilizes a
twisted pair or fiber cable as a connection medium. Routers, hubs, switches, and bridges are
some examples of network hardware.
Let’s look at the fundamental devices of a computer network.
 Modems: A modem enables a computer to connect to the internet via a telephone line.
The modem at one end converts the computer’s digital signals into analog signals and
sends them through a telephone line. At the other end, it converts the analog signals to
digital signals that are understandable for another computer.
 Routers: A router connects two or more networks. One common use of the router is to
connect a home or office network (LAN) to the internet (WAN). It generally has a
plugged-in internet cable along with cables that connect computers on the LAN.
Alternatively, a LAN connection can also be wireless (Wi-Fi-enabled), making the
network device wireless. These are also referred to as wireless access points (WAPs).
 Hubs, bridges, and switches: Hubs, bridges, and switches are connecting units that
allow multiple devices to connect to the router and enable data transfer to all devices on
a network. A router is a complex device with the capabilities of hubs, bridges, and even
switches.
Hubs: A hub broadcasts data to all devices on a network. As a result, it consumes a lot
of bandwidth as many computers might not need to receive the broadcasted data. The
hub could be useful in linking a few gaming consoles in a local multiplayer game via a
wired or wireless LAN.
Bridges: A bridge connects two separate LAN networks. It scans for the receiving
device before sending a message. This implies that it avoids unnecessary data transfers
if the receiving device is not there. Moreover, it also checks to see whether the receiving
device has already received the message. These practices improve the overall
performance of the network.
Switches: A switch is more powerful than a hub or a bridge but performs a similar role.
It stores the MAC addresses of network devices and transfers data packets only to those
devices that have requested Thus, when the demand is high, a switch becomes more
efficient as it reduces the amount of latency.
 Network interface cards: A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware unit installed
on a computer, which allows it to connect to a network. It is typically in the form of a
circuit board or chip. In most modern machines, NICs are built into the motherboards,
while in some computers, an extra expansion card in the form of a small circuit board
is added externally.
 Network cables: Cables connect different devices on a network. Today, most networks
have cables over a wireless connection as they are more secure, i.e., less prone to attacks,
and at the same time carry larger volumes of data per second.
  Firewall: A firewall is a hardware or software device between a computer and the rest
of the network open to attackers or hackers. Thus, a LAN can be protected from hackers
by placing a firewall between the LAN and the internet connection. A firewall allows
authorized connections and data-like emails or web pages to pass through but blocks
unauthorized connections made to a computer or LAN.

Protocol—
A protocol is a set of rules that determines how data is sent and received over a network. The
protocol is just like a language that computers use to talk to each other, ensuring they
understand and can respond to each other's messages correctly. Protocols help make sure that
data moves smoothly and securely between devices on a network.
To make communication successful between devices, some rules and procedures should be
agreed upon at the sending and receiving ends of the system. Such rules and procedures are
called Protocols. Different types of protocols are used for different types of communication.

Protocols
In the above diagrams, Protocols are shown as a set of rules. Communication between the
Sender and Receiver is not possible without Protocol.
Key Elements of Protocol
 Syntax: Syntax refers to the structure or the format of the data that gets exchanged
between the devices. Syntax of the message includes the type of data, composition of
the message, and sequencing of the message. The starting 8 bits of data are considered
as the address of the sender. The next 8 bits are considered to be the address of the
receiver. The remaining bits are considered as the message itself.
 Semantics: Semantics defines data transmitted between devices. It provides rules and
norms for understanding message or data element values and actions.
 Timing: Timing refers to the synchronization and coordination between devices while
transferring the data. Timing ensures at what time data should be sent and how fast data
can be sent. For example, If a sender sends 100 Mbps but the receiver can only handle
1 Mbps, the receiver will overflow and lose data. Timing ensures preventing of data
loss, collisions, and other timing-related issues.
 Sequence Control: Sequence control ensures the proper ordering of data packets. The
main responsibility of sequence control is to acknowledge the data while it get received,
and the retransmission of lost data. Through this mechanism, the data is delivered in
correct order.
  Flow Control: Flow control regulates device data delivery. It limits the sender's data or
asks the receiver if it's ready for more. Flow control prevents data congestion and loss.
 Error Control: Error control mechanisms detect and fix data transmission faults. They
include error detection codes, data resend, and error recovery. Error control detects and
corrects noise, interference, and other problems to maintain data integrity.
 Security : Network security protects data confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity.
which includes encryption, authentication, access control, and other security
procedures. Network communication's privacy and trustworthiness are protected by
security standards.
Introduction to Layered Architecture--
Every network consists of a specific number of functions, layers, and tasks to perform. Layered
Architecture in a computer network is defined as a model where a whole network process is
divided into various smaller sub-tasks. These divided sub-tasks are then assigned to a specific
layer to perform only the dedicated tasks. A single layer performs only a specific type of task.
To run the application and provide all types of services to clients a lower layer adds its services
to the higher layer present above it. Therefore layered architecture provides interactions
between the sub-systems. If any type of modification is done in one layer it does not affect the
next layer.

Layered Architecture
As shown in the above diagram, there are five different layers. Therefore, it is a five-layered
architecture. Each layer performs a dedicated task. The lower-level data for example from
layer 1 data is transferred to layer 2. Below all the layers Physical Medium is present. The
physical medium is responsible for the actual communication to take place. For the transfer of
data and communication layered architecture provides simple interface.
Features of Layered Architecture--
 Use of Layered architecture in computer network provides with the feature of
modularity and distinct interfaces.
 Layered architecture ensures independence between layers, by offering services to
higher layers from the lower layers and without specifying how these services are
implemented.
 Layered architecture segments as larger and unmanageable design into small sub tasks.
  In layer architecture every network has different number of functions, layers and
content.
 In layered architecture, the physical route provides with communication which is
available under the layer 1.
 In layered architecture, the implementation done by one layer can be modified by
another layer.
Elements of Layered Architecture
There are three different types of elements of a layered architecture. They are described below:
 Service: Service is defined as a set of functions and tasks being provided by a lower
layer to a higher layer. Each layer performs a different type of task. Therefore, actions
provided by each layer are different.
 Protocol: Protocol is defined as a set rule used by the layer for exchanging and
transmission of data with its peer entities. These rules can consists details regarding a
type of content and their order passed from one layer to another.
 Interface: Interface is defined as a channel that allows to transmit the messages from
one layer to the another.

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model—

OSI model or Open Systems Interconnection model serves as a framework that explains the
process of information transfer, i.e., from one computer’s software application to another
computer through a medium. It was created by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984. It is now widely acknowledged as an architecture model for
inter-computer communication.
OSI model is nothing but an architecture model that assists in breaking down the task of data
communication into seven layers. Each layer has its role and further interacts with the adjacent
layers. This model works in a way that describes how various network devices and protocols
work with one another.
The OSI model is divided into seven layers. These are:
 Application Layer
 Presentation Layer
 Session Layer
 Transport Layer
 Network Layer
 Data Link Layer
 Physical Layer
Inside this model, each layer works on certain network functions and further communicates
with both layers, i.e., one above it and the other below it. When we talk about the upper layers
(application, presentation, and session), also known as the software layer, we focus on issues
related to the applications themselves, such as user interface design, data formatting,
and encryption techniques. On the other hand, when we talk about the lower layers (network,
data link, and physical), also known as the physical layer, we focus on issues such as error
control processes and transmission mediums.
In the middle is the heart of the OSI model, i.e., the transport layer.
Before explaining each layer in detail, let’s first understand the purpose of the OSI model.
Purpose of OSI Model
The primary goal of the OSI model is to promote compatibility between network devices and
software applications. By adopting the OSI model as a standard reference, network
engineers and developers can guarantee collaboration and integration, across platforms and
systems.
There are advantages associated with the OSI model. Some of these are:
 It streamlines the network design process by breaking it down into segments.
 It facilitates the development and testing of network components.
 It allows for troubleshooting and problem identification by pinpointing faulty layers.
Let’s now discuss each layer in detail.
The 7 Layers of OSI Model
This section will explain the different layers in the OSI model, along with some practical
examples.
7. Application Layer
At the top of the OSI model, we have an application layer. This layer generally deals with the
end users and serves as a bridge between them and various other applications such as web
browsers, email clients, and file transfer protocols. It further plays a significant role in allowing
communication by defining protocols such as HTTP, SMTP, FTP, etc.
Function of Application Layer
Below, we have discussed some of the key functions performed by the application layer.

 Identifying communication partners: Here, the application layer assists in determining

the parties that are involved in a communication process and further verifies their
availability.
 Determining resource availability: It verifies that all the network resources required to
communicate are available.
 Synchronizing communication: The application layer is the head that manages and
synchronizes interactions between different applications.
6. Presentation Layer
When we talk about the presentation layer, it is simply responsible for translating the data
between the application layer that is above it and the lower layers. It also ensures the
compatibility format of the data for both the sender as well as receiver applications. Apart from
that, it also handles data compression, encryption, and decryption.
Function of Presentation Layer
Below, we have explained some of the main functions of the presentation layer.

 Data Translation: In data translation, the presentation layer simply converts data from
one format to another, whichever is suitable for the upper and lower layers. An example
is converting ASCII to EBCDIC or binary text.
 Data Compression: When we talk about data compression, the presentation layer
reduces the data size to save bandwidth and storage space.
 Data Encryption: In order to maintain the integrity as well as privacy of the data, the
presentation layer encrypts it.
5. Session Layer
The session layer assists in establishing, maintaining, and terminating sessions between
different applications. It is a logical connection responsible for allowing continuous data
exchange between two applications. Apart from that, it also helps manage authentication,
authorization, and synchronization.
Functions of Sessions Layer
Some of the important functions of the session layer are:

 Session Establishment: In session establishment, the session layer simply creates

sessions between applications by exchanging control information. These include
usernames, passwords, and session IDs.
 Session Maintenance: The session layer also assists in monitoring and controlling the
sessions. This is done by sending acknowledgements, checkpoints, and timeouts.
 Session termination: In the end, the session layer ends the session by releasing resources
and closing connections.
4. Transport Layer
The transport layer assists in providing reliable and efficient data transfer between two devices
within a network. It also ensures that the data that is delivered must be without errors, loss, or
duplication. Apart from that, it is also responsible for regulating the flow of data in order to
avoid congestion or overload.
TCP and UDP are the most important protocols that are used in the transport layer.
Function of Transport Layer
Below, we have explained some of the functions of the transport layer.

 Segmentation and Reassembly: In this case, the transport layer simply divides the data
into small segments that can further be transmitted over the network. It also assists in
reassembling the segments at the destination device.
 Error Control: The transport layer is responsible for detecting and correcting errors in
the data with the help of checksums, acknowledgements, and retransmissions.
 Flow Control: In the end, the transport layer controls the rate at which the data is
transmitted by using windowing, buffering, and many congestion avoidance techniques
available.
3. Network Layer
The network layer assists in routing the packets from one device to another in a network. It is
also responsible for determining the best path for the packets based on various factors such as
distance, cost, and traffic. Apart from that, the network layer also handles addressing,
fragmentation, and packet switching.
Function of Network Layer
Now, let’s discuss some of the crucial functions of the network Layer.

 Logical Addressing: In this, the network layer simply assigns logical addresses, such as
IP addresses, to a network device in a network. It also maps logical addresses to physical
addresses, such as MAC addresses, using protocols such as ARP and RARP.
 Routing: It is the work of the network layer to decide the best path for the packet using
algorithms such as Dijkstra’s and Bellman-Ford.
 Fragmentation: Fragmentation simply means splitting large packets into small segments
that can fit the maximum transmission unit (MTU) of the underlying network. Here,
the network layer also comes into action.
 Packet Switching: The network layer is also responsible for switching the packets from
one network to another using devices such as routers and gateways.
Some of the common protocols of the network layer are IP, ICMP, ARP, and RARP.
2. Data Link Layer
The data link layer is used for the node-to-node delivery of data. It further defines the format
of data and also assists in providing reliable and efficient communication between two
devices. It is also responsible for handling access control, error detection, and correction.
The data link layer is further divided into two sub-layers. These are:
1. Logical Link Control: LLC assists in providing services to the upper layers. These
services include flow control, error control, and multiplexing.
2. Media Access Control: MAC is the one that controls how devices access and share the
physical medium, such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, or Bluetooth.
Functions of Data Link Layer
Now, let’s discuss the different functions of the data link layer.
  Framing: The data link layer assists in dividing the data into frames that further contain
a header, a payload, and a trailer. When we talk about the header, it contains information
such as MAC addresses of the source and destination, frame types, and frame numbers.
The trailer part contains a checksum for detecting the error.
 Error Detection: This layer helps in detecting the errors in the frames by using methods
such as parity check, cyclic redundancy check (CRC), and checksum.
 Error Correction: The data link layer is also responsible for correcting the errors in the
frames by using methods such as stop-and-wait, go-back-N, and selective repeat.
 Access Control: The data link layer regulates how devices access and share the physical
medium by using methods such as CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA, and token passing.
1. Physical Layer
The last layer of the OSI model is the physical layer. It is closest to the physical medium and
is responsible for transmitting as well as receiving individual bits from one device to another.
Apart from that, the physical layer specifies the mechanical, electrical, and procedural
characteristics of the physical medium.
Functions of Physical Layer
Below, we have explained some of the important functions of the physical layer.

 Bit Synchronization: This layer is responsible for the synchronization of bits by

providing a clock signal that controls both sender and receiver devices.
 Bit Rate Control: It also defines the transmission rate by utilizing various methods.
Some of these methods are modulation, encoding, and multiplexing.
 Physical Topologies: The physical layer assists in defining how devices are arranged in
a network. This includes bus, ring, or mesh topology.
 Transmission Mode: One of the most important functions of the physical layer is
defining how data flows between devices. This includes simplex, half-duplex, or full-
duplex mode.
These are the 7 layers of OSI Model.
OR

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model--

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that explains how different
computer systems communicate over a network. OSI Model was developed by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7
layers and each layer has specific functions and responsibilities. This layered approach makes
it easier for different devices and technologies to work together. OSI Model provides a clear
structure for data transmission and managing network issues. The OSI Model is widely used
as a reference to understand how network systems function.
Layers of the OSI Model
There are 7 layers in the OSI Model and each layer has its specific role in handling data. All
the layers are mentioned below:
 Physical Layer
 Data Link Layer
 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
 Session Layer
 Presentation Layer
 Application Layer
Layer 1: Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the
form of bits. Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to
the next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and
1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together. Common
physical layer devices are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.

Physical Layer
Functions of the Physical Layer
 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number
of bits sent per second.
 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are
arranged in a network i.e. bus topology, star topology, or mesh topology.
 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two
connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex
and full duplex.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer (DLL)
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over
the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to
transmit it to the Host using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as
Frame. Switches and Bridges are common Data Link Layer devices.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of the NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and
Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
request onto the wire asking, "Who has that IP address?" and the destination host will reply
with its MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer
 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses
(MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it
detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before
receiving an acknowledgment.
 Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices,
the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control
over the channel at a given time.

Layer 3: Network Layer

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender and receiver's
IP address are placed in the header by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer is
referred to as Packet. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers
and switches.
Functions of the Network Layer
 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender and receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the
 header by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.
Layer 4: Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for
the end-to-end delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found. Protocols used in Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.
At the sender's side, the transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data
transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and forwards the
segmented data to the Network Layer.
 Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For
example, when a web application requests a web server, it typically uses port number
80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have
default ports assigned.
At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards
the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and
reassembling of the segmented data.
Functions of the Transport Layer
 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session)
layer and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a
header associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport
layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port address.
Thus, by specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is
delivered to the correct process.

Services Provided by Transport Layer

 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service
Layer 5: Session Layer
Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of connections,
management of connections, terminations of sessions between two devices. It also provides
authentication and security. Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.
Functions of the Session Layer
 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.
  Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the
error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely, and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with
each other in half-duplex or full duplex.

Communication in Session Layer

Layer 6: Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer
is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
Protocols used in the Presentation Layer are TLS/SSL (Transport Layer Security / Secure
Sockets Layer).JPEG, MPEG, GIF, are standards or formats used for encoding data, which is
part of the presentation layer’s role.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.
The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext, and the decrypted data is known as plain
text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
Layer 7: Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer
which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services
to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user. Protocols used
in the Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.

Application
Layer
Functions of the Application Layer
The main functions of the application layer are given below.
 Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
  File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control files
from a remote computer.
 Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources and access
for global information about various objects and services.
Data Flows in the OSI Model--
When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7 layers of OSI
model. First data travels down through 7 layers from the sender's end and then climbs back 7
layers on the receiver's end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
 Application Layer: Applications create the data.
 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.
Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its destination correctly, and
these steps are reversed upon arrival.
We can understand how data flows through OSI Model with the help of an example mentioned
below.
Let us suppose, Person A sends an e-mail to his friend Person B.
Step 1: Person A interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook, etc. Writes his email
to send. (This happens at Application Layer).
Step 2: At Presentation Layer, Mail application prepares for data transmission like
encrypting data and formatting it for transmission.
Step 3: At Session Layer, there is a connection established between the sender and receiver
on the internet.
Step 4: At Transport Layer, Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds sequence
number and error-checking information to maintain the reliability of the information.
Step 5: At Network Layer, addressing of packets is done in order to find the best route for
transfer.
Step 6: At Data Link Layer, data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC address is
added for local devices and then it checks for error using error detection.
Step 7: At Physical Layer, Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/ optical signals
over a physical network medium like ethernet cable or WiFi.

Protocols Used in the OSI Layers

Protocol
Layer Working Data Unit Protocols

Establishing
1: Physical Physical
Bits USB, SONET/SDH, etc.
Layer Connections
between Devices.

Node to Node
2: Data Link
Delivery of Frames Ethernet, PPP, etc.
Layer
Message.
 Protocol
Layer Working Data Unit Protocols

Transmission of data
3: Network from one host to IP, ICMP, IGMP, OSPF,
Packets
Layer another, located in etc.
different networks.

Take Service from Segments

4: Transport Network Layer and (for TCP) or
TCP, UDP, SCTP, etc.
Layer provide it to the Datagrams
Application Layer. (for UDP)

Establishes
Connection,
5: Session Maintenance, NetBIOS, RPC, PPTP,
Data
Layer Ensures etc.
Authentication and
Ensures security.

Data from the

application layer is
6:
extracted and
Presentation Data TLS/SSL, MIME, etc.
manipulated in the
Layer
required format for
transmission.

Helps in identifying
7:
the client and FTP, SMTP, DNS, DHCP,
Application Data
synchronizing etc.
Layer
communication.

The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing system into 7 different layers. Its
advantages include:
 It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it easier to understand and
troubleshoot.
 It standardizes network communications, as each layer has fixed functions and
protocols.
 Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model.
  It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get updates separately.
Disadvantages of OSI Model
 The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be complicated and hard to understand for
beginners.
 In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler model called the Internet protocol
suite (TCP/IP), so the OSI Model is not always directly applicable.
 Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of rules and operations, which can make
the process more time-consuming and less efficient.
 The OSI Model is more of a theoretical framework, meaning it's great for understanding
concepts but not always practical for implementation.

The TCP/IP model ---

The TCP/IP model is a framework that is used to model the communication in a network. It
is mainly a collection of network protocols and organization of these protocols in different
layers for modeling the network.
 It has four layers, Application, Transport, Network/Internet and Network Access.
 While the OSI model has seven layers, the 4 layer TCP/IP model is simpler and
commonly used in today’s Internet and networking systems.
Role of TCP/IP
One of its main goals is to make sure that the data sent by the sender arrives safely and
correctly at the receiver’s end. To do this, the data is broken down into smaller parts called
packets before being sent. These packets travel separately and are reassembled in the correct
order when they reach the destination. This helps prevent errors and makes sure the message
is complete and accurate.

TCP
Layers of TCP/IP Model
1. Application Layer
The Application Layer is the top layer of the TCP/IP model and the one closest to the user.
This is where all the apps you use like web browsers, email clients, or file sharing tools connect
to the network. It acts like a bridge between your software (like Chrome, Gmail, or WhatsApp)
and the lower layers of the network that actually send and receive data.
It supports different protocols like HTTP (for websites), FTP (for file transfers), SMTP (for
emails), and DNS (for finding website addresses). It also manages things like data formatting,
so both sender and receiver understand the data, encryption to keep data safe, and session
management to keep track of ongoing connections.
2. Transport Layer
The Transport Layer is responsible for making sure that data is sent reliably and in the correct
order between devices. It checks that the data you send like a message, file, or video arrives
safely and completely. This layer uses two main protocols: TCP and UDP, depending on
whether the communication needs to be reliable or faster.
TCP is used when data must be correct and complete, like when loading a web page or
downloading a file. It checks for errors, resends missing pieces, and keeps everything in order.
On the other hand, UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is faster but doesn’t guarantee delivery
useful for things like live video or online games where speed matters more than perfect
accuracy.
3. Internet Layer
The Internet Layer is used for finding the best path for data to travel across different networks
so it can reach the right destination. It works like a traffic controller, helping data packets move
from one network to another until they reach the correct device. This layer uses the Internet
Protocol (IP) to give every device a unique IP address, which helps identify where data should
go.
The main job of this layer is routing deciding the best way for data to travel. It also takes care
of packet forwarding (moving data from one point to another), fragmentation (breaking large
data into smaller parts), and addressing.
4. Network Access Layer
The Network Access Layer is the bottom layer of the TCP/IP model. It deals with the actual
physical connection between devices on the same local network like computers connected by
cables or communicating through Wi-Fi. This layer makes sure that data can travel over the
hardware, such as wires, switches, or wireless signals.
It also handles important tasks like using MAC addresses to identify devices,
creating frames (the format used to send data over the physical link), and checking for
basic errors during transmission.
Working of TCP/IP Model
The working of TCP/IP can be explained with the help of the diagram given below and
explained:

When Sending Data (From Sender to Receiver)

  Application Layer: Prepares user data using protocols like HTTP, FTP, or SMTP.
 Transport Layer (TCP/UDP): Breaks data into segments and ensures reliable (TCP)
or fast (UDP) delivery.
 Internet Layer (IP): Adds IP addresses and decides the best route for each packet.
 Link Layer (Network Access Layer): Converts packets into frames and sends them
over the physical network.
When Receiving Data (At the Destination)
 Link Layer: Receives bits from the network and rebuilds frames to pass to the next
layer.
 Internet Layer: Checks the IP address, removes the IP header, and forwards data to the
Transport Layer.
 Transport Layer: Reassembles segments, checks for errors, and ensures data is
complete.
 Application Layer: Delivers the final data to the correct application (e.g., displays a
web page in the browser).
Why TCP/IP is Used Over the OSI Model--
TCP/IP is used over the OSI model because it is simpler, practical, and widely adopted for
real-world networking and the internet. The diagram below shows the comparison of OSI layer
with the TCP :

OSI
Reason Explanation

TCP/IP has only 4 layers, compared to 7 in OSI, making it easier

Simpler Structure to implement and understand in real systems.

Protocol-Driven TCP/IP was designed based on working protocols, while the OSI
Design model is more of a theoretical framework.
Reason Explanation

Flexibility and TCP/IP adapts well to different hardware and networks and
Robustness includes error handling, routing, and congestion control.

TCP/IP is open, free to use, and not controlled by any single

Open Standard organization, helping it gain universal acceptance.

Actual Use vs The OSI model is great for education and design principles, but
Conceptual Model TCP/IP is the one actually used in real-world networking.

Advantages of TCP/IP Model

 Interoperability : The TCP/IP model allows different types of computers and networks
to communicate with each other, promoting compatibility and cooperation among
diverse systems.
 Scalability : TCP/IP is highly scalable, making it suitable for both small and large
networks, from local area networks (LANs) to wide area networks (WANs) like the
internet.
 Standardization : It is based on open standards and protocols, ensuring that different
devices and software can work together without compatibility issues.
 Flexibility : The model supports various routing protocols, data types, and
communication methods, making it adaptable to different networking needs.
 Reliability : TCP/IP includes error-checking and retransmission features that ensure
reliable data transfer, even over long distances and through various network conditions.
Disadvantages of TCP/IP Model
 Security Concerns : TCP/IP was not originally designed with security in mind. While
there are now many security protocols available (such as SSL/TLS), they have been
added on top of the basic TCP/IP model, which can lead to vulnerabilities.
 Inefficiency for Small Networks : For very small networks, the overhead and
complexity of the TCP/IP model may be unnecessary and inefficient compared to
simpler networking protocols.
 Limited by Address Space : Although IPv6 addresses this issue, the older IPv4 system
has a limited address space, which can lead to issues with address exhaustion in larger
networks.
 Data Overhead : TCP the transport protocol, includes a significant amount of overhead
to ensure reliable transmission.
Difference Between OSI and TCP/IP Model
OSI Model TCP/IP Model

OSI stands for Open Systems TCP/IP stands for Transmission

Interconnection. Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

OSI model has 7 layers. TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers.

Package delivery is guaranteed in Package delivery is not guaranteed in

OSI Model. the TCP/IP Model.

In the OSI model, only layers 1,2

All layers of the TCP/IP model are
and 3 are necessary for data
needed for data transmission.
transmission.

Layers are integrated; some layers are

Protocols at each layer is
required by other layers of TCP/IP
independent of the other layer.
model.

OSI Model is a conceptual Widely used in actual networks like

framework, less used in practical Internet and Communication
applications. Systems.

Internet History--
The internet as we know it today is a vast, interconnected network that has transformed how
we communicate, work, learn, and interact. But it wasn't always this way. The origin of the
internet dates back to the 1950s when the world was grappling with the Cold War, and
researchers sought to create a communication system that could withstand disruptions. From
its humble beginnings as a military project to the global web it is now, the history of the
internet is a tale of human ingenuity, collaboration, and the relentless pursuit of connectivity
and a fascinating journey of innovation, collaboration, and rapid technological advancement.
Key Milestones in Internet History
 1969: Launch of ARPANET, the first operational packet-switching network.
 1971: The first email is sent by Ray Tomlinson.
 1983: Adoption of TCP/IP as the standard protocol for ARPANET.
 1989-1990: Tim Berners-Lee invents the World Wide Web.
 1993: The first graphical web browser, Mosaic, is released.
 1998: Google is founded, revolutionizing search engines.
 2007: The iPhone introduces widespread mobile Internet access.
 2010s: Rise of cloud computing, social media, and streaming services.
Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn
Known as
"The Fathers of the Internet"
Key Contributions:
 Invented TCP/IP protocol in 1974
 Created the foundation for data transmission
 Developed internet architecture
 Established basic internet communication standards

Internet standards are fundamental to the global internet, which given the complex and diverse
nature of the systems and technologies on the internet attempts to prove how these systems
can interact. These are standardization patterns that are provided by the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF), which has worked on its protocols for a long time and has a strict
mechanism for revising and approving them.
These standards will facilitate web affinity to signal, security, and innovation. In this article,
we will look into the standardization process in Internet Standard, its importance, examples,
etc.
Primary Technologies
 Internet Standard(STD): proposed as its formal specification of the rule and policy
promoting the uniform and compatibility usage of Internet architecture across the
world.
 Request For Comments (RFC): The entire collection of documents that formed the
foundation for developing the internet standards and protocols and also for their
promotion and implementation.
 Proposed Standard: It is used at a certain level of the work in order to prove that the
current specification is not just prepared by somebody and exists in the form of a
 planned work, but has gone through the basic level of evaluation and the review and
standardization phase of this work.
 Draft Standard: A better-defined progression of a concept that is a previously rational
and developed idea that has been implemented in other settings.
 Internet Standard: A frequently adopted and highly stable standard that has turned out
to be very effective in actual practice as far as interconnect is concerned.

Internet Administration is basically a group that coordinates and guides the Internet with its
growth and development. It makes sure that all the protocols are followed by the devices and
network for the smooth functioning of the internetwork. Some of the organizations that
overlook the growth and development of the internet are -

Internet Society (ISOC) : An international, non-profit organization, ISOC formed to provide

support for the Internet standard process accomplishes its goals by maintaining and supporting
other Internet administrative bodies such as IAB, IETF, IRTF, and IANA. It also promotes
research and other activities relating to the Internet. Internet Architecture Board (IAB) : The
technical advisor to the ISOC, the IAB’s main purpose is to oversee the continuing
development of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite and to serve in a technical advisory capacity to
research members of the Internet community, which is accomplished by its two components,
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF).
Additionally, IAB is also the editorial manager of the RFCs and is the external liaison between
the Internet and the other standards, organizations, and forums. Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF) : Managed by the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG), the IETF is a
forum of working groups responsible for identifying operational problems, proposing
solutions to them, and developing and reviewing specifications intended as Internet Standards.
The groups are collected into areas, like, applications, routing, security, protocols, and network
management, and each area concentrates on a specific topic. Internet Research Task Force
(IRTF) : Managed by the Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG), the IRTF is a forum of
working groups focusing on long-term research topics related to Internet protocol, technology,
applications, and architecture.
Data and Signals--
ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Both data and the signals that represent them can be either analog or digital in form.
Analog and Digital Data
Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to information that is continuous.
digital data refers to information that has discrete states. For example, an analog clock that
has hour, minute, and second hands gives information in a continuous form; the movements
of the hands are continuous. On the other hand, a digital clock that reports the hours and the
minutes will change suddenly from 8:05 to 8:06.
Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice, take on continuous values. When
someone speaks, an analog wave is created in the air. This can be captured by a microphone
and converted to an analog signal or sampled and converted to a digital signal.
Digital data take on discrete values. For example, data are stored in computer
memory in the form of 0s and 1s. They can be converted to a digital signal or modulated into
an analog signal for transmission across a medium.
Data can be analog or digital. Analog data are continuous and take continuous values.
Digital data have discrete states and take discrete values.
Analog and Digital Signals
Like the data they represent, signals can be either analog or digital. An analog signal has
infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time. As the wave moves from value A to
value B, it passes through and includes an infinite number of values along its path. A digital
signal, on the other hand, can have only a limited number of defined values. Although each
value can be any number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0.
The simplest way to show signals is by plotting them on a pair of perpendicular
axes. The vertical axis represents the value or strength of a signal. The horizontal axis
represents time. Figure illustrates an analog signal and a digital signal. The curve representing
the analog signal passes through an infinite number of points. The vertical lines of the digital
signal, however, demonstrate the sudden jump that the signal makes from value to value.
Signals can be analog or digital. Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in
a range; digital signals can have only a limited number of values.

Fig- Comparison of analog & digital signals.

Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals
Both analog and digital signals can take one of two forms: periodic or nonperiodic (sometimes
refer to as aperiodic, because the prefix a in Greek means "non").
A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called a
period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical periods. The completion of one full
pattern is called a cycle. A nonperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle
that repeats over time.
Both analog and digital signals can be periodic or nonperiodic. In data communications, we
commonly use periodic analog signals (because they need less bandwidth) and nonperiodic
digital signals (because they can represent variation in data).
In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals and nonperiodic
digital signals.
PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite. A simple periodic analog
signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite periodic analog
signal is composed of multiple sine waves.
Sine Wave--
The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal. When we visualize it
as a simple oscillating curve, its change over the course of a cycle is smooth and consistent, a
continuous, rolling flow. Figure 3.2 shows a sine wave. Each cycle consists of a single arc
above the time axis followed by a single arc below it.

A sine wave can be represented by three parameters: the peak amplitude, the frequency, and
the phase. These three parameters fully describe a sine wave.
Peak Amplitude
The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest intensity, proportional to the
energy it carries. For electric signals, peak amplitude is normally measured in volts. Figure
shows two signals and their peak amplitudes.
Period and Frequency
Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to complete 1 cycle.
Frequency refers to the number of periods in 1 sec. Note that period and frequency are just one
characteristic defined in two ways. Period is the inverse of frequency, and frequency is the
inverse of period, as the following formulas show.

Frequency and period are the inverse of each other.

Period is formally expressed in seconds. Frequency is formally expressed in
Hertz (Hz), which is cycle per second. Units of period and frequency are shown in Table.
Table Units of period and frequency

Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time. Change in a short span of time means
high frequency. Change over a long span of time means low frequency.
Two Extremes
What if a signal does not change at all? What if it maintains a constant voltage level for the
entire time it is active? In such a case, its frequency is zero. Conceptually, this idea is a simple
one. If a signal does not change at all, it never completes a cycle, so its frequency is 0 Hz.
But what if a signal changes instantaneously? What if it jumps from one level to
another in no time? Then its frequency is infinite. In other words, when a signal changes
instantaneously, its period is zero; since frequency is the inverse of period, in this case, the
frequency is 1/0, or infinite (unbounded).
If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.
Phase
The term phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0. If we think of the
wave as something that can be shifted backward or forward along the time axis, phase
describes the amount of that shift. It indicates the status of the first cycle.
Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0.
Phase is measured in degrees or radians [360° is 2n rad; 1° is 2n/360 rad, and 1 rad is 360/(2n)].
A phase shift of 360° corresponds to a shift of a complete period; a phase shift of 180°
corresponds to a shift of one-half of a period; and a phase shift of 90° corresponds to a shift of
one-quarter of a period (see Figure ).
we can say that
I. A sine wave with a phase of 0° starts at time 0 with a zero amplitude. The
amplitude is increasing.
2. A sine wave with a phase of 90° starts at time 0 with a peak amplitude. The
amplitude is decreasing.
3. A sine wave with a phase of 180° starts at time 0 with a zero amplitude. The
amplitude is decreasing.
Wavelength-
Wavelength is another characteristic of a signal traveling through a transmission
medium. Wavelength binds the period or the frequency of a simple sine wave to the
propagation speed of the medium.
Wavelength (λ) is the physical length from one point of a wave to the same point on the next
wave.

Time and Frequency Domains--

A sine wave is comprehensively defined by its amplitude, frequency, and phase. We have been
showing a sine wave by using what is called a time-domain plot. The time-domain plot shows
changes in signal amplitude with respect to time (it is an amplitude-versus-time plot). Phase is
not explicitly shown on a time-domain plot.
To show the relationship between amplitude and frequency, we can use what is
called a frequency-domain plot. A frequency-domain plot is concerned with only the peak
value and the frequency. Changes of amplitude during one period are not shown. Figure shows
a signal in both the time and frequency domains.
Figure-- The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave
It is obvious that the frequency domain is easy to plot and conveys the information
that one can find in a time domain plot. The advantage of the frequency domain is that we can
immediately see the values of the frequency and peak amplitude. A complete sine wave is
represented by one spike. The position of the spike shows the frequency; its height shows the
peak amplitude.
A complete sine wave in the time domain can be represented by one single spike in the
frequency domain.
Composite Signals-
So far, we have focused on simple sine waves. Simple sine waves have many applications in
daily life. We can send a single sine wave to carry electric energy from one place to another.
For example, the power company sends a single sine wave with a frequency of 60 Hz to
distribute electric energy to houses and businesses. As another example, we can use a single
sine wave to send an alarm to a security centre when a burglar opens a door or window in the
house. In the first case, the sine wave is carrying energy; in the second, the sine wave is a
signal of danger.
If we had only one single sine wave to convey a conversation over the phone, it
would make no sense and carry no information. We would just hear a buzz. we need to send a
composite signal to communicate data. A composite signal is made of many simple sine waves.
A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data communications; we need to send a
composite signal; a signal made of many simple sine waves.
Any composite signal is a combination of simple sine waves with different frequencies,
amplitudes, and phases.
If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series of signals with discrete
frequencies; if the composite signal is nonperiodic, the decomposition gives a combination of
sine waves with continuous frequencies.
Fig-A composite periodic signal

Fig-Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and frequency domains

It is very difficult to manually decompose this signal into a series of simple sine waves.
However, there are tools, both hardware and software, that can help us do the job. We are not
concerned about how it is done; we are only interested in the result. Figure shows the result of
decomposing the above signal in both the time and frequency domains.
The amplitude of the sine wave with frequency f is almost the same as the peak amplitude of
the composite signal. The amplitude of the sine wave with frequency 3fis one-third of that of
the first, and the amplitude of the sine wave with frequency 9f is one-ninth of the first. The
frequency of the sine wave with frequency f is the same as the frequency of the composite
signal; it is called
the fundamental frequency, or first harmonic. The sine wave with frequency 3fhas a frequency
of 3 times the fundamental frequency; it is called the third harmonic. The third sine wave with
frequency 9fhas a frequency of 9 times the fundamental frequency; it is called the ninth
harmonic.
Note that the frequency decomposition of the signal is discrete; it has frequencies f, 3f, and 9f
Because f is an integral number, 3f and 9f are also integral numbers. There are no frequencies
such as 1.2f or 2.6f. The frequency domain of a periodic composite signal is always made of
discrete spikes.

Fig--The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal

In a time-domain representation of this composite signal, there are an infinite number of simple
sine frequencies. Although the number of frequencies in a human voice is infinite, the range is
limited. A normal human being can create a continuous range of frequencies between 0 and 4
kHz.
Note that the frequency decomposition of the signal yields a continuous curve.
There are an infinite number of frequencies between 0.0 and 4000.0 (real values). To find the
amplitude related to frequency J, we draw a vertical line at f to intersect the envelope curve.
The height of the vertical line is the amplitude of the corresponding frequency.
Bandwidth--
The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its bandwidth. The bandwidth is
normally a difference between two numbers. For example, if a composite signal contains
frequencies between 1000 and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000 - 1000, or 4000.
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies contained in that signal.
Figure shows the concept of bandwidth. The figure depicts two composite signals, one periodic
and the other nonperiodic. The bandwidth of the periodic signal
contains all integer frequencies between 1000 and 5000 (1000, 100 I, 1002, ...). The bandwidth
of the nonperiodic signals has the same range, but the frequencies are continuous.
Fig-The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals

DIGITAL SIGNALS--
In addition to being represented by an analog signal, information can also be represented by a
digital signal. For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage.
A digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit for
each level. Figure shows two signals, one with two levels and the other with four.
Figure--Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other with four signal levels
We send 1 bit per level in part a of the figure and 2 bits per level in part b of the
figure. In general, if a signal has L levels, each level needs log2L bits.
Bit Rate--
Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus period and frequency are not appropriate
characteristics. Another term-bit rate (instead of frequency)-is used to describe
digital signals. The bit rate is the number of bits sent in Is, expressed in bits per
second (bps).
Bit Length--
We discussed the concept of the wavelength for an analog signal: the distance one cycle
occupies on the transmission medium. We can define something similar for a digital signal:
the bit length. The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the transmission medium.
Bit length =propagation speed X bit duration
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT--
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection causes
signal impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same
as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is received. Three causes of
impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise (see Figure).
Attenuation--
Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels
through a medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the
medium. That is why a wire carrying electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some
of the electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat. To compensate for this loss, amplifiers
are used to amplify the signal. Figure shows the effect of attenuation and amplification.

Figure-

Decibel--
To show that a signal has lost or gained strength, engineers use the unit of the decibel. The
decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two different points.
Note that the decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if a signal is amplified.
Variables PI and P2 are the powers of a signal at points 1 and 2, respectively. Note that some
engineering books define the decibel in terms of voltage instead of power. In this case, because
power is proportional to the square of the voltage, the formula is dB = 20 log 10 (V2IV1). In
this text, we express dB in terms of power.
Distortion--
Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape. Distortion can occur in a composite
signal made of different frequencies. Each signal component has its own propagation speed
(see the next section) through a medium and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the final
destination. Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is not exactly
the same as the period duration. In other words, signal components at the receiver have phases
different from what they had at the sender. The shape of the composite signal is therefore not
the same. Figure shows the effect of distortion on a composite signal.

Noise--
Noise is another cause of impairment. Several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced
noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal. Thermal noise is the random
motion of electrons in a wire which creates an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter.
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances.
These devices act as a sending antenna, and the transmission medium acts as the
receiving antenna. Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire act as a sending
antenna and the other as the receiving antenna. Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high
energy in a very short time) that comes from power lines, lightning, and so on. Figure shows
the effect of noise on a signal.

Figure--
DATA RATE LIMITS--
A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data, in bits
per second. over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate: one by Nyquist for a
noiseless channel. another by Shannon for a noisy channel.
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate--
For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate
BitRate = 2 x bandwidth X log2 L
In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of signal levels
used to represent data, and BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second.
According to the formula, we might think that, given a specific bandwidth, we can have any
bit rate we want by increasing the number of signa11eve1s. Although the idea is theoretically
correct, practically there is a limit. When we increase the number of signal1eve1s, we impose
a burden on the receiver. If the number of levels in a signal is just 2, the receiver can easily
distinguish between a 0 and a 1. If the level of a signal is 64, the receiver must be very
sophisticated to distinguish between 64 different levels. In other words, increasing the levels
of a signal reduces the reliability of the system. Increasing the levels of a signal may reduce
the reliability of the system.
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity--
In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy. In 1944, Claude
Shannon introduced a formula, called the Shannon capacity, to determine the theoretical
highest data rate for a noisy channel:
Capacity =bandwidth X log2 (1 +SNR)
In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio,
and capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second. Note that in the Shannon formula
there is no indication of the signal level, which means that no matter how many levels we have,
we cannot achieve a data rate higher than the capacity of the channel. In other words, the
formula defines a characteristic of the channel, not the method of transmission.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)--
The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as
average signal power
SNR =
average noise power
We need to consider the average signal power and the average noise power because these may
change with time.
SNR is actually the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not wanted (noise).
A high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise; a low SNR means the signal is more
corrupted by noise. Because SNR is the ratio of two powers, it is often described in decibel
units, SNRdB, defined as
SNRdB = 10 log10 SNR

Guided transmission media--

Guided transmission media consists of physical connection between source and destination
through a wire or a cable.
There are three basic types of guided media which are as follows −
 Twisted pair cable
 Co-axial cable
 Fiber-optic cable
Twisted Pair Copper--
Step 1 − It is the most used media across the world. All the local telephone exchanges are made
of twisted pair copper. These telephone lines are reused as last mile DSL access links to access
the internet from home.
Step 2 − Twisted pair copper wires are also used in Ethernet LAN cables within homes and
offices.
Step 3 − It supports low to High Data Rates which is in the order of Gigabytes.
Step 4 − These wires are effective up to a maximum distance of a few kilometres/miles,
because the signal strength is lost significantly beyond the distance.
Step 5 − Generally, they come in two variants as follows −
 UTP (unshielded twisted pair)
 STP (shielded twisted pair)
For every variant, there are multiple sub-variants, based on the thickness of the material (like
UTP-3, UTP-5, UTP-7 etc.)
The twisted pair copper is diagrammatically represented as follows −

Copper Co-axial Cables

Step 1 − Co-axial copper cables consist of inner copper conductor and an outer copper shield,
which are separated by a di-electric insulating material, helpful in preventing signal losses.
Step 2 −: Copper co-axial cables used in cable TV networks and as trunk lines between
telecommunication equipments.
Step 3 − It serves as an internet access line from the home and supports medium to high data
rates.
The copper co-axial cable is diagrammatically represented as follows −

Fiber Optic Cables

Step 1 − In fiber optic cable the information is transmitted by propagation of optical signals
(light) through fiber optic cables and not through the electrical/electromagnetic signals.
Because of this, the fiber optics communication supports longer distances as there is no
electrical interference.
Step 2 −: The fiber optic cables are made of very thin strands of glass (silica). It supports high
data rates.
Step 3 − It is used for accessing the internet from home through FTTH (Fiber-To-The-Home)
lines.
Examples − OC-48, OC-192, FTTC, HFC.
The fiber optic cable is diagrammatically represented as follows −
Types of Unguided Media--

Unguided
Media
1. Radio Waves--
Radio waves are electromagnetic signals used for various wireless
communication technologies, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and radio broadcasting.
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called
radio waves. Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they
are propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not
have to be aligned. A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving
antenna. The omnidirectional property has a disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted
by one antenna are susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send signals using
the same frequency or band.
Let's talk about the Omni directional Antenna now.
Omni Directional Antenna
Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all directions. Based on
the wavelength, strength, and the purpose of transmission, we can have several types of
antennas. Figure shows an omnidirectional antenna.

Applications of Radio Waves

 The Omni directional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting,
in which there is one sender but many receivers.
 FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging are examples
of multicasting.
Advantages of Radio Waves
 It is used in WAN (Wide Area Network).
 Used in mobile Cellular phones.
  Radio wave spread in large area so they can penetrate the wall.
 It's provide a higher transmission rate.
2. Microwaves--
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
Microwaves are unidirectional. The sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The
unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without
interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.
Let's talk about the Unidirectional Antenna now.
Unidirectional Antenna
Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one direction. Two types of
antennas are used for microwave communications: the parabolic dish and the horn.

Types of Microwaves
There are two types of microwaves:
1. Terrestrial Microwave
Terrestrial Microwave are microwaves that transmits the beam of a radio signal from one
ground based antenna to another ground based antenna.
Characteristics of Terrestrial Microwave
 Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4 GHz to 23
GHz.
 Bandwidth: Terrestrial Microwave supports the bandwidth range from 1 to 10 Mbps.
 Short distance: Terrestrial Microwave inexpensive for short distance.
 Long distance: Terrestrial Microwave expensive because it requires a higher tower
length for a longer distance.
 Attenuation: Attenuation refer loss of signal. It is because of environmental conditions
and antenna size.
Advantages Of Terrestrial Microwave
 Terrestrial microwave is cheaper than using cables for communication.
 Terrestrial microwave does not require land for installation so it is free from taking any
land space.
 Terrestrial microwave transmission provides easy communication in trains because
installation of cables in trains is not a easy task.
 Communication over oceans is achieved by using microwave.
Disadvantages of Terrestrial Microwave
 Line of Sight Required: The signals need a clear path between antennas. Obstructions
like buildings, trees, or mountains can block the signal.
 Weather Interference: Bad weather, especially rain, can disrupt the signal, leading to
poor performance.
 Distance Limitations: Range for communication is limited. For longer distances,
multiple stations are needed, which increases cost and complexity.
 High Initial Cost: Setting up the infrastructure, including towers and antennas, can be
expensive.
 Maintenance: Regular maintenance is necessary to keep the system running smoothly,
which can be costly and time-consuming.
 Limited Bandwidth: Compared to some other communication methods, the bandwidth
available for terrestrial microwave can be limited, restricting data transfer rates.
2. Satellite Microwave Communication--
A satellite is a object that revolve around the earth. A satellite microwave is a type of
communication technology that uses microwave radio waves to transmit data between a
ground-based station and an orbiting satellite.
How Does Satellite work?
A satellite get signal from ground-based station, enhance that signal and transfer back to
another ground-based station that is situated at different location on the earth. They orbit high
above the planet, allowing them to cover large areas. This process enables long-distance
communication, GPS navigation, and weather monitoring.
Advantages of Satellite Microwave Communication
 Wide Coverage: Satellites can cover large areas of the Earth, reaching remote and rural
locations where other communication methods might not be available.
 Long Distance Communication: They allow for communication over very long
distances, including international and intercontinental connections, without the need for
physical infrastructure on the ground.
 Reliable: Satellites are less affected by geographical obstacles like mountains or
buildings, providing a more consistent and reliable signal.
 Broadcast Capabilities: Satellites can efficiently broadcast information to a large
number of receivers simultaneously, making them ideal for television and radio
transmissions.
 Flexibility: They can be used for various applications, including internet, phone
services, TV broadcasting, and emergency communication.
Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication
 High Cost: Launching and maintaining satellites is very expensive.
 Signal Delay: Signals travel a long distance to and from satellites, which can affect real-
time communications like phone calls and video conferencing.
  Weather Sensitivity: Bad weather, such as heavy rain or storms, can interfere with
satellite signals, leading to disruptions.
3. Infrared--
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to 770
nm), can be used for short-range communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies,
cannot penetrate walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one
system and another; a short range communication system in one room cannot be affected by
another system in the next room. When we use our infrared remote control, we do
not interfere with the use of the remote by our neighbours. Infrared signals useless for long-
range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because
the sun's rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication. It is used in
TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Characteristics of Infrared Signals

 Infrared signal supports high bandwidth, so the data rate will be very high.
 It can not penetrate the wall. So communication in one room can not be interrupted by
the nearby rooms.
 Its provides better security and minimum interference.
 Infrared communication doesn't work well outside because sunlight interferes with the
infrared signals.
Application of Infrared Signals
Below mentioned are the applications of Infrared Signals
 Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using line-
of-sight propagation.
 Infrared technology is widely used in security systems, including motion detectors
and infrared cameras.
 Infrared sensors are employed in various automotive applications, such as night vision
systems and collision avoidance systems.
 Infrared technology is found in many consumer electronic devices, including remote
controls for televisions, air conditioners, and other appliances.
Advantages of Unguided Media
 Flexibility: Devices can connect from anywhere within the signal range,
providing mobility and convenience.
 Allowing devices to communicate without the need for physical connections.
 Easy to install.
 Scalability: Adding new devices or expanding the network is straightforward and
doesn't require extensive reconfiguration.
Disadvantages of Unguided Media
 Interference: Signals can be disrupted by other electronic devices and weather
conditions.
 Security: It is easier for unauthorized people to access and intercept wireless signals.
 Range Limitations: Wireless signals have a limited range.
 Signal Quality: Obstacles like buildings and walls can decrease signal quality.
 Bandwidth: Generally, unguided media can offer lower bandwidth compared to guided
media.
Wireless transmission--
Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves no
physical link established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly. Wireless
signals are spread over in the air and are received and interpreted by appropriate antennas.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it converts
the digital data into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency range. The
receptor on the other end receives these signals and converts them back to digital data.
A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.

Radio Transmission--
Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it can penetrate
through walls and structures alike. Radio waves can have wavelength from 1 mm 100,000 km
and have frequency ranging from 3 Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to 300 GHz (Extremely
High Frequency). Radio frequencies are sub-divided into six bands.
Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can travel in
straight line and bounce back. The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they
cover long distance. High frequency radio waves have more power.
Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the ground up to 1000 kilometers,
over the earths surface.
Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other obstacles. They
use Ionosphere of earth atmosphere. High frequency radio waves such as HF and VHF bands
are spread upwards. When they reach Ionosphere, they are refracted back to the earth.

Microwave Transmission--
Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals over them
can be sent by beaming those waves towards one particular station. Because Microwaves
travels in straight lines, both sender and receiver must be aligned to be strictly in line-of-sight.
Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from 1 mm 1 meter and frequency ranging from
300 MHz to 300 GHz.

Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it. As shown in picture above,
multiple antennas can be aligned to reach farther. Microwaves have higher frequencies and do
not penetrate wall like obstacles.
Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the frequency it is
using.

Infrared Transmission--
Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has wavelength of
700-nm to 1-mm and frequency ranges from 300-GHz to 430-THz.
Infrared wave is used for very short range communication purposes such as television and its
remote. Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by nature. Because of high
frequency range, Infrared cannot cross wall-like obstacles.
Light Transmission--
Highest most electromagnetic spectrum which can be used for data transmission is light or
optical signaling. This is achieved by means of LASER.
Because of frequency light uses, it tends to travel strictly in straight line. Hence the sender and
receiver must be in the line-of-sight. Because laser transmission is unidirectional, at both ends
of communication the laser and the photo-detector needs to be installed. Laser beam is
generally 1mm wide hence it is a work of precision to align two far receptors each pointing to
lasers source.

Laser works as Tx (transmitter) and photo-detectors works as Rx (receiver).

Lasers cannot penetrate obstacles such as walls, rain, and thick fog. Additionally, laser beam
is distorted by wind, atmosphere temperature, or variation in temperature in the path.
Laser is safe for data transmission as it is very difficult to tap 1mm wide laser without
interrupting the communication channel.
Mobile Telephone System or (Global System for Mobile Communication)GSM
A GSM network comprises of many functional units which can be broadly divided into:
 The Mobile Station (MS)
 The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
 The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
 The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)
Mobile Station (MS):
MS comprises user equipment and software needed for communication with a mobile
network. Mobile Station (MS) = Mobile Equipment(ME) + Subscriber Identity Module
(SIM). Now, these mobile stations are connected to tower and that tower connected with BTS
through TRX. TRX is a transceiver which comprises transmitter and receiver. Transceiver has
two performance of sending and receiving.
Base Station Subsystem (BSS) :
Base Station Subsystem handles traffic and signaling between a mobile phone and the network
switching subsystem. BSS having two components :
 BTS stands for Base Transceiver Station which facilitates wireless
communication between user equipment and a network. Every tower has BTS.
 BSC stands for Base Station Controller. BSC has multiple BTS. You can consider the
BSC as a local exchange of your area which has multiple towers and multiple towers
have BTS.
Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) :
NSS is the core network of GSM that carried out call and mobility management functions for
mobile phone present in network. NSS have different components like:
 MSC stands for Mobile Switching Center. MSC is associated with communication
switching functions such as call setup, call release and routing. Call tracing, call
forwarding all functions are performed at the MSC level. MSC is having further
components like VLR, HLR, AUC, EIR and PSTN.
 VLR stands for Visitor Location Register. VLR is a database which contains the exact
location of all mobile subscribers currently present in the service area of MSC. If you
are going from one state to another state then your entry is marked into the database of
VLR.
 HLR stands for Home Location Register. HLR is a database containing pertinent data
regarding subscribers authorized to use a GSM network. If you purchase SIM card from
in the HLR. HLR is like a home which contains all data like your ID proof, which plan
you are taking, which caller tune you are using etc.
 AUC stands for Authentication Center. AUC authenticates the mobile subscriber that
wants to connect in the network.
 EIR stands for Equipment Identity Register. EIR is a database that keeps the record of
all allowed or banned in the network. If you are banned in the network then you can't
enter the network, and you can't make the calls.
 PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network. PSTN connects with MSC.
PSTN originally a network of fixed line analog telephone systems. Now almost entirely
digital in its core network and includes mobile and other networks as well as fixed
telephones. The earlier landline phones which places at our home is nothing but PSTN.
Operation Support Subsystem (OSS):
OSS is a functional entity which the network operator monitor and control the system. Purpose
of OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support for all GSM related maintenance
services.
 OMC stands for Operation Maintenance Center. It is the part of OSS. OMC monitor
and maintain the performance of each MS, BSC and MSC within a GSM system.
Suppose there are 3 Mobile stations which are connected with the tower and that tower is
connected to BTS through TRX, then further connected to BSC and MSC.
Three subsystem BSS, NSS and OSS are connected with each other via some interfaces. Total
three interfaces are there:
 Air Interface is also known as UM interface. Interface between MS and BTS is called
as UM interface because it is mobile analog to the U interface of ISDN.
 Abis Interface is a BSS internal interface linking with BTS and BSC.
 A interface provides communication between BSS and MSC.

Fig--GSM