Jupiter

Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest
Jupiter
in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass nearly
2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar
System combined and slightly less than one-
thousandth the mass of the Sun. Its diameter is 11
times that of Earth and a tenth that of the Sun. Jupiter
orbits the Sun at a distance of 5.20 AU (778.5 Gm),
with an orbital period of 11.86 years. It is the third-
brightest natural object in the Earth's night sky, after
the Moon and Venus, and has been observed since
prehistoric times. Its name derives from that of Jupiter,
the chief deity of ancient Roman religion.

Jupiter was the first of the Sun's planets to form, and

its inward migration during the primordial phase of the Jupiter in true colour,[a] taken by the Hubble
Solar System affected much of the formation history of Space Telescope in January 2024[b]
the other planets. Jupiter's atmosphere consists of 76%
Designations
hydrogen and 24% helium by mass, with a denser
Pronunciation /ˈdʒuːpɪtər/ ⓘ[2]
interior. It contains traces of the elements carbon,
oxygen, sulfur, neon, and compounds such as Named after Jupiter
ammonia, water vapour, phosphine, hydrogen sulfide, Adjectives Jovian (/ˈdʒoʊviən/)
and hydrocarbons. Jupiter's helium abundance is 80% Symbol
of the Sun's, similar to Saturn's composition.
Orbital characteristics[3]
The outer atmosphere is divided into a series of Epoch J2000
latitudinal bands, with turbulence and storms along Aphelion 5.4570 AU
their interacting boundaries; the most obvious result of (816.363 million km)
this is the Great Red Spot, a giant storm that has been
Perihelion 4.9506 AU
recorded since 1831. Because of its rapid rotation rate,
(740.595 million km)
one turn in ten hours, Jupiter is an oblate spheroid; it
has a slight but noticeable 6.5%[e] bulge around the Semi-major axis 5.2038 AU
equator compared to its poles. Its internal structure is (778.479 million km)
believed to consist of an outer mantle of fluid metallic Eccentricity 0.0489
hydrogen and a diffuse inner core of denser material. Orbital period 11.862 yr
The ongoing contraction of Jupiter's interior generates (sidereal)
4,332.59 d
more heat than the planet receives from the Sun.
10,476.8 Jovian solar days[4]
Jupiter's magnetic field is the strongest and second-
largest contiguous structure in the Solar System, Orbital period 398.88 d
generated by eddy currents within the fluid, metallic (synodic)
Average orbital 13.06 km/s
speed
hydrogen core. The solar wind interacts with the Mean anomaly 20.020°[5]
magnetosphere, extending it outward and affecting Inclination 1.303° to ecliptic[5]
Jupiter's orbit.
6.09° to Sun's equator[5]
At least 97 moons orbit the planet; the four largest 0.32° to invariable plane[6]
moons—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—orbit Longitude of 100.464°
within the magnetosphere and are visible with common ascending node
binoculars. Ganymede, the largest of the four, is larger Time of January 21, 2023[7]
than the planet Mercury. Jupiter is surrounded by a perihelion
faint system of planetary rings. The rings of Jupiter Argument of 273.867°[5]
consist mainly of dust and have three main segments: perihelion
an inner torus of particles known as the halo, a Known 97 (as of 2025)[8]
relatively bright main ring, and an outer gossamer ring. satellites
The rings have a reddish colour in visible and near-
Physical characteristics[3][9][10]
infrared light. The age of the ring system is unknown,
Mean radius 69 911 km[c]
possibly dating back to Jupiter's formation. Since
10.973 × of Earth's
1973, Jupiter has been visited by nine robotic probes:
seven flybys and two dedicated orbiters (with two Equatorial 71 492 km[c]
radius
more en route). Jupiter-like exoplanets have also been 11.209 × of Earth's
found in other planetary systems. 0.102 76 × of Sun's
Polar radius 66 854 km[c]
10.517 × of Earth's
Name and symbol
Flattening 0.06487
In both the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, Surface area 6.1469 × 1010 km2
Jupiter was named after the chief god of the divine 120.4 × of Earth's
pantheon: Zeus to the Greeks and Jupiter to the Volume 1.4313 × 1015 km3[c]
Romans.[20] The International Astronomical Union 1,321 × of Earth's
formally adopted the name Jupiter for the planet in
Mass 1.8982 × 1027 kg
1976 and has since named its newly discovered
317.8 × of Earth's
satellites for the god's lovers, favourites, and
0.000 95 × of Sun's[11]
descendants.[21] The planetary symbol for Jupiter, ,
descends from a Greek zeta with a horizontal stroke, Mean density 1.326 g/cm3[d]
⟨Ƶ⟩, as an abbreviation for Zeus.[22][23] Surface gravity 24.79 m/s2
2.528 g0[c][12]
In Latin, Iovis is the genitive case of Iuppiter, i.e.
Moment of 0.2756 ± 0.0006[13]
Jupiter. It is associated with the etymology of Zeus
inertia factor
('sky father'). The English equivalent, Jove, is known
Escape velocity 59.5 km/s[c]
to have come into use as a poetic name for the planet
around the 14th century.[24] Synodic 9.9258 h (9 h 55 m 33 s)[4]
rotation period
Jovian is the adjectival form of Jupiter. The older Sidereal 9.9250 hours (9 h 55 m 30
adjectival form jovial, employed by astrologers in the rotation period s)
Middle Ages, has come to mean 'happy' or 'merry', Equatorial 12.6 km/s
moods ascribed to Jupiter's influence in astrology.[25] rotation velocity
Axial tilt 3.13° (to orbit)
The original Greek deity Zeus supplies the root zeno-, North pole 268.057°; 17h 52m 14s[14]
which is used to form some Jupiter-related words, such right ascension
as zenography.[f] North pole 64.495°[14]
declination
Albedo 0.503 (Bond)[15]
Formation and migration 0.538 (geometric)[16]
Temperature 88 K (−185 °C) (blackbody
Jupiter is believed to be the oldest planet in the Solar
temperature)
System, having formed just one million years after the
Sun and roughly 50 million years before Earth.[26] Surface temp. min mean max
1 bar 165 K
Current models of Solar System formation suggest that
0.1 bar 78 K 128 K
Jupiter formed at or beyond the snow line: a distance
from the early Sun where the temperature was Apparent −2.94[17] to −1.66[17]
magnitude
sufficiently cold for volatiles such as water to condense
Absolute −9.4[18]
into solids.[27] First forming a solid core, the planet
magnitude (H)
then accumulated its gaseous atmosphere. Therefore,
Angular 29.8" to 50.1"
the planet must have formed before the solar nebula
diameter
was fully dispersed.[28] During its formation, Jupiter's
Atmosphere[3]
mass gradually increased until it had 20 times the mass
of the Earth, approximately half of which was made up Surface 200–600 kPa (30–90 psi)
of silicates, ices and other heavy-element pressure (opaque cloud deck)[19]
constituents.[26] When the proto-Jupiter grew larger Scale height 27 km (17 mi)
than 50 Earth masses it created a gap in the solar Composition by 89% ± 2.0% hydrogen
nebula.[26] Thereafter, the growing planet reached its volume 10% ± 2.0% helium
final mass in 3–4 million years.[26][28]
0.3% ± 0.1% methane
According to the "grand tack hypothesis", Jupiter 0.026% ± 0.004% ammonia
began to form at a distance of roughly 3.5 AU 0.0028% ± 0.001% hydrogen
(520 million km; 330 million mi) from the Sun. As the deuteride
young planet accreted mass, its interaction with the gas
0.0006% ± 0.0002% ethane
disk orbiting the Sun and the orbital resonances from
Saturn caused it to migrate inwards.[27][29] This upset 0.0004% ± 0.0004% water
the orbits of several super-Earths orbiting closer to the
Sun, causing them to collide destructively.[30] Saturn
would later have begun to migrate inwards at a faster rate than Jupiter until the two planets became
captured in a 3:2 mean motion resonance at approximately 1.5 AU (220 million km; 140 million mi) from
the Sun.[31] This changed the direction of migration, causing them to migrate away from the Sun and out
of the inner system to their current locations.[30] All of this happened over a period of 3–6 million years,
with the final migration of Jupiter occurring over several hundred thousand years.[29][32] Jupiter's
migration from the inner Solar System eventually allowed the inner planets—including Earth—to form
from the rubble.[33]

There are several unresolved issues with the grand tack hypothesis. The resulting formation timescales of
terrestrial planets appear to be inconsistent with the measured elemental composition.[34] Jupiter would
likely have settled into an orbit much closer to the Sun if it had migrated through the solar nebula.[35]
Some competing models of Solar System formation predict the formation of Jupiter with orbital
properties that are close to those of the present-day planet.[28] Other models predict Jupiter forming at
distances much further out, such as 18 AU (2.7 billion km; 1.7 billion mi).[36][37]

According to the Nice model, the infall of proto-Kuiper belt objects over the first 600 million years of
Solar System history caused Jupiter and Saturn to migrate from their initial positions into a 1:2 resonance,
which caused Saturn to shift into a higher orbit, disrupting the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, depleting
the Kuiper belt, and triggering the Late Heavy Bombardment.[38]

According to the Jumping-Jupiter scenario, Jupiter's migration through the early Solar System could have
led to the ejection of a fifth gas giant. This hypothesis suggests that during its orbital migration, Jupiter's
gravitational influence disrupted the orbits of other gas giants, potentially casting one planet out of the
Solar System entirely. The dynamics of such an event would have dramatically altered the formation and
configuration of the Solar System, leaving behind only the four gas giants humans observe today.[39]

Based on Jupiter's composition, researchers have made the case for an initial formation outside the
molecular nitrogen (N2) snow line, which is estimated at 20–30 AU (3.0–4.5 billion km; 1.9–
2.8 billion mi) from the Sun, and possibly even outside the argon snow line, which may be as far as
40 AU (6.0 billion km; 3.7 billion mi).[40][41] Having formed at one of these extreme distances, Jupiter
would then have, over a roughly 700,000-year period, migrated inwards to its current location,[36][37]
during an epoch approximately 2–3 million years after the planet began to form. In this model, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune would have formed even further out than Jupiter, and Saturn would also have
migrated inwards.[36]

Physical characteristics
Jupiter is a gas giant, meaning its chemical composition is primarily hydrogen and helium. These
materials are classified as gasses in planetary geology, a term that does not denote the state of matter. It is
the largest planet in the Solar System, with a diameter of 142,984 km (88,846 mi) at its equator, giving it
a volume 1,321 times that of the Earth.[3][42] Its average density, 1.326 g/cm3,[g] is lower than those of
the four terrestrial planets.[44][45]

Composition
The atmosphere of Jupiter is approximately 76% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass. By volume, the
upper atmosphere is about 90% hydrogen and 10% helium, with the lower proportion owing to the
individual helium atoms being more massive than the molecules of hydrogen formed in this part of the
atmosphere.[46] The atmosphere contains trace amounts of elemental carbon, oxygen, sulfur, and neon,[47]
as well as ammonia, water vapour, phosphine, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrocarbons like methane, ethane
and benzene.[48] Its outermost layer contains crystals of frozen ammonia.[49] The planet's interior is
denser, with a composition of roughly 71% hydrogen, 24% helium, and 5% other elements by
mass.[50][51]

The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical composition of the
primordial solar nebula.[52] Neon in the upper atmosphere consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which
is about a tenth as abundant as in the Sun.[53] Jupiter's helium abundance is about 80% that of the Sun due
to the precipitation of these elements as helium-rich droplets, a process that happens deep in the planet's
interior.[54][55]

Based on spectroscopy, Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter, but the other giant
planets Uranus and Neptune have relatively less hydrogen and helium and relatively more of the next
most common elements, including oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur.[56] These planets are known as
ice giants because during their formation, these elements are thought to have been incorporated into them
as ice; however, they probably contain very little ice.[57]

Size and mass

Jupiter is about eleven times wider than the Earth
(11.209 R🜨); while its mass is 318 times that of Earth[3]
which is 2.5 times the mass of all the other planets in the
Solar System combined. It is so massive that its barycentre
with the Sun lies above the Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii
from the Sun's centre.[58][59] Jupiter's radius is about one
tenth the radius of the Sun (0.102 76 R☉),[60] and its mass is
one thousandth the mass of the Sun, of which the densities of
the two bodies are similar.[61] A "Jupiter mass" (MJ or MJup)
is used as a unit to describe masses of other objects,
particularly extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs. For Size of Jupiter compared to Earth and
example, the extrasolar planet HD 209458 b has a mass of Earth's Moon
0.69 MJ, while the brown dwarf Gliese 229 b has a mass of
60.4 MJ.[62][63]

Jupiter radiates more heat than it receives through solar radiation, due to the Kelvin–Helmholtz
mechanism within its contracting interior.[64]: 30 [65] This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 1 mm
(0.039 in) per year.[66][67] At the time of its formation, Jupiter was hotter and was about twice its current
diameter.[68][69]

Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had over 40% more mass, the interior would be so compressed
that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. For smaller changes in its mass,
the radius would not change appreciably.[70] As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a
diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve.[71] The process of further
shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition was achieved.[72]
Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times more massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star,[73]
its diameter is sufficient as the smallest red dwarf may be slightly larger in radius than Saturn.[74]

Internal structure
Before the early 21st century, most scientists proposed one of two scenarios for the formation of Jupiter.
If the planet accreted first as a solid body, it would consist of a dense core, a surrounding layer of fluid
metallic hydrogen (with some helium) extending outward to about 80% of the radius of the planet,[75] and
an outer atmosphere consisting primarily of molecular hydrogen.[67] Alternatively, if the planet collapsed
directly from the gaseous protoplanetary disk, it was expected to completely lack a core, consisting
instead of a denser and denser fluid (predominantly molecular and metallic hydrogen) all the way to the
centre. Data from the
Juno mission showed
that Jupiter has a
diffuse core that mixes
into its mantle,
extending for 30–50%
of the planet's radius,
and comprising heavy
elements with a
combined mass 7–25
times the
Earth. [76][77][78] This
mixing process could Diagram of Jupiter with its interior, surface features, rings, and inner moons
have arisen during
formation, while the
planet accreted solids and gases from the surrounding nebula.[79] Alternatively, it could have been caused
by an impact from a planet of about ten Earth masses a few million years after Jupiter's formation, which
would have disrupted an originally compact Jovian core.[77][80]

Outside the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen. At this depth,
the pressure and temperature are above molecular hydrogen's critical pressure of 1.3 MPa and critical
temperature of 33 K (−240.2 °C; −400.3 °F).[81] In this state, there are no distinct liquid and gas phases—
hydrogen is said to be in a supercritical fluid state. The hydrogen and helium gas extending downward
from the cloud layer gradually transitions to a liquid in deeper layers, possibly resembling something akin
to an ocean of liquid hydrogen and other supercritical fluids.[64]: 22 [82][83] Physically, the gas gradually
becomes hotter and denser as depth increases.[84][85]

Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through the lower atmosphere, depleting the
abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere.[54][86] Calculations suggest that helium drops
separate from metallic hydrogen at a radius of 60,000 km (37,000 mi) (11,000 km [6,800 mi] below the
cloud tops) and merge again at 50,000 km (31,000 mi) (22,000 km [14,000 mi] beneath the clouds).[87]
Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur, as well as on Saturn[88] and the ice giants Uranus
and Neptune.[89]

The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily inward as the heat of planetary formation
can only escape by convection.[55] At a surface depth where the atmospheric pressure level is about one
standard Earth atmosphere (about 0.10 MPa (1 bar)), the temperature is around 165 K (−108 °C;
−163 °F). The region where supercritical hydrogen changes gradually from a molecular fluid to a metallic
fluid spans pressure ranges of 50–400 GPa with temperatures of 5,000–8,400 K (4,730–8,130 °C; 8,540–
14,660 °F), respectively. The temperature of Jupiter's diluted core is estimated to be 20,000 K (19,700 °C;
35,500 °F) with a pressure of around 4,000 GPa.[90]

Atmosphere
The atmosphere of Jupiter is primarily composed of molecular hydrogen and helium, with a smaller
amount of other compounds such as water, methane, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia.[91] Jupiter's
atmosphere extends to a depth of approximately 3,000 kilometres (2,000 mi) below the cloud layers.[90]
Cloud layers
Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds of ammonia
crystals, which may contain ammonium hydrosulfide as
well.[92] The clouds are located in the tropopause layer of the
atmosphere, forming bands at different latitudes, known as
tropical regions. These are subdivided into lighter-hued zones
and darker belts. The interactions of these conflicting
circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence. Wind speeds
of 100 metres per second (360 km/h; 220 mph) are common
in zonal jet streams.[93] The zones have been observed to vary
in width, colour and intensity from year to year, but they have
remained stable enough for scientists to name them.[59]: 6

The cloud layer is about 50 km (31 mi) deep and consists of

Timelapse of Jupiter's cloud system
at least two decks of ammonia clouds: a thin, clearer region
moving over the course of one month
on top and a thicker, lower deck. There may be a thin layer of (photographed during Voyager 1 flyby in
water clouds underlying the ammonia clouds, as suggested by 1979)
flashes of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter. [94]

These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as

powerful as lightning on Earth.[95] The water clouds are assumed to generate thunderstorms in the same
way as terrestrial thunderstorms, driven by the heat rising from the interior.[96] The Juno mission revealed
the presence of "shallow lightning" which originates from ammonia-water clouds relatively high in the
atmosphere.[97] These discharges carry "mushballs" of water-ammonia slushes covered in ice, which fall
deep into the atmosphere.[98] Upper-atmospheric lightning has been observed in Jupiter's upper
atmosphere, bright flashes of light that last around 1.4 milliseconds. These are known as "elves" or
"sprites" and appear blue or pink due to the hydrogen.[99][100]

The orange and brown colours in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change
colour when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but
the substances are thought to be made up of phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons.[64]: 39 [101]
These colourful compounds, known as chromophores, mix with the warmer clouds of the lower deck. The
light-coloured zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallising ammonia that hides the
chromophores from view.[102]

Jupiter has a low axial tilt, thus ensuring that the poles always receive less solar radiation than the planet's
equatorial region. Convection within the interior of the planet transports energy to the poles, balancing
out temperatures at the cloud layer.[59]: 54

Great Red Spot and other vortices

A well-known feature of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot,[103] a persistent anticyclonic storm located 22°
south of the equator. It was first observed in 1831,[104] and possibly as early as 1665.[105][106] Images by
the Hubble Space Telescope have shown two more "red spots" adjacent to the Great Red Spot.[107][108]
The storm is visible through Earth-based telescopes with an aperture of 12 cm or larger.[109] The storm
rotates counterclockwise, with a period of about six days.[110] The maximum altitude of this storm is
about 8 kilometres (5 mi) above the surrounding cloud
tops.[111] The Spot's composition and the source of its red
colour remain uncertain, although photodissociated ammonia
reacting with acetylene is a likely explanation.[112]

The Great Red Spot is larger than the Earth.[113]

Mathematical models suggest that the storm is stable and will
be a permanent feature of the planet.[114] However, it has
significantly decreased in size since its discovery. Initial
observations in the late 1800s showed it to be approximately
41,000 km (25,500 mi) across. As of 2015, the storm was
measured at approximately 16,500 by 10,940 kilometres Close-up of the Great Red Spot imaged
(10,250 by 6,800 mi),[115] and was decreasing in length by by the Juno spacecraft in true colour. Due
about 930 km (580 mi) per year.[113] In October 2021, a Juno to the way Juno takes photographs, the
flyby mission measured the depth of the Great Red Spot, stitched image has extreme barrel
distortion.
putting it at around 300–500 kilometres (190–310 mi).[116]

Juno missions found several cyclone groups at Jupiter's poles.

The northern group contains nine cyclones, with a large one in the centre and eight others around it, while
its southern counterpart also consists of a centre vortex but is surrounded by five large storms and a single
smaller one for a total of seven storms.[117][118]

In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the
Great Red Spot, but smaller. This was created when smaller, white oval-shaped storms merged to form a
single feature—these three smaller white ovals were formed in 1939–1940. The merged feature was
named Oval BA. It has since increased in intensity and changed from white to red, earning it the
nickname "Little Red Spot".[119][120]

In April 2017, a "Great Cold Spot" was discovered in Jupiter's thermosphere at its north pole. This feature
is 24,000 km (15,000 mi) across, 12,000 km (7,500 mi) wide, and 200 °C (360 °F) cooler than
surrounding material. While this spot changes form and intensity over the short term, it has maintained its
general position in the atmosphere for more than 15 years. It may be a giant vortex similar to the Great
Red Spot, and appears to be quasi-stable like the vortices in Earth's thermosphere. This feature may be
formed by interactions between charged particles generated from Io and the strong magnetic field of
Jupiter, resulting in a redistribution of heat flow.[121]

Magnetosphere
Jupiter's magnetic field is the strongest of any planet in the Solar System,[102] with a dipole moment of
4.170 gauss (0.4170 mT) that is tilted at an angle of 10.31° to the pole of rotation. The surface magnetic
field strength varies from 2 gauss (0.20 mT) up to 20 gauss (2.0 mT).[122] This field is thought to be
generated by eddy currents—swirling movements of conducting materials—within the fluid, metallic
hydrogen core. At about 75 Jupiter radii from the planet, the interaction of the magnetosphere with the
solar wind generates a bow shock. Surrounding Jupiter's magnetosphere is a magnetopause, located at the
inner edge of a magnetosheath—a region between it and the bow shock. The solar wind interacts with
these regions, elongating the
magnetosphere on Jupiter's lee side and
extending it outward until it nearly
reaches the orbit of Saturn. The four
largest moons of Jupiter all orbit within
the magnetosphere, which protects them
from solar wind.[64]: 69

The volcanoes on the moon Io emit large

amounts of sulfur dioxide, forming a gas
torus along its orbit. The gas is ionized in
Jupiter's magnetosphere, producing sulfur The Galilean moons' effect on Jupiter's magnetosphere
and oxygen ions. They, together with
hydrogen ions originating from the
atmosphere of Jupiter, form a plasma sheet in Jupiter's equatorial plane. The plasma in the sheet co-
rotates with the planet, causing deformation of the dipole magnetic field into that of a magnetodisk.
Electrons within the plasma sheet generate a strong radio signature, with short, superimposed bursts in
the range of 0.6–30 MHz that are detectable from Earth with consumer-grade shortwave radio
receivers.[123][124] As Io moves through this torus, the interaction generates Alfvén waves that carry
ionized matter into the polar regions of Jupiter. As a result, radio waves are generated through a cyclotron
maser mechanism, and the energy is transmitted out along a cone-shaped surface. When Earth intersects
this cone, the radio emissions from Jupiter can exceed the radio output of the Sun.[125]

Planetary rings
Jupiter has a faint planetary ring system composed of three
main segments: an inner torus of particles known as the halo,
a relatively bright main ring, and an outer gossamer ring.[126]
These rings appear to be made of dust, whereas Saturn's rings
are made of ice.[64]: 65 The main ring is most likely made out
of material ejected from the satellites Adrastea and Metis,
which is drawn into Jupiter because of the planet's strong
gravitational influence. New material is added by additional
impacts.[127] In a similar way, the moons Thebe and Amalthea
are believed to produce the two distinct components of the
dusty gossamer ring.[127] There is evidence of a fourth ring
Jupiter, taken in infrared light, showing its
that may consist of collisional debris from Amalthea that is faint rings, along with two moons –
strung along the same moon's orbit.[128] Amalthea and Adrastea, auroras, and
atmospheric features.

Orbit and rotation

Jupiter is the only planet whose barycentre with the Sun lies outside the volume of the Sun, though by 7%
of the Sun's radius.[129][130] The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million km
(5.20 AU) and it completes an orbit every 11.86 years. This is approximately two-fifths the orbital period
of Saturn, forming a near orbital resonance.[131] The orbital plane of Jupiter is inclined 1.30° compared to
Earth. Because the eccentricity of its orbit is 0.049, Jupiter is slightly over 75 million km nearer the Sun
 at perihelion than aphelion,[3] which means that its orbit is
nearly circular. This low eccentricity is at odds with exoplanet
discoveries, which have revealed Jupiter-sized planets with
very high eccentricities. Models suggest this may be due to
there being two giant planets in the Solar System, as the
presence of a third or more giant planets tends to induce
larger eccentricities.[132]

The axial tilt of Jupiter is 3.13°, which is relatively small, so

3-hour timelapse showing rotation of
its seasons are insignificant compared to those of Earth and
Jupiter and orbital motion of the moons Mars.[133]

Jupiter's rotation is the fastest of all the Solar System's

planets, completing a rotation on its axis in slightly less than ten hours; this creates an equatorial bulge
easily seen through an amateur telescope. Because Jupiter is not a solid body, its upper atmosphere
undergoes differential rotation. The rotation of Jupiter's polar atmosphere is about five minutes longer
than that of the equatorial atmosphere.[134] The planet is an oblate spheroid, meaning that the diameter
across its equator is longer than the diameter measured between its poles.[85] On Jupiter, the equatorial
diameter is 9,276 km (5,764 mi) longer than the polar diameter.[3]

Three systems are used as frames of reference for tracking planetary rotation, particularly when graphing
the motion of atmospheric features. System I applies to latitudes from 7° N to 7° S; its period is the
planet's shortest, at 9h 50 m 30.0s. System II applies at latitudes north and south of these; its period is
9h 55 m 40.6s.[135] System III was defined by radio astronomers and corresponds to the rotation of the
planet's magnetosphere; its period is Jupiter's official rotation.[136]

Observation
Jupiter is usually the fourth-brightest object in the sky (after
the Sun, the Moon, and Venus),[102] although at opposition
Mars can appear brighter than Jupiter. Depending on Jupiter's
position with respect to the Earth, it can vary in visual
magnitude from as bright as −2.94 at opposition down to
−1.66 during conjunction with the Sun.[17] The mean
apparent magnitude is −2.20 with a standard deviation of
0.33.[17] The angular diameter of Jupiter likewise varies from
50.1 to 30.5 arc seconds.[3] Favourable oppositions occur
when Jupiter is passing through the perihelion of its orbit,
bringing it closer to Earth.[137] Near opposition, Jupiter will
appear to go into retrograde motion for a period of about 121
days, moving backward through an angle of 9.9° before Jupiter and four Galilean moons seen
returning to prograde movement.[138] through an amateur telescope

Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside that of Earth, the phase

angle of Jupiter as viewed from Earth is always less than 11.5°; thus, Jupiter always appears nearly fully
illuminated when viewed through Earth-based telescopes. It was during spacecraft missions to Jupiter that
crescent views of the planet were obtained.[139] A small telescope will usually show Jupiter's four
Galilean moons and the cloud belts across Jupiter's atmosphere. A larger telescope with an aperture of 4–
6 inches (10–15 cm) will show Jupiter's Great Red Spot when it faces Earth.[140][141]

History

Pre-telescopic research
Observations of Jupiter are attested with the
Babylonian astronomers during the 7th–8th
centuries BC.[142] The ancient Chinese knew Jupiter
as the 'sui star' (Suìxīng歲星 ) and established their
cycle of twelve earthly branches based on the
approximate number of years it takes Jupiter to
revolve around the Sun; the Chinese language still
歲 岁
uses its name ( ; simplified as ) when referring to
years of age. By the 4th century BC, these
observations had developed into the Chinese
zodiac,[143] and each year became associated with a
Tai Sui star and god controlling the region of the
heavens opposite Jupiter's position in the night sky.
Model in the Almagest of the longitudinal motion
These beliefs survive in some Taoist and folk
of Jupiter (☉) relative to Earth (🜨)
religious practices and in the East Asian zodiac's
twelve animals. The Chinese historian Xi Zezong has
claimed that Gan De, an ancient Chinese astronomer,[144] reported a small star "in alliance" with the
planet,[145] which may indicate a sighting of one of Jupiter's moons with the unaided eye. If true, this
would predate Galileo's discovery by nearly two millennia.[146][147]

A 2016 paper reports that trapezoidal rule was used by Babylonians before 50 BC for integrating the
velocity of Jupiter along the ecliptic.[148] In his 2nd century work the Almagest, the Hellenistic
astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus constructed a geocentric planetary model based on deferents and
epicycles to explain Jupiter's motion relative to Earth, giving its orbital period around Earth as
4332.38 days, or 11.86 years.[149]

Ground-based telescope research

In 1610, Italian polymath Galileo Galilei discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter (now known as the
Galilean moons) using a telescope. This is thought to be the first telescopic observation of moons other
than Earth's. Just one day after Galileo, Simon Marius independently discovered moons around Jupiter,
though he did not publish his discovery in a book until 1614.[150] It was Marius's names for the major
moons, however, that stuck: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. The discovery was a major point in
favour of the heliocentric theory of the motions of the planets by Nicolaus Copernicus; Galileo's
outspoken support of the Copernican theory led to him being tried and condemned by the Inquisition.[151]

In the autumn of 1639, the Neapolitan optician Francesco Fontana tested a 22-palm telescope of his own
making and discovered the characteristic bands of the planet's atmosphere.[152]
During the 1660s, Giovanni Cassini used a new telescope to
discover spots in Jupiter's atmosphere, observe that the planet
appeared oblate, and estimate its rotation period.[153] In 1692,
Cassini noticed that the atmosphere undergoes a differential
rotation.[154]

The Great Red Spot may have been observed as early as 1664 by
Robert Hooke and in 1665 by Cassini, although this is disputed.
The pharmacist Heinrich Schwabe produced the earliest known
drawing to show details of the Great Red Spot in 1831.[155] The
Red Spot was reportedly lost from sight on several occasions
between 1665 and 1708 before becoming quite conspicuous in
1878.[156] It was recorded as fading again in 1883 and at the start
of the 20th century.[157]

Both Giovanni Borelli and Cassini made careful tables of the

motions of Jupiter's moons, which allowed predictions of when
the moons would pass before or behind the planet. By the 1670s, Galileo's drawings of Jupiter and its
Cassini observed that when Jupiter was on the opposite side of "Medicean Stars" from Sidereus
Nuncius
the Sun from Earth, these events would occur about 17 minutes
later than expected. Ole Rømer deduced that light does not travel
instantaneously (a conclusion that Cassini had earlier rejected),[51] and this timing discrepancy was used
to estimate the speed of light.[158][159]

In 1892, E. E. Barnard observed a fifth satellite of Jupiter with the 36-inch (910 mm) refractor at Lick
Observatory in California. This moon was later named Amalthea.[160] It was the last planetary moon to be
discovered directly by a visual observer through a telescope.[161] An additional eight satellites were
discovered before the flyby of the Voyager 1 probe in 1979.[h]

In 1932, Rupert Wildt identified absorption bands of ammonia and methane in the spectra of Jupiter.[162]
Three long-lived anticyclonic features called "white ovals" were observed in 1938. For several decades,
they remained as separate features in the atmosphere that approach each other but never merge. Finally,
two of the ovals merged in 1998, then absorbed the third in 2000, becoming Oval BA.[163]

Radiotelescope research
In 1955, Bernard Burke and Kenneth Franklin discovered that Jupiter emits bursts of radio waves at a
frequency of 22.2 MHz.[64]: 36 The period of these bursts matched the rotation of the planet, and they used
this information to determine a more precise value for Jupiter's rotation rate. Radio bursts from Jupiter
were found to come in two forms: long bursts (or L-bursts) lasting up to several seconds, and short bursts
(or S-bursts) lasting less than a hundredth of a second.[164]

Scientists have discovered three forms of radio signals transmitted from Jupiter:

Decametric radio bursts (with a wavelength of tens of metres) vary with the rotation of
Jupiter, and are influenced by the interaction of Io with Jupiter's magnetic field.[165]
Decimetric radio emission (with wavelengths measured in centimetres) was first observed
by Frank Drake and Hein Hvatum in 1959.[64]: 36 The origin of this signal is a torus-shaped
 belt around Jupiter's equator, which generates cyclotron radiation from electrons that are
accelerated in Jupiter's magnetic field.[166]
Thermal radiation is produced by heat in the atmosphere of Jupiter.[64]: 43

Exploration
Jupiter has been visited by automated spacecraft since 1973, when the space probe Pioneer 10 passed
close enough to Jupiter to send back revelations about its properties and phenomena.[167][168] Missions to
Jupiter are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the
spacecraft, or delta-v. Entering a Hohmann transfer orbit from Earth to Jupiter from low Earth orbit
requires a delta-v of 6.3 km/s,[169] which is comparable to the 9.7 km/s delta-v needed to reach low Earth
orbit.[170] Gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy required to reach
Jupiter.[171]

Flyby missions
Beginning in 1973, several spacecraft performed Closest
planetary flyby manoeuvres that brought them Spacecraft Distance (km)
approach
within the observation range of Jupiter. The Pioneer 10 December 3, 1973 130,000
Pioneer missions obtained the first close-up
Pioneer 11 December 4, 1974 34,000
images of Jupiter's atmosphere and several of its
moons. They discovered that the radiation fields Voyager 1 March 5, 1979 349,000
near the planet were much stronger than expected, Voyager 2 July 9, 1979 570,000
but both spacecraft managed to survive in that
February 8, 1992[172] 408,894
environment. The trajectories of these spacecraft Ulysses
were used to refine the mass estimates of the February 4, 2004[172] 120,000,000

Jovian system. Radio occultations by the planet Cassini December 30, 2000 10,000,000
resulted in better measurements of Jupiter's New Horizons February 28, 2007 2,304,535
diameter and the amount of polar
flattening.[59]: 47 [173]

Six years later, the Voyager missions vastly improved the understanding of the Galilean moons and
discovered Jupiter's rings. They also confirmed that the Great Red Spot was anticyclonic. Comparison of
images showed that the Spot had changed hues since the Pioneer missions, turning from orange to dark
brown. A torus of ionized atoms was discovered along Io's orbital path, which were found to come from
erupting volcanoes on the moon's surface. As the spacecraft passed behind the planet, it observed flashes
of lightning in the night side atmosphere.[59]: 87 [174]

The next mission to encounter Jupiter was the Ulysses solar probe. In February 1992, it performed a flyby
manoeuvre to attain a polar orbit around the Sun. During this pass, the spacecraft studied Jupiter's
magnetosphere, although it had no cameras to photograph the planet. The spacecraft passed by Jupiter six
years later, this time at a much greater distance.[172]

In 2000, the Cassini probe flew by Jupiter on its way to Saturn, and provided higher-resolution
images.[175]

The New Horizons probe flew by Jupiter in 2007 for a gravity assist en route to Pluto.[176] The probe's
cameras measured plasma output from volcanoes on Io and studied all four Galilean moons in detail.[177]
Galileo mission
The first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter was the Galileo mission,
which reached the planet on December 7, 1995.[71] It
remained in orbit for over seven years, conducting multiple
flybys of all the Galilean moons and Amalthea. The
spacecraft also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker–
Levy 9 when it collided with Jupiter in 1994. Some of the
goals for the mission were thwarted due to a malfunction in
Galileos high-gain antenna.[178]

A 340-kilogram titanium atmospheric probe was released

from the spacecraft in July 1995, entering Jupiter's
atmosphere on December 7.[71] It parachuted through 150 km
(93 mi) of the atmosphere at a speed of about 2,575 km/h
(1,600 mph)[71] and collected data for 57.6 minutes until the
spacecraft was destroyed.[179] The Galileo orbiter itself
Galileo in preparation for mating with the experienced a more rapid version of the same fate when it
rocket, 1989 was deliberately steered into the planet on September 21,
2003. NASA destroyed the spacecraft to avoid any possibility
of the spacecraft crashing into and possibly contaminating the
moon Europa, which may harbour life.[178]

Data from this mission revealed that hydrogen composes up to 90% of Jupiter's atmosphere.[71] The
recorded temperature was more than 300 °C (572 °F), and the wind speed measured more than 644 km/h
(>400 mph) before the probes vaporized.[71]

Juno mission
NASA's Juno mission arrived at Jupiter on July 4, 2016, with the
goal of studying the planet in detail from a polar orbit. The
spacecraft was originally intended to orbit Jupiter thirty-seven
times over a period of twenty months.[78][180][181] During the
mission, the spacecraft will be exposed to high levels of radiation
from Jupiter's magnetosphere, which may cause the failure of
certain instruments.[182] On August 27, 2016, the spacecraft
completed its first flyby of Jupiter and sent back the first-ever
images of Jupiter's north pole.[183]

Juno completed 12 orbits before the end of its budgeted mission

plan, ending in July 2018.[184] In June of that year, NASA
extended the mission operations plan to July 2021, and in January
of that year the mission was extended to September 2025 with
four lunar flybys: one of Ganymede, one of Europa, and two of
Io.[185][186] When Juno reaches the end of the mission, it will
perform a controlled deorbit and disintegrate into Jupiter's Juno preparing for testing in a
atmosphere to avoid the risk of colliding and contaminating rotation stand, 2011
Jupiter's moons.[187]
Cancelled missions and future plans
There is an interest in missions to study Jupiter's larger icy moons, which may have subsurface liquid
oceans.[188] Funding difficulties have delayed progress, causing NASA's JIMO (Jupiter Icy Moons
Orbiter) to be cancelled in 2005.[189] A subsequent proposal was developed for a joint NASA/ESA
mission called EJSM/Laplace, with a provisional launch date around 2020. EJSM/Laplace would have
consisted of the NASA-led Jupiter Europa Orbiter and the ESA-led Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter.[190]
However, the ESA formally ended the partnership in April 2011, citing budget issues at NASA and the
consequences on the mission timetable. Instead, ESA planned to go ahead with a European-only mission
to compete in its L1 Cosmic Vision selection.[191] These plans have been realized as the European Space
Agency's Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE), launched on April 14, 2023,[192] followed by NASA's
Europa Clipper mission, launched on October 14, 2024.[193]

Other proposed missions include the Chinese National Space Administration's Tianwen-4 mission which
aims to launch an orbiter to the Jovian system and possibly Callisto around 2035,[194] and CNSA's
Interstellar Express[195] and NASA's Interstellar Probe,[196] which would both use Jupiter's gravity to
help them reach the edges of the heliosphere.

Moons
Jupiter has 97 known natural satellites,[8] and it is likely that this number will go up due to increasing
telescopic observations.[197] Of these, only 16 are larger than 10 km in diameter.[198] The four largest
moons, known as the Galilean moons, are Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa (in order of decreasing
size), and are visible from Earth with binoculars on a clear night.[199]

Galilean moons
The moons discovered by Galileo—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—are among the largest in the
Solar System. The orbits of Io, Europa, and Ganymede form a pattern known as a Laplace resonance; for
every four orbits that Io makes around Jupiter, Europa makes exactly two orbits and Ganymede makes
exactly one. This resonance causes the gravitational effects of the three large moons to distort their orbits
into elliptical shapes, because each moon receives an extra tug from its neighbours at the same point in
every orbit it makes. The tidal force from Jupiter, on the other hand, works to circularize their orbits.[200]

The eccentricity of their orbits causes regular flexing of the three moons' shapes, with Jupiter's gravity
stretching them out as they approach it and allowing them to spring back to more spherical shapes as they
swing away. The friction created by this tidal flexing generates heat in the interior of the moons.[201] This
is seen most dramatically in the volcanic activity of Io (which is subject to the strongest tidal forces),[201]
and to a lesser degree in the geological youth of Europa's surface, which indicates recent resurfacing of
the moon's exterior.[202]
 The Galilean moons compared to the Earth's Moon
Orbital
Diameter Mass Orbital radius
period
Name IPA
km D☾ kg M☾ km a☾ days T☾

Io /ˈaɪ.oʊ/ 3,643 1.05 8.9×1022 1.20 421,700 1.10 1.77 0.07

Europa /jʊˈroʊpə/ 3,122 0.90 4.8×1022 0.65 671,034 1.75 3.55 0.13

Ganymede /ˈɡænɪmiːd/ 5,262 1.50 14.8×1022 2.00 1,070,412 2.80 7.15 0.26

Callisto /kəˈlɪstoʊ/ 4,821 1.40 10.8×1022 1.50 1,882,709 4.90 16.69 0.61

The Galilean satellites Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto (in order of increasing distance
from Jupiter) in false colour

Classification
Jupiter's moons were classified into four groups of four, based on their similar orbital elements.[203] This
picture has been complicated by the discovery of numerous small outer moons since 1999. Jupiter's
moons are divided into several different groups, although there are two known moons which are not part
of any group (Themisto and Valetudo).[204]

The eight innermost regular moons, which have nearly circular orbits near the plane of Jupiter's equator,
are thought to have formed alongside Jupiter, while the remainder are irregular moons and are thought to
be captured asteroids or fragments of captured asteroids. The irregular moons within each group may
have a common origin, perhaps as a larger moon or captured body that broke up.[205][206]
 Regular moons

The inner group of four small moons all have diameters of less than 200 km, orbit at radii
Inner group
less than 200,000 km, and have orbital inclinations of less than half a degree.[207]
These four moons, discovered by Galileo Galilei and by Simon Marius in parallel, orbit
Galilean moons[208] between 400,000 and 2 million km, and are some of the largest moons in the Solar
System.

Irregular moons
A tightly clustered group of prograde-orbiting moons with orbits around 11–12 million km
Himalia group
from Jupiter[209]
A sparsely populated group of small moons with highly inclined prograde orbits around
Carpo group
16–17 million km from Jupiter[198]

This group of retrograde-orbiting moons has rather indistinct borders, averaging 21.3
Ananke group
million km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 149 degrees.[206]
A tightly clustered group of retrograde-orbiting moons that averages 23.4 million km from
Carme group
Jupiter with an average inclination of 165 degrees[206]
A dispersed and vaguely distinct retrograde group that covers all the outermost
Pasiphae group
moons[210]

Interaction with the Solar System

As the most massive of the eight planets, the gravitational influence of Jupiter has helped shape the Solar
System. With the exception of Mercury, the orbits of the system's planets lie closer to Jupiter's orbital
plane than the Sun's equatorial plane. The Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt are mostly caused by
Jupiter,[211] and the planet may have been responsible for the Late Heavy Bombardment in the inner
Solar System's history.[212]

In addition to its moons, Jupiter's gravitational field controls numerous asteroids that have settled around
the Lagrangian points that precede and follow the planet in its orbit around the Sun. These are known as
the Trojan asteroids, and are divided into Greek and Trojan "camps" to honour the Iliad. The first of
these, 588 Achilles, was discovered by Max Wolf in 1906; since then more than two thousand have been
discovered.[213] The largest is 624 Hektor.[214]

The Jupiter family is defined as comets that have a semi-major axis smaller than Jupiter's; most short-
period comets belong to this group. Members of the Jupiter family are thought to form in the Kuiper belt
outside the orbit of Neptune. During close encounters with Jupiter, they are perturbed into orbits with a
smaller period, which then becomes circularized by regular gravitational interactions with the Sun and
Jupiter.[215]

Impacts
Jupiter has been called the Solar System's vacuum cleaner[216] because of its immense gravity well and
location near the inner Solar System. There are more impacts on Jupiter, such as comets, than on any
other planet in the Solar System.[217] For example, Jupiter experiences about 200 times more asteroid and
comet impacts than Earth.[71] Scientists used to believe that Jupiter partially shielded the inner system
from cometary bombardment.[71] However, computer simulations in 2008 suggest that Jupiter does not
cause a net decrease in the number of comets that pass through the inner Solar System, as its gravity
perturbs their orbits inward roughly as often as it accretes or
ejects them.[218] This topic remains controversial among
scientists, as some think it draws comets towards Earth from
the Kuiper belt, while others believe that Jupiter protects
Earth from the Oort cloud.[219]

In July 1994, the Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 comet collided

with Jupiter.[220][221] The impacts were closely observed by
observatories around the world, including the Hubble Space
Telescope and Galileo spacecraft.[222][223][224] The event was
widely covered by the media.[225] Brown spots mark Comet Shoemaker–
Levy 9's impact sites on Jupiter
Surveys of early astronomical records and drawings produced
eight examples of potential impact observations between
1664 and 1839. However, a 1997 review determined that these observations had little or no possibility of
being the results of impacts. Further investigation by this team revealed a dark surface feature discovered
by astronomer Giovanni Cassini in 1690 may have been an impact scar.[226]

In culture

Jupiter-Zeus with thunderbolt and sceptre in the

clouds, along with his eagle. Fresco in
Jupiter, woodcut from a 1550 edition of Herculaneum, 1–37 AD
Guido Bonatti's Liber Astronomiae
The existence of the planet Jupiter has been known since
ancient times. It is visible to the naked eye in the night sky
and can be seen in the daytime when the Sun is low.[227] To the Babylonians, this planet represented their
god Marduk,[228] chief of their pantheon from the Hammurabi period.[229] They used Jupiter's roughly
12-year orbit along the ecliptic to define the constellations of their zodiac.[228]

The mythical Greek name for this planet is Zeus (Ζεύς), also referred to as Dias (Δίας), the planetary
name of which is retained in modern Greek.[230] The ancient Greeks knew the planet as Phaethon
(Φαέθων), meaning "shining one" or "blazing star".[231][232] The Greek myths of Zeus from the Homeric
period showed particular similarities to certain Near-Eastern gods, including the Semitic El and Baal, the
Sumerian Enlil, and the Babylonian god Marduk.[233] The association between the planet and the Greek
deity Zeus was drawn from Near Eastern influences and was fully established by the fourth century BC,
as documented in the Epinomis of Plato and his contemporaries.[234]
The god Jupiter is the Roman counterpart of Zeus, and he is the principal god of Roman mythology. The
Romans originally called Jupiter the "star of Jupiter" (Iuppiter Stella), as they believed it to be sacred to
its namesake god. This name comes from the Proto-Indo-European vocative compound *Dyēu-pəter
(nominative: *Dyēus-pətēr, meaning "Father Sky-God", or "Father Day-God").[235] As the supreme god
of the Roman pantheon, Jupiter was the god of thunder, lightning, and storms, and was called the god of
light and sky.[236]

In Vedic astrology, Hindu astrologers named the planet after Brihaspati, the religious teacher of the gods,
and called it "Guru", which means the "Teacher".[237][238] In Central Asian Turkic myths, Jupiter is called
Erendiz or Erentüz, from eren (of uncertain meaning) and yultuz ("star"). The Turks calculated the period
of the orbit of Jupiter as 11 years and 300 days. They believed that some social and natural events
connected to Erentüz's movements in the sky.[239] The Chinese, Vietnamese, Koreans, and Japanese
called it the "wood star" (Chinese: 木星 ; pinyin: mùxīng), based on the Chinese Five
Elements. [240][241][242] In China, it became known as the "year star" (Chinese: 歲星 ; pinyin: suìxīng), as
Chinese astronomers noted that it jumped one zodiac constellation each year (with corrections). In some
ancient Chinese writings, the years were, in principle, named in correlation with the Jovian zodiac
signs.[143]

See also
Outline of Jupiter – Fifth planet from the Super-Jupiter – Class of planets with more
Sun mass than Jupiter
Eccentric Jupiter – Jovian planet that orbits Jovian–Plutonian gravitational effect –
its star in an eccentric orbit Astronomical hoax
Hot Jupiter – High-mass planet orbiting List of gravitationally rounded objects of
close to a star the Solar System

Notes
a. The light filters are 658 nm, 502 nm, and 395 nm,[1] roughly corresponding to red, green and
blue respectively
b. Jupiter's atmosphere and its appearance constantly change, and hence its current
appearance today may not resemble what it was when this image was taken. Depicted in
this image, however, are a few features that remain consistent, such as the famous Great
Red Spot, featured prominently in the lower right of the image, and the planet's recognisable
banded appearance.
c. Refers to the level of 1 bar atmospheric pressure
d. Based on the volume within the level of 1 bar atmospheric pressure
e. 100 x (equatorial radius- polar radius)/(equatorial radius) = 100 x (71492-66854)/71492 =
6.487%.
f. See for example: "IAUC 2844: Jupiter; 1975h" ([Link]
[Link]). International Astronomical Union. October 1, 1975. Retrieved October 24, 2010.
That particular word has been in use since at least 1966. See: "Query Results from the
Astronomy Database" ([Link]
xt=zenographic%20since%20at%20least%201966). Smithsonian/NASA. Retrieved July 29,
2007.
g. About the same as sugar syrup (syrup USP),[43]
 h. See Moons of Jupiter for details and cites

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yjCrAC&pg=PA300#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original on February 26, 2024.
Retrieved January 8, 2010.
241. Crump, Thomas (1992). The Japanese numbers game: the use and understanding of
numbers in modern Japan ([Link] Nissan
Institute/Routledge Japanese studies series. Routledge. pp. 39 ([Link]
panesenumbersg00crum/page/n53)–40. ISBN 978-0-415-05609-0.
242. Hulbert, Homer Bezaleel (1909). The passing of Korea ([Link]
rea01hulbgoog). Doubleday, Page & Company. p. 426 ([Link]
ea01hulbgoog/page/n538). Retrieved January 8, 2010.

Further reading
Bagenal, Fran; Dowling, Timothy E.; McKinnon, William B. (2006). Jupiter: The Planet,
Satellites and Magnetosphere ([Link]
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52-103545-3 – via Google Books.
Lohninger, Hans; et al. (November 2, 2005). "Jupiter, As Seen By Voyager 1" ([Link]
[Link]/spacetrip/jupiter_1.html). A Trip into Space ([Link]
Virtual Institute of Applied Science.

External links
Jupiter overview ([Link] by NASA's Science Mission Directorate
How NASA's Juno probe changed everything we know about Jupiter ([Link]
[Link]/article/how-nasas-juno-probe-changed-everything-we-know-about-jupiter/).
Scientific American, August 19, 2025
Simulation of the 62 moons of Jupiter ([Link]
html) from Tony Dunn's Gravity Simulator website.
Photographs of Jupiter circa 1920s ([Link]
[Link]/cdm/search/collection/p265101coll10/searchterm/Jupiter%20(plane
t)/order/title) from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, at the University of
California, Santa Cruz Library's Digital Collections.
Interactive 3D gravity simulation of the Jovian system ([Link]
1222440/[Link]
Video ([Link] on YouTube of the 2010 Jupiter
impact event by an amateur astronomer.
 "Jupiter" ([Link] – In Our Time, BBC Radio 4
Animation ([Link] on YouTube of the Juno
spacecraft's flyby of Ganymede and Jupiter by NASA.

Retrieved from "[Link]