57

CHAPTER 3

How arts experiences

contribute to children’s
growth and
development
Nothing fortuitous happens in a child's world. There are no accidents.
Everything is connected with everything else and everything can be
explained by everything else ... For a young child everything that happens is
a necessity.
John Berger

Chapter Objectives
This chapter explores how arts experiences in early childhood education contribute
to children’s growth and development by examining how these experiences help lay
the foundations for a life of fulfilment in the way they:
• shape children’s identity formation within the context of their socio-cultural world
• contribute to the development of personal capabilities.

Introduction
When viewing the educational options for young children, it is important to think in terms
of the role these play in laying the foundations for each child to have a fulfilling life. This
involves developing a child’s secure sense of self and their dispositions for learning.
The early years are supercharged years for children’s growth and development. In a holistic
conception of the child, this includes their physical, emotional and cognitive growth. It
also includes developing their aesthetic sensibilities, their creative capabilities, their social
competency and their literacy and numeracy skills.
The nature of engagement in the Arts means that creating an arts-rich learning
environment makes a significant contribution to the holistic development of each child.

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 58 PART 1: CHILDREN’S LEARNING THROUGH THE ARTS

Laying the foundation for

a life of fulfilment
The physical, embodied, practical and expressive nature of the Arts richly engages children
in their world and contributes to the development of dispositions and capabilities for formal
schooling and ongoing learning.

Experiencing the world

As sentient beings, children live in the world and experience the world through their
bodies. With an innate drive and determination to participate in life and living, the very
young explore their world through their senses with vitality and energy. Their growth and
development—their learning—occurs through their experiences; and every experience is a
point of reference for the next experience.
The three verbs, belonging, being, and becoming, underpinning EYLF remind us that our
lives and identities are constantly being shaped by our ongoing, dynamic life experiences.
This is how we develop as individuals. The Arts provide valuable context and multiple means
for children to experience the world.
The early years are considered to be the optimal time for the ‘critical experiences’ needed
to support healthy development of the whole child (Bailey, 2002, p. 291). This development
is multidimensional and can be seen in terms of physical, social, emotional, creative, and
cognitive capabilities. The Arts subjects of Dance, Drama, Media Arts, Music and Visual Arts
offer efficacious ways of learning that engage the multiple dimensions of the whole child.
Since children’s explorations of their world occur within a socio-
EYLF cultural context, their social and cultural connections contribute
EYLF: Learning to, and influence, their interpretations of their experiences. Their
…a natural process of exploration relationships with the people around them who provide nurture,
that children engage in from birth interaction and facilitation, support their development and their
as they expand their intellectual,
prospects of reaching their full potential. We know that children
physical, social, emotional and creative
capabilities. Early learning is closely deprived in their earliest years of the sensory stimulus of a mother’s
linked to early development (2009, p. 46). nurturing behaviour (such as touch and eye contact), are severely
compromised in their social behaviours, their ability to learn and
their capacity to relate to others (Mustard, 2007).
Within the diverse realms of Dance, Drama, Media Arts, Music
and Visual Arts, children can experience the world in a visceral and
EYLF
immediate way. As they explore, construct, compose, choreograph,
EYLF: Learning
…[children] use their sensory capabilities design, imagine, and role-play, children learn to pay attention to
and dispositions with increasing sensory information. When learning songs with accompanying body
integration, skill and purpose to explore movements, those movements serve to ‘map’ the words into memory
and respond to their world (2009, p. 32).
(Nichols, 2009). As they dance together, share the box of crayons,

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 CHAPTER 3: HOW ARTS EXPERIENCES CONTRIBUTE TO CHILDREN’S GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 59

or appraise the paintings of Clifford Possum Tjapaltjarri, they explore the dynamics of their
socio-cultural world. The more children encounter, interpret and manipulate their world in a
variety of ways, the richer their learning experiences.

Pause and reflect: A young child’s play-based experience

of musical concepts
A young child at kindergarten picks up a small metal spade lying
on the ground near the sandpit. She runs to the fence, constructed
of metal rungs, and drags the spade across them. This action
generates a sound pattern. The child continues a backwards-and-
forwards repetitive pattern of ‘run fast/walk slowly’. She then stands
still and strums the spade across the metal bars in a recognisable
rhythm of fast-to-the-left/slow-to-the-right. Soon she starts to
chant, Wake-up! Sleeeeeeep. Wake-up! Sleeeeeeep. She runs to
the outdoor table, picks up a wooden spoon and repeats the same
actions. She pauses and picks up the spade in her other hand.
Standing still, she swishes (glissando) the spade on the fence as she
chants, Run fast, and then does the same slowly (legato) with the
wooden spoon as she chants, Go to sleeeeeeep.

This self-initiated and self-directed musical play is an experience that generates

learning that leads to development. The original sensory experience of rattling the
spade on the rungs of the fence was extended into spontaneous song composition
with rhythmic percussion. As she plays, the child is using her whole body to explore
the elements of music (timbre, dynamics, rhythm), vocalisation and instrumental
composition using everyday objects.
A skilled educator will recognise this event as self-directed play-based learning.
Furthermore, the educator’s familiarity with the Arts Learning Area means they will also
recognise it as an episode of musical and song composition. Importantly, the educator
will write an anecdotal note in their records and, when planning, will consider how this
experience can be developed further. Perhaps they will ask the child to perform their
song during their allocated music session and invite the other children to respond by
adding more verses or sounds, such as ‘wash the brush/flick it dry’ or ‘fill the box/shake
the box’, with each accompanied by a percussive beat or rhythm.

Identity formation and developing agency

A major task of childhood is identity formation. This is the process whereby children develop
as individuals—people who have their own characteristics and who see themselves, and are
seen by others, as separate entities.

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As entities with their own perceptions, motivations and initiative, children learn to
exercise agency—the capacity to shape and influence their world. They progressively develop
confidence in their authority and ability to make their own decisions, follow their own
initiative, shape their situation to meet their needs and influence events around them.
With any degree of agency comes recognition of, and responsibility for, the impact of
one’s actions on the world around us. It means learning to regulate behaviours and recognise
the rights of others in the social space. As with any developmental process, growth occurs
through opportunities to practice and test the capabilities being developed.
From socio-cultural theory, we know that children’s identity formation occurs within the
context of culture, community, family, and environment (Edwards, 2007). Values, beliefs,
customs and traditions are passed on to children and form their
EYLF sense of who they are, where they belong, their heritage, and ‘world
EYLF: Learning view’. Therefore, a child’s sense of selfhood and agency is nurtured or
Educators draw on a rich repertoire constrained by people around them and by their societal and cultural
of pedagogical practices to promote circumstances.
children’s learning by…valuing the
The plan and design of both the environment (physical and social)
cultural and social contexts of children
and their families (2009, p. 14). and learning experiences can encourage children’s exercise of agency.
This is done when ‘the authority of the learner’ is acknowledged
(Johansson, 2004, p. 15) and children (as well as parents) are
regarded as co-creators of the learning environment. This means that children play a role in
shaping the physical and social space of the learning environment. Learning or education
is not something that is done to children. Rather, the children, as well as the educator,
contribute to the direction and nature of the learning. Co-creating the learning environment
also means that arts experiences are designed to invite children’s initiative, exploration, and
experimentation (Lobman, 2010). 67). Creative, open-ended learning in the Arts provides
children with ‘room to move’ through opportunities to make decisions, find solutions to
problems, arrive at individual interpretations, express their own perceptions, ideas and
feelings, and direct their learning (Adair Keys, 2014). Children lead their learning with a
sense of personal authority.

Pause and reflect: How cookie-cutter or production line

approaches serve to deny children’s authority and agency
The teacher, Mrs Karpathakis, announces that today the children
are going to make paper-plate faces. She has the stack of paper
plates, googly eyes, lengths of wool for hair and crayons already laid
out. The session begins with Mrs Karpathakis showing the children
how to paste on the googly eyes. She helps them by stapling on the
lengths of wool they have chosen for hair before encouraging the

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 CHAPTER 3: HOW ARTS EXPERIENCES CONTRIBUTE TO CHILDREN’S GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 61

children to draw a nose and a mouth. When all is done, she makes a
display of the paper-plate faces on the pinup board.
Easter is approaching, so the next week Mrs Karpathakis hands
out pretty templates of a rabbit and an Easter egg. She shows
children how to cut out and stick the rabbit and Easter egg on either
the yellow or pink paper she has provided. She then shows the
children how to cover the rabbit with cotton wool before colouring in
the pattern on the Easter egg. When all is done, she makes a display
of rabbits and eggs on the pinup board.

While these activities might encourage children to manipulate materials and develop
fine motor skills, consider how they are examples of ‘cookie cutter’ or ‘production line’
activities that impose an adult’s expectations about an outcome. They do not create a
space for ‘something new’ and at best indicate a child’s ability to follow instructions.
These ‘standardised’ experiences are not examples of authentic arts experiences (Sunday,
2015, p. 23). Rather than encouraging agency to flourish through risk-taking, decision-
making, experimentation and self-expression, they tend to promote compliant and
passive behaviour. It is reasonable to suggest that in denying agency these ‘production
line’ experiences may prove detrimental to the ongoing development of personal
capabilities (Dahlberg, Moss & Pence, 1999). A better approach is one where children
have opportunities to develop their capabilities, knowledge, understanding and skills in
social partnership with adults who understand agency as essential for healthy growth and
development. The open-ended and inquiry-led approach to learning promulgated in this
text, EYLF and the Australian Curriculum: The Arts aims to achieve this.

Pause and reflect: Year Two drawing a yabbie

The classroom has a ‘pet’ yabbie (Australian crustacean) in a glass aquarium. The
children complete observational drawings as a basis for developing their designs for a
monoprint.
The class has watched a video filmed by a class member of the
yabbie at feeding time. They have discussed what they learned about
the way the yabbie moves and feeds. Today the teacher, Mr Singh,
draws children’s attention to the particularities of the yabbie’s
appearance by asking children about its body parts—its shape,
angle, and relative scale. Children draw these features in the air as
part of explaining their observations. They also describe the yabbie’s
colour and texture and consider other things that share these
qualities, such as snails and crabs. Mr Singh proposes that children
record their observations on paper by making an observational

continued

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 62 PART 1: CHILDREN’S LEARNING THROUGH THE ARTS

drawing focusing on line, shape and proportion. He demonstrates

how to set up for drawing, so that the yabbie and drawing can be
seen at the same time (this helps with accuracy). Children select
their preferred paper colour and drawing media (pencil, felt marker,
crayon or charcoal) from the range provided.

Although the art activity is designed by the teacher, there is an open-ended goal in
which each child exercises their agency to make choices and decisions, ask questions,
solve problems, engage in trial and error, experiment and make something new. This
skilled educator understands and values originality as an indicator of flexible thinking
and encourages each child to be and become active creators and managers of their
learning experience. To develop this further, the children will use their yabbie drawings
as the basis for monoprint.

Figure 3.1 Year Two observational drawing of a yabbie.

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 CHAPTER 3: HOW ARTS EXPERIENCES CONTRIBUTE TO CHILDREN’S GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 63

INDIGENOUS PERSPECTIVES
When I was a girl, my mother and father would take my sister and I down to the southern
coast at Bremer Bay (Western Australia) where my grandmother’s traditional country is.
Down there, we would often catch gilgie (a Noongar word for fresh water crustacean) at
dams or creeks. All the family would come along, Aunties, Uncles, Cousins, Nana. We
would cook those gilgie right there and then on the fire. To us, fishing for gilgie was a
seasonal family event and a way for us contemporary Noongars to take time to connect
with our country and each other again. I do see a possible extension of this art learning
experience to include the Aboriginal world view of connectedness and relationships
between bush tucker, Aboriginal people and country.
Asta Flugge, Noongar woman, Western Australia

Arts-making and responding provide opportunities for children to develop their agency as
they explore their social, cultural and physical world. When children work on a class mural,
they can experience working with others who envision the shared enterprise differently to
themselves. In time and with guidance, they learn ways of negotiating with others to achieve
a shared outcome.
Role-playing offers a safe space for children to ‘try on life’ and ‘walk in the shoes of
others’. When role-playing, children can apprehend the world from different perspectives,
and experience how a character’s actions impact on others. From experiences like these they
develop understandings of how people are in the world; and how circumstances, world-views
and beliefs shape people’s choices. This helps children find themselves and at the same time,
presents opportunities for them to develop understanding and empathy for people whose
lives are different to their own.
Around the globe, music, paintings, theatre, films and the myriad artistic practices are
expressions of who we are and how we understand ourselves and our place in the world. As
forms of cultural expression, the Arts contribute to personal, social and cultural identity
(Wadham, Pudsey & Boyd, 2007). For children, learning about artworks, artistic practices,
motivations for art-making and the social and historical contexts of artistic creations and
artists’ practices broadens their understanding of themselves and the world they live in.
The child who paints, dances, draws, dresses up, and sings is not motivated by the idea
of becoming an artist or dancer, costume designer or musician in the future as though ‘to
“become” is a fixed destination or where you stop’ (Lussier-Lay, 2013). Rather, these arts
experiences are essential for children to bring their world into existence and themselves into
the world through their senses and their relationships. We call this ‘making meaning’ and the
Arts in early childhood afford rich, holistic experiences for children to explore and express this
process. As a child stands at the easel and paints they are:
• Being in the moment of feeling the tug of the moving the brush, appreciating the juicy
quality of the paint, concentrating as they repeat a dot mark, feeling satisfied with the
appearance, wondering why the colour alters as the paint dries.

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 64 PART 1: CHILDREN’S LEARNING THROUGH THE ARTS

• Becoming as they decide to change from the small brush to the larger one because they
want to add big dots, or marvelling at how they can make a darker green colour by adding
more blue to the yellow, or planning their next painting to extend their experience.
• Belonging as they paint their family pets and as they function in the social space of the
painting area where they swap brushes with their neighbour and share the pot of red paint.

Pause and reflect: Children respond to artworks by artists

from other times and places
Miss Roberts, a Year One teacher, has selected an abstract
painting by the Swiss expressionist artist Paul Klee and a musical
composition by the contemporary American composer John Cage
as the basis for a series of lessons. She begins with a guided
observation of Klee’s painting Gedanken bei Schnee (Thoughts in
the Snow) (1933) focusing attention on the lines and shapes in the
painting. Highlighting how marks in the snow are transient, she asks
children to ‘paint’ the lines and shapes in the air, in the sandbox, and
on the floor. The children do this explaining which lines or shapes
from the painting they are drawing.
Miss Roberts then tells the children that Klee was also a musician
who liked to create rhythms in his drawings as well as in his music.
She suggests that children might like to explore these rhythmic
patterns in dance by interpreting the shapes and lines in movements.
The children begin to move. As they explore the movement
possibilities, Miss Roberts reminds them to think about how they can
make lines and shapes using different parts of their bodies.
When the children have made at least three different movements,
Miss Roberts gathers the children around. She has the toy piano
in front of her and plays several notes on it as a way of introducing
the music of John Cage. He is a famous American contemporary
composer/musician who liked to experiment with music-making. The
music they are going to hear is called Suite for Toy Piano, which was
indeed composed on a toy piano. The children listen to the music and
are then asked whether they think they can develop their movements
with the music. They jump up and begin experimenting.
The focus of the next lesson will be refining these movements to
make dance sequences.

Can you see how children have developed understandings about lines and shapes by
studying the painting and then transposing the lines and shapes into movement? These
experiences build understanding that artistic expression is a common thread in all
cultures, which we use to make meaning of our world.

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 CHAPTER 3: HOW ARTS EXPERIENCES CONTRIBUTE TO CHILDREN’S GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 65

Figure 3.2 Paul Klee, Gedanken bei Schnee (Thoughts in the Snow), 1933.

Nurturing dispositions for learning

Since learning is a lifelong process, cultivating certain dispositions for learning is an
important aim in early childhood education. As Jay states, ‘there must be a very clear
resolve that children entering school and learning centres are taught in ways that will
encourage their intrinsic motivation to learn and be curious about their world’ (2016, p. 19).
Dispositions such as curiosity, wonderment, persistence, creativity and flexibility are at the
heart of learning—and are prominent in arts learning practices.
Contemporary arts learning experiences are characterised by being open-ended
and inquiry-led. In this model, learning is not constrained by the need to arrive at a
predetermined outcome. Instead, the emphasis is placed on children’s enquiry and
investigative processes, and their individual interpretations in response to the challenges.
Such arts experiences by their very nature, can well sustain curiosity, wonderment,
persistence, creativity and flexible thinking.
Researchers Hetland, Winner, Veenema and Sheridan also contend that the way children
engage with good quality (visual) arts learning ‘engenders the development of serious
thinking dispositions that are valued both within and beyond the Arts’ (2007, p. vii).

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In their influential research, they identify eight ‘studio habits of mind’ (such as envisioning,
expressing and reflecting) which are practised in good quality arts experiences.
Self-regulated behaviours (such as persevering, cooperating and taking risks) play a key
part in developing children’s overall learning capabilities. Researchers have observed that
involving students in arts learning experiences strengthens these dispositions. Furthermore,
arts experiences provide one of the best contexts within which such capabilities are
developed (Oreck, 2004).
The rich and diverse nature of arts-based experiences offers stimulating and engaging
ways for children to nurture a love of learning, and to develop the dispositions that support
learning.

The development of personal and social

capabilities through the Arts
When we understand the Arts as offering contexts and processes for learning that are
multidimensional, draw on all the senses, and animate the social and cultural dimensions
of children’s life experience, we can begin to see how they could contribute significantly to
children’s holistic development.

AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM
Personal and social capability encompasses students’ personal/emotional and social/
relational dispositions, intelligences, sensibilities and learning. It develops effective life
skills for students, including understanding and handling themselves, their relationships,
learning and work (Australian Curriculum, [Link]/
generalcapabilities/personal-and-social-capability/introduction/introduction).

Physical growth and development

To function in their three-dimensional world, young children require opportunities to:
• develop their visual, aural and tactile discernment
• strengthen their muscles
• refine their motor skills, hand–eye coordination, control and spatial judgement
• improve balance and poise and
• build endurance.
These capabilities don’t develop automatically and children require consistent and regular
opportunities to practice them (Pica, 2008). As forms of praxis, the Arts are physical

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 CHAPTER 3: HOW ARTS EXPERIENCES CONTRIBUTE TO CHILDREN’S GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 67

activities that constantly involve children’s use of sensory, spatial

and motor skills and therefore offer efficacious ways of developing EYLF
children’s physical capabilities. EYLF: Outcome three
Children’s learning and physical
As children mix paints, draw, cut, colour, shape, squeeze, bend and
development is evident through their
tear they are involved in activities that are helping develop fine motor movement patterns from physical
control. When dancing or making drama, children are using physical dependence and reflex actions at birth,
ways of expressing thoughts and feelings or telling stories. By moving to the integration of sensory, motor
and cognitive systems for organised,
their body in time, place and space, they enjoy playful, engaging and
controlled physical activity for both
meaningful ways of developing their movement capabilities. When purpose and enjoyment (2009, p. 30).
dancing, they learn the consequences of spinning too hard or turning
too quickly and begin to understand the strength or momentum
needed to make specific movements. When singing and playing voice games, children are
developing their lungs and breath control for speaking.
Playing musical instruments develops hand–eye coordination, fine motor control, rhythm
and timing skills. While a young toddler might bash the keys of a xylophone, an older child
will be seen to strike the keys individually and precisely with the mallet using just the right
amount of force. In time, the child will be able to pick out tunes by striking the keys in a
sequence and rhythm.
Through engaging in arts experiences children learn spatial concepts such as up, down,
near, side, back, far, away, over, and under. When making two-dimensional or three-
dimensional visual artworks, children are developing spatial awareness by making
judgements and decisions about size, position, angle, placement of features, and the shape
and form of patterns. When dancing, they move around the chair, near to their partner
and from one side of the room to the other. They are developing more sophisticated
awareness of proximity to other people and objects, and how to negotiate a shared space
without bumping into others. (They will also learn the emotional power of spaces as
the mighty queen or king towers above their cowering subjects.) Even when standing
still in drama to create a group tableau (frozen picture), children are learning ways of
occupying space.
The sensory dimension of arts experiences heightens children’s auditory, visual and tactile
discernment. As children are invited to pay attention to the details of the leaves they are
about to draw, as they listen for the sound of the flute in a piece of music, or as they make
rubbings of different textured surfaces, they are developing discernment in ways that will
enhance their ability to listen, speak and write.
Good body awareness is strongly linked to a sense of self, confidence, and self-esteem
(Gallahue & Ozmun, 2005, cited in Dinham 2014, p. 88). By exploring the body’s capabilities
to meet the physical demands of Dance, Drama, Music and Visual Arts, children are engaged
in processes that contribute to their developing body awareness.

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Pause and reflect: Making moves

The teacher, Mr Britz, leads his Year Two class onto the grassed
area outside the classroom with each child carrying a hoop. The
hoops are placed with generous space between each and Mr Britz
invites the children to try different ways of moving across and around
them. As he watches, he observes a variety of movements: jumping,
stretching, spinning, leaping, and a cartwheel. He names these
movements and provides ample time for further experiments and
practice. The children move their hoops to the edge of the grass
and Mr Britz asks them to make groups of three and teach each
other their ‘across and around movements’. When this is done, he
suggests they could put their movements together in sequence.
Finally, he asks each group to share what they have created and
each group performs its sequence of movements. Mr Britz is quietly
delighted when a child says, ‘We’ve made ours into a dance’.

Can you see how physical and spatial elements are being explored through the
educator’s intentional teaching? As children move around each other, jump over the
chair or grip each other’s hands to create a circle, they are exploring physical and spatial
elements.
Why is the teacher delighted by the spontaneous observation that a dance has been
created? The teacher has planned this activity as an introduction to dance composition.
Dances are sequences of movements where the ‘elements’ of dance (level, tempo,
flow, body base) are worked to shape the dynamics of the dance. In the next lesson the
teacher will challenge the children to explore the elements by reworking their ‘chair’
moves to create a short dance sequence.

Cognitive growth and development

Formal schooling demands well-developed cognitive processing in that all Learning Areas
require children to predict, hypothesise, imagine possibilities, identify sequences and
patterns, consider alternative points of view, justify, recommend, verify, infer, compare
and contrast. Providing stimulating learning opportunities that develop children’s
cognitive powers is an important responsibility for early childhood educators. Since arts-
making and play-based experiences represent children’s earliest vehicles for exercising and
communicating thinking (McArdle & Wright, 2014), particular attention needs to be given
to stimulating children’s learning through these types of experiences.
When young children are engaged in arts activities (such as dramatic play or drawing),
they are imagining, hypothesising, problem-solving, evaluating, analysing and inventing.
When they dramatise a well-known story, for example, they are applying their control of

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story structure, interpreting the story, considering alternative points

of view, justifying their choices and actions and predicting the moves EYLF
and actions of the other players. EYLF: Cognition or thinking
…solve problems, adapt thinking
Importantly, the cognitive abilities (thinking skills or strategies)
strategies to new situations,
of young children should not be underestimated (Young, 2004). mathematical ideas and concepts, make
Children are ‘complex meaning makers’ (Sunday, 2015, p. 232) who predictions and generalisations, use
draw on ideas, concepts and symbols from a range of disciplines and make patterns, use mathematical
language and symbols, explore,
and exercise higher-order thinking processes as they explore their
manipulate objects, experiment with
physical, conceptual and social worlds. For example, in dramatic play cause and effect, experiment with trial
activities, which young children engage in from a very early age, they and error, experiment with motion,
demonstrate their ability to perceive everyday objects as something contribute to mathematical discussions
and arguments and use reflective
other than they are. Using their imagination, the large box is the boat
thinking (2009, p. 35).
and the carpet is the sea. By understanding that ‘this’ stands for
‘that’ children demonstrate their ability to think metaphorically—a
higher-order thinking capability that is one of the most essential skills for reading, writing,
computer coding, mathematics, map reading and working with digital devices.
Movement plays a vital role in cognitive development (Diamond, 2000). When
children are engaged in movement activities such as dance and drama, more of the brain
is stimulated than when sitting and learning (Jensen, 2001). A breadth of research has
shown that active, bodily engagement enhances cognitive development and a range of
other neurobiological systems. The significance of this research led Jensen to advocate that
children have a high proportion of movement activities in each day. Since Dance, Drama,
Media Arts, Music and Visual Arts involve physical activity, these forms of expression
provide rich contexts for cognitive development.
Dance represents patterns of movement made in space. Therefore, along with music,
dance activates mathematical skills as children measure, estimate and approximate (Pearce
& Rohmeier, 2012). Dance also involves experimentation with the cause and effect of
movement through space. If children are dancing in time with someone else they must
anticipate the moves and calculate how they will move in relation to their partner.
Media Arts creations (such as videos, claymation and digital stories) are multimodal and
involve complex processing skills as children bring together sound and vision is a time sequence.
Cause-and-effect relationships, sequencing events logically and identifying the key information
required in a narrative all engage cognitive processes that are key to growth and development.

Pause and reflect: The complexity of play

Three young children are engaged in a dramatic play experience of
a medical emergency. The child who is playing the doctor notices
another child pretending to take a pulse. The ‘doctor’ says, ‘You can’t
do that! I’m playing the doctor! You have to put on the blanket.’

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In that moment, the child has three personas: the doctor, the
director, and themselves. While ‘holding’ three identities within the
moment, the child is thinking in the abstract and discerning the
difference between the real and the imaginary (Lindqvist, 2001).
Consider the cognitive complexity of this feat.

Developing creative thinking capabilities

Creativity, which is a cognitive or thinking capability, is the ability to make something new
in response to a need, problem or challenge. It is a complex process that involves higher-
order cognitive skills such as:
• classifying
• inducting
• deducting
• analysing results
• abstracting
• assessing alternative perspectives
• making decisions
• investigating
• inquiring
• problem-solving and
• inventing (Beattie, 1997).
Research shows that young children are very good at it (Robinson, 2001)!
In the Melbourne Declaration, EYLF and the Australian Curriculum, there is a consistent
message that children’s creative capabilities should be developed through
EYLF education. This emphasis is because ‘innovative and flexible thinking
EYLF: Outcome four are considered essential skills for the 21st century’ (National Cultural
Developing dispositions such as Policy, 2013, p. 77). While the Industrial Revolution shaped the past two
curiosity, persistence and creativity centuries around the mass production of goods, it is the digital revolution
enables children to participate in and
that is shaping the 21st century. This digital revolution is radically and
gain from learning (2009, p. 31).
rapidly changing the way we think, work and socially organise. Being a
good creative thinker—able to think flexibly, nimbly and laterally, solve
EYLF problems and identify potential new opportunities—is regarded as a
The Melbourne Declaration critical capability for functioning well in this changing world.
on Educational Goals for Young Young children have a natural propensity to be creative. We see
Australians Goal 2
this in the way they are generally curious, enquiring, and observant.
Successful learners – are creative,
innovative and resourceful, and are able We also see it in the way they tend to be: persistent in the quest for
to solve problems in ways that draw understanding or problem-solving; comfortable with trial and error
upon a range of Learning Areas and approaches; willing to see ‘failure’ as a way to finding a solution; happy
disciplines (2008, p. 8).
to play with ideas in the mind; and able to think divergently (Dinham,

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 CHAPTER 3: HOW ARTS EXPERIENCES CONTRIBUTE TO CHILDREN’S GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 71

2014). In fact, research has shown that 98 per cent of children aged 3–5 are exceptional
creative thinkers. Sadly, only 10 per cent remain in this category by the time they reach 13–
15 years of age (Robinson, 2001). The challenge for educators is to design education in ways
that support children to retain and develop their creative dispositions (Robson, 2014, p. 122).

Pause and reflect: The complexity of song innovation

A young child is enjoying their bath and as he sings changes the
words of The Wheels on the Bus to:
The bubbles in the bath go pop, pop, pop,
Pop, pop, pop.
Pop, pop, pop.
The bubbles in the bath go pop, pop, pop,
All day long.

Young children can learn quite complex songs and seem to play with them (Young,
2004, p. 64) by changing the words or the order of the verses. This is a demonstration of
complex thinking ability.
Let’s consider the skills required to change the words or the order of words in a
song. First, the child has memorised the song or parts of the song. The words are
held in memory and the child draws on these, bringing them to the focus of thinking
and making changes. In this process, the original words are recalled and while held in
short term memory, new words are substituted. The original words are not forgotten.
The child now knows two songs—the one learned and the one invented. This is creative
thinking and problem solving at its best as the child creates the problem and finds the
solution. ‘Can I change the words? Yes, and I know how!’
The child who innovates on the words of a song is building capacity to interpret ideas,
solve problems, think laterally to invent new solutions, be innovative and go beyond the
obvious, take intellectual risks, and boldly go!

Having a secure and supportive learning environment—where attention is given to

the development of children’s wellbeing, persistence, emotional resilience and social
intelligence—is one way in which children’s creative dispositions are nurtured (Hargreaves,
Robson & Greenfield, 2014). With encouragement from adults who
stand back and allow children to make their own discoveries, praise
EYLF
their interpretations, encourage them to trial different possibilities,
EYLF: Outcome four
and value their independent creations, children learn to trust their
Active involvement in learning builds
explorations, attempts and solutions. They develop confidence in children’s understandings of concepts
developing new concepts and understanding through their own and the creative thinking and inquiry
investigations. Conversely, when children’s independent thinking processes that are necessary for
lifelong learning (2009, p. 33).
and inquiry-led explorations are constrained by adults who lead too

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 72 PART 1: CHILDREN’S LEARNING THROUGH THE ARTS

overtly, direct the outcomes too precisely, step in and solve the problem or fix things up too
readily, children quickly lose confidence in themselves (their agency) and the efficacy of their
creative thinking processes.
Designing arts experiences as open-ended challenges offers learning contexts that nurture
children’s creative dispositions. In an open-ended learning structure, the challenge, problem
or criteria is known but the myriad possible solutions or interpretations is not. In this
structure, intentional teaching is focused on building capacity in terms of concepts, skills
and processes that children can then employ in their own creations. For example, if the
challenge is for children to create a comic strip about ‘A great day out’, the first step could
be to review a carefully selected range of comic strips to explore the visual conventions of
comics (such as episodic boxed structure, speech and thought bubbles, stylised characters,
and graphic marks to represent actions and emotional states). The next step could be to
take a selection from Aesop’s Fables and ask children to work in pairs with one of the stories.
The children could be asked to list the steps of the story that are important to move it from
the beginning to the end. Treating each step as a frame in the comic strip, the children
can convert the fable to a comic strip using visual conventions. At the end of this exercise,
they have a process for making a comic independently and an understanding of the visual
conventions they can utilise. A brainstorming session about what makes ‘A great day out’
precedes the next phase, where children can address the original challenge of making a
comic for the topic ‘A great day out’.

Developing aesthetic sensibilities

Aesthetics relates to the nature of art, the engagement of our senses, and the way we
apprehend and respond to beauty. Developing aesthetic sensibility involves developing
the capacity to transcend a purely functional apprehension of things and to perceive and
respond to them in terms of their sensory and emotional impact. Even though our idea of
beauty is culturally constructed and the nature of art raises a host of questions such as What
makes this art? and Why is an original more valuable than a good forgery?, contemplation and
consideration of these contributes to the development of aesthetic awareness.
We see young children’s aesthetic sensibilities in the way they are captivated by the world
and its sensory pleasures. They delight in the exquisite design of things in the natural world;
they respond to the feeling conveyed by music; they relish the colours and details in paintings
and the tactile surfaces of sculptures; and they enjoy the experience of their body moving
through time and space as they dance. When contemplating artistic creations, their responses
are often boisterous, picturesque, lyrical and expressive (Feeney & Moavcik, 1987).
While children have an instinctive capacity to delight in the wondrous world, this needs
development. Children’s appreciation of the cultural world of art, and their capacity to
experience the pleasures of it, are developed by the educational opportunities they have
to contemplate artistic works, to think critically about them, and to respond to them in
different forms—such as dancing in response to music.

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 CHAPTER 3: HOW ARTS EXPERIENCES CONTRIBUTE TO CHILDREN’S GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 73

Children benefit from aesthetic experiences provided in the early learning context. This
relates to the aesthetic quality of the environment as well as guided viewing and listening
sessions where children’s attention is drawn to contemplating and responding to artworks.
While there is a strong emphasis on young children responding by making art themselves
(such as painting how they feel when they listen to the music), they also benefit from talking
about their responses and being introduced to vocabulary that enables them to formulate
their ideas in words. Research has shown that four-year-old’s participation in discussions
about artworks increased their own artistic success and their ability to hold longer and
more elaborate discussions than the control group (Douglas & Schwartz, cited in Feeney &
Moavcik, 1987).

Developing social competency

Children’s social development is an important aspect of their growth
as individuals, and arts experiences create ‘social spaces in which EYLF
relating and relationships develop’ (Sunday, 2015, p. 231). EYLF
From birth children communicate
When a class is dancing together, the children are engaged in a
with others using gestures, sounds,
social activity. Moving together in time and space builds relationships language and assisted communication.
and contributes to ongoing ‘relational engagement’ (Lussier-Ley, They are social beings who are
2103, p. 3). When children play musical instruments together, intrinsically motivated to exchange
ideas, thoughts, questions and feelings,
sing together, dress-up and enact a familiar story or build a space
and to use a range of tools and media,
ship together, they are attentive and alert to each other. They including music, dance and drama,
are focused, anticipate actions and reactions, connect with each to express themselves, connect with
other and learn how to relate by creating ground rules, negotiating others and extend their learning (2009,
p. 38).
roles, and determining responsibilities. They learn to judge the
suitability of their actions, make decisions and choices, and negotiate
disagreements. They are developing social competency.
Working co-operatively is practised in many arts experiences. Children sing in time
with others. They share and negotiate ideas when working co-operatively for a group
performance. They learn how to navigate the dynamics of such cooperative enterprises
and meet their responsibilities to the group. They develop relationships of trust when they
depend on each other for executing a dance move or cues for the delivery of lines. They share
art materials and take turns with equipment. They practise providing constructive feedback
in sessions where they review the paintings of their peers. Through these experiences
children learn socially acceptable and constructive ways of being together. They learn
protocols and socially acceptable ways interacting and managing interpersonal difficulties
for the benefit of themselves, each other and the group.
Even when a child works alone, fully absorbed in drawing, they may be sharing a
communal space and engaged in a social activity (such as drawing a card for a friend or a
picture to be displayed in the book corner).

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 74 PART 1: CHILDREN’S LEARNING THROUGH THE ARTS

Besides creating contexts for social interaction, the Arts lend themselves to exploring
social themes such as families, friendship, community, caring and sharing. Children can
explore power relations, gender stereotypes, historical and social situations, roles, moral
dilemmas and character traits. When role-playing different characters, for example, they
develop their understandings of different points of view and cultural positions.

Emotional growth
In an educational context, the significance of children’s emotional growth and development
(feelings, values, motivations, enthusiasms, and attitudes) is conceptualised in Bloom’s
Taxonomy of Learning as the affective domain of learning (the other two domains being cognitive
and psychomotor). The taxonomy describes the affective domain hierarchically beginning
with the learner’s receptivity to stimuli through to the higher-order capability of internalising,
exercising and acting on beliefs and values (Krathwohl, Bloom & Masia, 1964). In Howard
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences (outlined in Chapter 2), emotional capabilities are
expressed in terms of interpersonal intelligence (the ability to understand the intentions,
motivations and desires of others) and intrapersonal intelligence (self-awareness and
understanding one's own feelings, motivations and fears). Both conceptualisations acknowledge
the role that emotions, feelings and values play in our development as individuals, and that
developing these capabilities in children falls within the educator’s purview.
In EYLF, emotional learning is identified as an educational imperative strongly tied to
children’s wellbeing. Children’s emotional wellbeing is expressed through their self-efficacy,
confidence, tolerance, self-regulation and resilience (Ruppert, 2006). In this, the significance
of children’s agency—their ‘rightful and legitimate claim to ‘have
EYLF a say’ and for adults to ‘listen to the voices of children’ in relation
to matters that concern them’ (Graham & Fitzgerald, 2010)—is
EYLF
[W]ell being is correlated with paramount. We see that happy, emotionally secure children learn
resilience, providing children with the better, adjust better to changing circumstances and are better able to
capacity to cope with day-to-day stress cope with difficulties.
and challenges. The readiness to
In the educational context, the open-ended and inquiry-led nature of
persevere when faced with unfamiliar
and challenging learning situations arts-making experiences creates a space where children are encouraged
creates the opportunity for success and to express themselves—to have a say. They have opportunities to
achievement (2009, p. 30). experience taking intellectual risks, ‘failure’ and ‘standing alone’, in
positive ways. These experiences affirm the veracity of their feelings,
experiences and views. When a class of children are invited to respond to artistic challenges—
such as choreographing a dance based on Kandinski’s painting Merry Structure (1926), creating
a video drama of a children’s story, composing a lullaby or making sculptures of their pets—
the diversity of interpretations that are ‘accepted’ shows children that the world is not black
and white, right or wrong, and that there are many paths or ways of experiencing the world.
Creative expression through the Arts has had a long-established role in the promotion
of emotional wellbeing (and healing) (Karkou & Glasman, 2004) because the Arts—by

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 CHAPTER 3: HOW ARTS EXPERIENCES CONTRIBUTE TO CHILDREN’S GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 75

their nature—engage and exercise emotions, feelings and values. Art-making gives children
a safe way of processing and managing intense emotions or traumatic experiences. For
example, preschoolers who had experienced the destruction of the twin towers in New York
on September 11 participated in an art-making project. They recreated the destruction of
the twin towers. Researchers observed that processing the event in this way gave children
a sense of control and provided a basis for dialogue about their feelings and fears (Gross
& Clemens, 2002). Similarly, child-initiated pretend play offers ‘a context for children to
engage with others, hypothesising about their wishes and intentions as they negotiate story
lines, and imagine how co-players will feel, think, and act’ (Robson & Rowe, 2012, p. 356).

Pause and reflect: Reconciling intense and overwhelming emotions

Figure 3.3 The storybook Where the Wild Things Are offers a ‘safe container’ for
children to explore strong emotions and self-regulation.

In Maurice Sendak’s picture book Where the Wild Things Are (1963), a
young boy called Max is punished for being a kid who acts a bit wild.
(He is depicted wearing his wolf suit in case we don’t get the point.)
His mother even calls him a ‘wild thing’. This, coupled with his
banishment to his room without supper (nourishment and succour),
creates an intense emotional state. Max uses his imagination to
reconcile the ‘wild things’ (his out-of-control emotions and possibly
his mother’s as well). In going to the ‘Land of Wild Things’, he gains
some control, reconciles his lack of self-regulation and returns
home to succour and nurture (his supper was still hot).
continued

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 76 PART 1: CHILDREN’S LEARNING THROUGH THE ARTS

Exploring this much-loved fictional children’s picture book offers a classic example
of the way literature and the Arts offer a ‘safe container’ for a child to explore and
experience emotions. When listening to this story (or ‘playing it’), children learn how
it feels to be out of control, banished, to be called a bad name by your mother, and
punished by the withholding of nourishment and succour. They experience the impact
of intense emotions on the body through a rapid heartbeat, holding their breath in
anticipation, as they shudder, tremble, flush, get goosebumps, hug their knees or
vocalise their responses. As they do this, children learn to understand what ‘out of
control’ feels like and in acting out their ‘taming of the wild things’, they learn what self-
regulation also feels like. This is the ‘special absorption’ (Ferholt, 2010, p. 175) of drama
in which the child acting out the rage of Rumpelstiltskin or the fear of Sleeping Beauty
has the actual somatic experience of a pounding heart, tense muscles, and wide eyes—
while at the same time enjoying acting or playing the character. They simultaneously know
they are both the character and themselves acting a character.
Where the Wild Things Are is not encouraging children to act like ‘wild things’. It is
teaching them about managing strong emotions and learning self-regulation of their
thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Within the safe and secure contexts of the Arts, children can explore the unexpected,
unfamiliar, challenging, unsettling, worrying, exciting, novel, and even bizarre aspects of
our world. Like Max, they can learn how to reconcile and regulate strong emotions, actions
and reactions. They discover that with self-regulation comes the mental and emotional
‘space’ for moments of awe, joy and wonderment which furthers overall wellbeing.
Working collaboratively and co-operatively contributes to children’s emotional development.
While opportunities to do this can be developed across the curriculum and in a range of
contexts, the physical, practical and group nature of many arts experiences make them ripe
with opportunities for children to participate in these types of experiences in an unforced
way. Children share equipment, co-operatively evolve self-directed dramatic play activities,
sing and dance together in group productions, and respond to each others’ art-making with
consideration of each other’s feelings. In fact, the participatory nature of arts learning makes it
a ‘powerful instrument in raising children’s level of social and emotional functioning, assisting
children to develop a sense of belonging in the community, gain new skills and experiences,
meet new people and build a sense of agency’ (Graham & Fitzgerald, 2010, p. 441).

Developing literacy and numeracy

In the early years, the Arts play a significant role in supporting emergent language literacy
and numeracy. Since dancing, drawing, making music and engaging in dramatic play are
forms of expression and communication that young children utilise from a very young age,
they provide the most meaningful context within which language and numeracy can emerge.

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 CHAPTER 3: HOW ARTS EXPERIENCES CONTRIBUTE TO CHILDREN’S GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 77

We can see young children, as emerging writers, build their explorations of letter shapes
and writing into their drawings, where they already have confidence and facility in the
graphic representation and expression of ideas. This process of introducing rudimentary
letter shapes and alphabet letters into the meaningful context of the drawing enables
children ‘to maintain persistent self-expression’ (Mackenzie & Veresov, 2013, p. 28) as
they develop control of their writing. Therefore, the first tentative moves into writing are
sustained and supported within children’s established communication modes.

Figure 3.4 A three-year-old child, who has been encouraged to send a letter to their aunt, draws
figures and includes a combination of words she knows (Dad, cat); words she has asked an adult to
write out so she can copy them (Auntie Puss); random letters she knows (a, m, o, t); and rudimentary
letter shapes.

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 78 PART 1: CHILDREN’S LEARNING THROUGH THE ARTS

Music, which is a fundamental part of our evolution, is intertwined with many aspects
of human development. A whole field of recent research based on new brain imaging
techniques reveals that there is a close relationship between music and language functions
(Jäncke, 2012). In fact, it has been suggested that when oral language is conceived and
treated as a special form of music it leads to better language development (Brandt, Gebrian
& Slevc, 2012).
When chanting and singing songs, children learn words in context through repetition,
and are sensitised to the natural cadences and structure of spoken language with phrases
like ‘Run, run, as fast as you can!’ (Hoch, Poulin-Charronnat & Tillmann, 2011). Singing
requires a more pronounced use of muscles to form words, so this helps children develop
their articulation and ability to pronounce words. Guided listening to music (where
children listen out for different musical effects, such as the sound of the drum in an
orchestral piece) develops aural discernment. This enables children to hear the difference
between words like ‘say’, ‘may’ and ‘bay’. Musical development results in an improved ability
to pick out speech against background noise, and to sustain auditory attention to language,
thus creating an educational advantage (Strait & Kraus, 2011). Music develops listening
skills and helps children commit things to memory, such as the alphabet, which is routinely
learned as a song. Listening skills and aural discernment, so necessary for formal schooling,
are developed through a strong music program.
Drama experiences provide meaningful contexts to develop speaking and listening skills
as well as knowledge and understanding of narrative structure—the sequence of events,
characters, location and plot.
The physical and practical nature of arts experiences means they have a significant
role in developing the fine motor control, hand–eye coordination and awareness of self
in space (proprioception) required for writing development. When children play the
xylophone or mould clay, hand–eye coordination is being exercised. When painting and
drawing, the movement of the arm builds muscle memory for writing tasks. The thick
paintbrushes, giant chalks and fat markers that prefigure the pencils used for writing
enable children to progressively develop the proprioception and fine motor control of
fingers and thumb.
We know that until children develop their sense of their bodies in three-dimensional
space, they cannot perceive diagonal lines of letters like ‘W’ and ‘V’ when these are drawn on
their backs (Johnson, 2014). This is linked to letter formation, so providing opportunities
for children to dance and move in space plays an important role in developing this
awareness and their writing.
Dancing and singing games with hand movements and action rhymes encourage
movements of the hands and feet across the midline of the body. If children tap their right
knee with their left hand, they are developing their ‘laterality’ that helps develop the neural
pathways connecting the two hemispheres of the brain and the pre-reading skill of eye
tracking.

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 CHAPTER 3: HOW ARTS EXPERIENCES CONTRIBUTE TO CHILDREN’S GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 79

Mathematical concepts are embedded in art-making. For example, children learn

proportion as they mix paint colours. They develop patterns through dancing, painting and
music making. The can explore concepts like add, divide, magnetism, tension and geometry
through dance. In the video Moving like Magnets ([Link] we see
young children exploring and demonstrating their understanding of magnetism and the
principles of attraction and repulsion through movement.
Rich art experiences create a context in which children can practise and rehearse their
spoken language skills, develop confidence with self-expression, connect with others
through music, Dance and drama, make friends, and become confident in who they are
within the different social spaces that are ‘school’ and ‘home’. For many children whose first
language is not English, the stepping stones provided by engagement in arts activities are
especially significant.

Figure 3.5 Communicating with parents about how children learn and develop through play-based
learning helps build confidence in the process and partnerships.

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 80 PART 1: CHILDREN’S LEARNING THROUGH THE ARTS

Summary
The early years are a time for supercharged growth and well recognised as a critical period
for learning for the development of the whole child. This occurs within, and is shaped by
children’s socio-cultural context.
Play and arts-making are children’s earliest or first ‘languages’ whereby they can enact
and communicate their meaning-making, so they provide the context and means for early
years’ educators to facilitate children’s development. The nature of the Arts affords sensory
rich, social, cognitively engaging, creative, and physically active experiences for young
children to develop their physical capabilities, cognitive skills, creativity, social competency,
emotional wellbeing, and emergent literacy and numeracy.
Children’s identity formation, which occurs within the context of their socio-cultural world
is also a major project of childhood. As children develop their sense of being an entity with
their own perceptions, motivations and initiative, they learn to exercise agency—the capacity
to shape and influence their world. They progressively develop confidence in their authority
and ability to make their own decisions, follow their own initiative, shape their situation
to meet their needs and influence events around them. The participatory processes
and exploration of ideas and socio-cultural situations that characterise the Arts provide
meaningful ways in which children can develop their selfhood.
In supporting and stimulating children’s development, a socio-pedagogic approach in a
co-created learning environment celebrates the authority and agency of learners to follow
their interests (being), make discoveries, and solve problems (becoming), share resources,
explore their social and cultural world, and create together (belonging).

Learning Activities
1 The quote from John Berger at the beginning of the chapter claims that for young
children, ‘everything that happens is a necessity’. Explain this claim, making reference to
the content of this chapter with its focus on children’s development.
2 Working in pairs, generate at least three reasons why is it important for young learners to
have agency and authority. Explain how this agency is fostered in the Arts. Present your
views to others in a PowerPoint presentation.
3 In small groups, create a dance or dramatic piece about some aspect of children’s
development and the way the Arts contribute to that development (for example, the role
of music in language development).

Further reading
Bolt, G. M. & McArdle, F. (Eds.). (2013). Young Children, Pedagogy and the Arts: Ways of
Seeing. New York, NY: Routledge.
Craft, A. (2002). Creativity and Early Years Education: A Lifewide Foundation.
London: Continuum.

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 CHAPTER 3: HOW ARTS EXPERIENCES CONTRIBUTE TO CHILDREN’S GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 81

Ewing, R. (Ed.). (2002). Creative Arts in the Lives of Young Children. ACER Press.
Farrell, A. & Samuelsson, I. P. (2016). Diversity in the Early Years. Australia and New
Zealand: Oxford University Press.
Kitson, R., & Bowes, J. (2010). Incorporating Indigenous Ways of Knowing in Early Education
for Indigenous Children. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 35(4), 81–89. Retrieved
from [Link]
Koster, J. B. (2014). Growing Artists: Teaching the Arts to Young Children. South
Melbourne: Cengage Learning.

Online resources
Early Childhood Australia: A comprehensive website with many resources for early
childhood educators (and parents). [Link]
Every Art, Every Child: Promotes a curriculum in, about and through the Arts. Incorporates
a range of teacher resources including lesson plans, photo essays and teaching guides.
[Link]
NAEYC: A US-based national association for the education of young children. The website
has a section on teaching young children and includes information about how arts
experiences support preschoolers. [Link]/tyc
PBS Parents: A broad-based website that has a section about the Arts and includes useful
references to the role of art in child development. [Link]/parents/education/music-
arts/arts

Chapter references
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and Decisions. Science, 328(5986), 1712–1715. doi: 10.1126/science.1189993
Adair Keys, J. (2014). Agency and Expanding Capabilities in Early Grade Classrooms: What It Could Mean for
Young Children. Harvard Educational Review, 84(2), 217–241.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2013). 6224.0.55.001 – Labour Force, Australia: Labour Force Status and Other
Characteristics of Families, Jun 2012. Canberra, ACT. Retrieved from [Link]/ausstats/abs@.nsf/
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