AQA Psychology A-level

Topic 5: Approaches
in Psychology
Notes

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Approaches in Psychology
Part 1 — The Origins of Psychology
Descartes and Dualism:
• In the 17th century, Descartes suggested that the mind and the body represented a dualism,
and that the two interact in different ways to produce different behaviours and thoughts. This
was the basis for the nature versus nurture debate.
• Psychology = “The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes and how these are
affected by internal and external factors” (IB definition).
• Science = 1“The pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and
social world, following a systematic methodology based on evidence”.
• Therefore, the features of science are as follows: A universal paradigm, theory construction,
hypothesis testing, deduction, falsification, replicability, objectivity, and the empirical method.

Wundt and Introspection:

• In 1879, Wundt set up his first laboratory where he adopted the use of introspection.
• Introspection is defined as 2 “a means of learning about one’s own currently ongoing mental
states or processes. Introspective knowledge is often held to be more immediate or direct than
sensory knowledge”.
• It features 3 conditions: The mentality condition (aims to generate beliefs about mental states
and events), the first-person condition (aims to generate beliefs about the individual’s own mind)
and the temporal proximity condition (generates beliefs and describes the individual’s current
mental life).
• Wundt isolated conscious thoughts into basic structures of thoughts, processes and images, in
a process called structuralism.
• The method of data recording was highly scientific e.g. the same stimulus was used each time,
allowing for replication under standardised conditions, hence producing reliable data.

Skinner, Watson and Behaviourism:

• Skinner disagreed with the subjective nature of introspection, in which the findings differed
greatly from individual to individual, making it difficult to establish general laws and unifying
principles of behaviour and cognition.
• Therefore, in the 1930s, Skinner’s idea of radical behaviourism (that private events could be
measured and quantified in the same way as observable behaviour) was tested using the
laboratory experiment method of research.
• This allowed for the objective measurement of observable behaviour, providing reliable data
through controlling and eliminating the effects of extraneous and confounding variables, by
using highly controlled conditions.
• This marked the beginning of Psychology as a scientific discipline!

Further Progress with Other Approaches:

• The Cognitive Approach = With the invention of the computer in the 1960s, cognitive
psychology flourised as psychologists had a metaphor for the functions and workings of the
mind i.e. the ‘computer analogy’.
• Social Learning Theory = Bandura also agreed with behaviourist principles (i.e. that behaviour is
learnt through experience) but argued that these principles are better applied to a social
context.
• The Biological Approach = Advances in technology, particularly with brain scanning techniques
in the 1970s, allowed psychologists to objectively observe and measure the biological basis of
behaviour.

1The Science Council. (2017). Our definition of science - The Science Council. [online] Available
at: [Link] [Accessed 6 Aug. 2017].
2
Schwitzgebel, Eric, "Introspection", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <[Link]
introspection/>.

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Approaches in Psychology
Part 2 — The Learning Approach: Behaviourism

A01 Introduction and Assumptions:

• The behaviourist approach is an approach to explaining behaviour which suggests that
all behaviour is acquired and maintained through classical and operant conditioning.
Hence, only behaviour which can be objectively measured and observed is studied, as
demonstrated by Skinner’s Box. This is due to the founders of behaviourism, Watson
and Skinner, disagreeing with the subjective nature of Wundt’s introspective methods,
and the inability to formulate general laws and universal principles based on his
observations.
• From a behaviourist perspective, the basic laws governing learning are the same across
both non-humans and humans. Therefore, non-human animals can replace humans in
behaviourist experimental research.

Classical Conditioning and Examples:

• Classical Conditioning = A type of learning which occurs through associations made
between the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus. Before conditioning, the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces the unconditioned response (UCR). During
conditioning, the neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the UCS, producing an
UCR. After conditioning, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus,
producing the conditioned response.
• Pavlov demonstrated that dogs could be conditioned to salivate upon hearing a bell, as
follows:
1. Before conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food) produced an unconditioned
response (salivation).
2. During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus was repeatedly paired with a neutral
stimulus (a bell), to produce the same unconditioned response of salivation.
3. An association was made between the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral
stimulus.
4. After conditioning, the neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus, producing
the conditioned response of salivation.
• Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the
unconditioned stimulus, so the conditioned response becomes extinct/disappears.
• Spontaneous recovery occurs when the individual carries out the conditioned response
some time after extinction has occurred.
• Generalisation occurs when slight changes in the conditioned stimulus, such as
different pitches of the bell used in Pavlov’s experiment, still produces the same
conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning and Examples:

• Operant conditioning = A type of learning where
behaviour is acquired and maintained based on its
consequences. Reinforcement increases the
likelihood of the observed behaviour being
repeated, whilst punishment (an unpleasant
consequence of behaviour) decreases this
likelihood.
• There are two types of reinforcement - positive and
negative. Positive reinforcement occurs when we
carry out a behaviour to receive a reward e.g.
completing homework to receive praise from a
teacher. On the other hand, negative reinforcement

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occurs when we carry out a behaviour to avoid
negative consequences e.g. completing
homework to avoid being given a detention.
• Skinner’s Box = Skinner demonstrated, using
a rat, the mechanisms of positive and negative
reinforcement. Positive reinforcement was
shown when the rats pressed down on a lever
to receive food as a reward, and subsequently
learnt to repeat this action to increase their
rewards. Negative reinforcement was shown
when the rat learnt to press down on the lever
to avoid the unpleasant consequence of an
electric shock.

A02 Potential Application Questions:

1. An understanding of the role of classical
conditioning in the acquisition and
maintenance of a phobia of white rats in
Little Albert (Watson and Rayner, 1920). It
would be particularly useful to discuss the
extinction of Little Albert’s phobia when the loud bang /conditioned stimulus no longer
produced the conditioned response of crying (when the loud bang was not paired with
the sight of the rat). Generalisations of his phobia to other white, fluffy objects may
also be discussed.
2. Being able to differentiate between classical and operant conditioning. These two
types of learning involve different mechanisms and have been demonstrated in
different scenarios.

A03 Evaluation:
+ Scientific Rigour = In an attempt to objectively and systematically collect reliable data,
the behaviourist approach makes use of highly scientific research methods, particularly
the laboratory experiment. Strictly-controlled conditions reduce and control for the
effects of confounding and extraneous variables, increasing the reliability and internal
validity of the findings (as these are more likely to be replicated when research is
conducted under the same conditions). By focusing on behaviour which is observable
and can be measured, the behaviourist approach increases the scientific credibility of
psychology.

+ Real-Life Applications = An increased understanding of classical and operant

conditioning has led to the development of treatments and therapies for serious mental
disorders. For example, token economies have been used as a way of dealing with
offending behaviour: inmates who carry out socially-desirable behaviour (such as
tidying their cell and avoiding conflicts) receive tokens (secondary reinforcers) which
can be traded for privileges (primary reinforcers), such as extra TV-time. Therefore,
behaviourist principles have had positive impacts on the lives of many.

— Environmental Determinism = The behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as the

product of past reinforcement contingencies, leaving no room for free will or conscious
choices. This hard deterministic stance may be a more appropriate explanation for animal
behaviour, whereas explanations of human behaviour should also account for emotions,

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motivations and reasoning skills (e.g. as social learning theory does). Hence, the
behaviourist approach may be a limited explanation for human behaviour.

— Cost-benefit analyses with the use of animals in experimental research = Skinner’s box
caused considerable physical harm to the rats, breaching the BPS ethical guideline of
protection from harm. Watson and Rayner’s classical conditioning experiments on Little
Albert failed to protect him from psychological harm, as well as not offering him the
opportunity to withdraw. Therefore, much behaviourist research, at least by modern
standards, would be viewed as unethical. However, a cost-benefit analysis may show that
the benefit of increased understanding of the different types of learning (classical and
operant conditioning) outweigh the ethical costs.

Part 3 — The Learning Approach: Social Learning Theory

A01 Introduction and Assumptions:

• Social learning theory (SLT) suggests that learning occurs both directly, through
classical and operant conditioning, and indirectly, through vicarious reinforcement.
• Assumes that learning occurs through the following stages: An observer identifies
themselves with a desirable role model. This role model displays or models a specific
behaviour, which is imitated by the observer. The likelihood that the observed behaviour
will be imitated is increased if the role model is seen to be ‘vicariously reinforced’ or
rewarded. Therefore, the consequences of the observed behaviour are more important
than observing the behaviour alone.
• Role Model = A person with whom the observer identifies with. The role model is usually
attractive, has high social status, is of a similar age and the same gender to the
observer. This model can exert influence indirectly by not being physically present in the
environment but, for example, seen in the media.
• Identification = The process by which an observer relates to/ associates themselves
with a role model and aspires to become more like that role model.
• Vicarious reinforcement = A type of indirect learning which occurs when an observer
sees their role model being rewarded for displaying a certain behaviour. The observer is
then motivated to imitate this behaviour, in an effort to receive the same reward.
• Mediational processes = Cognitive processes which mediate/intervene between
stimulus and response. The 4 mediational processes are: Attention, retention, motor
reproduction and motivation.
• The first two mediational processes are involved with the observation and
understanding of the behaviour, whilst the latter two are involved in the actual imitation
of the behaviour. This separation means that observed behaviours do not always need
to be reproduced at the same time.

A02 Potential Applications:

1. Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study (Bandura, Ross and Ross, 1961) - 36 boys and 36 girls,
aged between 3 and 6 years old, were tested. 3There were three experimental groups,
with the first being exposed to real-life aggressive models, a second group observing
the same models displaying aggressive acts on film and a third group viewing an
aggressive cartoon character. The researchers found that the children who’d observed
an aggressive role model behaved more aggressively themselves towards the Bobo

3
Bandura, Ross and Ross, Imitation of Film-Mediated Aggressive Model, Journal of Abnormal
and Social Psychology, 1963, 66(1), 3-11.

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doll compared to the non-aggressive role model control group. Links can be made to
the process of social learning theory.
2. Questions may be based upon why some individuals are chosen as role models rather
than others, why some children will not reproduce the observed behaviours (individual
differences in the use of mediational processes) and the influence of the media on
behaviour, according to SLT.
3. Comparisons with other approaches, specifically about why SLT may be a better
explanation for human, rather than animal, behaviour.

A03 Evaluation:

— Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment ignores the biological differences between boys and
girls = Social learning theory suggests that we learn from experience, and so ignores
other biological or psychological factors, thus adopting environmental determinism.
However, Bandura ignored the finding that 4 “boys, in relation to girls, exhibited
significantly more imitative aggression, more aggressive gun play, and more nonimitative
aggressive behaviour”. This may be explained due to boys having higher levels of the
hormone testosterone, which has been linked to increased aggressiveness. Therefore,
this suggests that SLT may not be a complete explanation for gender differences in
behaviour, due to not accounting for the biological and hormonal differences between the
sexes.

— Demand characteristics in Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment = Bandura’s study may

lack internal validity, due to not entirely investigating the effect of aggressive role models
because the Bobo doll is specifically designed to be hit. The study may also lack
mundane realism because it may not represent or measure how children would be
aggressive in day-to-day situations, perhaps towards objects or people that are not
meant to be struck. Therefore, participants may have deliberately acted more
aggressively towards the doll in order to please the experimenter (the ‘Please-U effect’).
This reduces the generalisability of the findings.

+ Acknowledges the role of human cognition = Human cognitive and decision-making

processes may be considered as more complex than that of animals. SLT has the
advantage, over behaviourism, that it recognises the role of mediational processes as
the conscious and cognitive insight that humans have into their behaviour. Therefore,
SLT may be a better explanation of human behaviour, compared to behaviourism.

Part 4 — The Cognitive Approach

A01 Introduction and Assumptions:

• Assumes that the scientific and objective study of internal mental processes is possible.
However, as these private processes cannot be directly observed, cognitive
psychologists formulate conclusions of their workings, through making inferences, based
upon observable behaviours.
• Therefore, much of the work of cognitive psychologists is the indirect measurement of
cognition.
• The cognitive approach sees mental processes as being separate from the brain.

4
Bandura, Ross and Ross, Imitation of Film-Mediated Aggressive Model, Journal of Abormal and
Social Psychology, 1963, 66(1), 3-11.

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• Cognitive psychologists use computer models and theoretical models to better
understand and model cognitive processes, through the use of analogies.

The ‘Computer Analogy’ and Theoretical

Models:
• An example of a theoretical model would be
the working memory model, which is a
diagrammatic representation of short-term
memory, made up of the following cognitive
components, through which information
flows: Central executive, phonological loop,
visuo-spatial sketchpad and the episodic
buffer.
• Analogies can also be made between the
workings of a computer and the functions of
the human brain. For example, both contain a
series of 3 processes: input, the use of a processor (e.g. the brain) and the production of
a comprehensible output (e.g. computer code or human language).
• The invention of the computer in the 1960s was crucial in the development of cognitive
psychology, as psychologists now had a metaphor for the mind.

Schemas:
• Schemas are ‘packages’ of ideas and knowledge about a certain person, place, object or
time. They are generated through experience, becoming more sophisticated through
time.
• They also act as mental frameworks, providing us with ‘mental shortcuts’ so we can
process large volumes of data quickly and efficiently, thus avoiding sensory overload.
• However, since schemas are ‘pre-conceived’, they may lead to perceptual distortions
due to having an already established mental framework e.g. James Potter et al (2009)
showing that when watching TV, 5“although viewers may share the same story schema,
they appear to make different judgements on the schema elements, and hence their
judgements about violence vary”.

The Emergence of Cognitive Neuroscience:

• Cognitive neuroscience is defined as ‘the scientific field concerned with the study of the
biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the
neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes’.
• A brief history of the emergence of cognitive neuroscience is detailed below:
1. Brain Mapping in the 1870s = Carl Wernicke, based on case studies of patients who all
had damage to a specific area of the brain and all suffered from the same type of
aphasia (Wernicke’s), inferred that Broddman’s area 22 must be involved in language
comprehension.
2. Objectively Investigating Brain Localisation Theory in the 1970s = Advances in
technology meant that it was possible to systematically measure and observe the
neural processes which coincide with specific brain functions. For example, using PET
scans, Petersen et al (1988) found evidence of Wernicke’s area being activated during
a listening task and Broca’s area being activated during a reading task.
3. Current Focuses of Cognitive Neuroscience = Current research focuses on the neural
basis of model-based planning (including the role of the dorsal hippocampus), the

5
W. James Potter, K. Pashupati, R.G. Pekurny, [Link]ffman and [Link], Perceptions of Television:
A Schema Explanation, Media Psychology, 4(1), 2002.

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Approaches in Psychology
neurological basis of autism, and also the neural basis of moral reasoning (involving
the ventral striatum).

A02 Potential Application Questions:

1. The current, modern applications of cognitive neuroscience.
2. The use of theoretical and computer models to understand cognition.
3. Explanations of perceptual errors, using knowledge of schemas.

A03 Evaluation:
+ Scientific Methods and Rigour = The emergence of cognitive neuroscience has
substantially increased the scientific credibility of psychology, bringing it closer to that of
biology, physics etc. This is due to the emphasis on objectively collecting reliable data
through direct observation of the neural processes underlying cognition, as seen in PET,
CT, MRI and fMRI scans.

— Overly-Abstract Concepts = Cognitive psychology makes extensive use of schemas

and analogies as ways of indirectly studying and inferring the cognitive basis of behaviour.
However, this reliance of inference means that some ideas in cognitive psychology may
seem too abstract and not have enough supporting empirical evidence of such
mechanisms being observed. Therefore, this reduces the potential practical applications of
cognitive research, as it remains mainly theoretical.

+ Practical Applications of Cognitive Neuroscience = An increased understanding of the

neural processes underlying cognition have proven to be useful in many areas. For
example, the design and manufacture of modern technology relies on an understanding
of behavioural science and human-computer interactions. In education, cognitive
neuroscientists can study a child’s performance in phonological tests to serve as a more
accurate prediction of their reading ability. Therefore, the impact of cognitive
neuroscience is increasingly seen in the real world.
+ Soft Determinism = The cognitive approach sees humans as being able to reason and
make conscious decisions within the limits of what they know or their ‘cognitive system’,
and so adopts a soft deterministic approach. This is more flexible than the behaviourist
hard determinism stance because it allows for humans to have some conscious insight
into their behaviour: a complexity which differentiates us from animals, and so provides a
better explanation for human behaviour than behaviourism.

Part 5 — The Biological Approach

A01 Introduction and Assumptions:

• According to the biological approach, humans are biological organisms made up of
physiological processes.
• Therefore, all thoughts, ideas and cognitive processes must be biological in origin. This
means that the mind ‘lives’ within the brain, and is not separate (as viewed by the
cognitive approach).
• The actions of genes, hormones, neurotransmitters and neurochemical mechanisms
must be understood in order to explain behaviour fully.

The Biological Basis of Behaviour:

• Heritability coefficients can be used to quantify the genetic or biological basis of a certain
characteristic. For example, IQ is said to have a heritability coefficient of 0.5 (Plomin),
and so the influence of nature (genetics) and nurture (the environment) are equal.

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• Behaviour genetics is defined as 6“the study of the influence of an organism’s genetic
composition on its behaviour and the interaction of heredity and environment insofar as
they affect behaviour”. Therefore, behavioural genetics is crucial in researching the
extent to which behavioural characteristics are inherited in the same way as
psychological characteristics.
• An individual’s genotype is their genetic make-up, where a gene is a short section of
DNA coding for specific proteins.
• An individual’s phenotype is the physical expression of their genotype.
• Therefore, the interaction between the phenotype and the environment results in
individual behaviour.
• Two people may have the same genotype but different phenotypes. This may be due to
personal choices they’ve made to alter their appearance, such as dying their hair or
piercing their ears, or due to the influence of epigenetics.
• Epigenetics is a change in gene expression, without altering an individual’s genetic
make-up. Epigenetic markers, such as DNA methylation and histone tail modification,
can be left on DNA through exposure to certain environmental factors, such as specific
diets and pollution.

Natural Selection and Evolution:

• Natural selection = The mechanism of evolution. The theory suggests that any
genetically-determined behaviour, which gives the individual a selective advantage
(increasing their chances of surviving, reproducing and passing down this beneficial
allele onto their offspring), will be present in future generations.
• This is due to the genetic transmission of ‘beneficial’ characteristics from one generation
to the next (i.e. heredity).
• Examples of genetically-determined behaviours with a selective advantage include:
avoiding fire and deep water (these are the prepared stimuli suggested by Seligman’s
theory of learned preparedness), certain individuals having longer necks (Lamarck’s
example of an animal who is better adapted to reaching and eating leaves at the tops of
trees) and specific cows producing more milk (increasing the chance of survival of their
young).
• Evolution = 7“The process by which organisms change over time as a result of changes
in heritable physical or behavioural traits”.

A02 Potential Application Questions:

1. How certain genetic and psychological disorders demonstrate the interaction between
genotype and phenotype.
2. An explanation of why two individuals can have the same genotypes, but different
phenotypes.
3. Examples of behaviours which have a ‘selective advantage’.
4. Comparative points between the biological approach and the cognitive approach.

A03 Evaluation:
+ Practical application in the development of drugs = An increased understanding of the
biological processes which underpin mental health diseases has led to the development of
psychoactive drugs e.g. for depression and schizophrenia. These may target specific
candidate genes to directly treat the disorder, or may alter neurotransmitter levels to help

6Encyclopedia Britannica, published on 22.01.17, accessed on 05.07.17, Plomin, R. https://

[Link]/science/behaviour-genetics
7
Darwin, C., On the Origin of Species, 1859.

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Approaches in Psychology
alleviate symptoms e.g. dopamine antagonists, such as Chlorpromazine, reduce dopamine
action and so normalise neurotransmission in the hypothalamus and ventral striatum in the
brains of schizophrenia sufferers. The main advantage of such drug treatments, compared
to cognitive therapies such as CBT, is that they require minimal effort on the part of the
patient. They are non-invasive and not time-consuming, unlike cognitive therapies which
require willpower and regular sessions.

— Biological Determinism = The biological approach suggests that all behaviour is

caused by internal biological forces over which we have no control i.e. the influence of
genes, hormones, neurochemistry etc. However, this has serious implications for the
judicial system and the economy. The current judicial system expects individuals to take
moral responsibility for their actions, and so such actions cannot be entirely blamed on
genetic factors. However, if, for example, a criminal gene or a schizophrenia gene was
discovered, this could lead to ‘diminished responsibility’ of these individuals, as well as
shorter prison sentences. The economical impact would be that if such information about
genes coding for mental health disorders or criminality were made public, then such
individuals may be denied health insurance and jobs on this basis. Therefore, such
biological determinism has potentially severe real-life consequences.

— Twin studies cannot differentiate between the effects of nature and nurture = MZ twins
usually show higher concordance rates for mental disorders and psychological
characteristics compared to DZ twins. From a biological perspective, this is often
explained by how MZ twins share 100% of genes with each other, compared to only 50%
for DZ twins. However, this makes the naïve assumption that the only differences these
twins have are genetic. MZ twins are more likely to grow up in the same household, be
exposed to similar experiences and be raised using parenting styles. This may explain the
differences in concordance rates between MZ and DZ twins, as opposed to only genetic
differences. This may also explain why MZ twins often have higher concordance rates
than ordinary siblings, despite both sharing 50% of genes. Therefore, this suggests that
behaviour cannot and should not be explained in purely genetic terms (as suggested by
the biological approach), without accounting for social contexts, through adopting an
interactionist approach.

+ Scientific Rigour and Methods = The biological approach uses EEG, PET and fMRI
scans to objectively and systematically measure the biological or neural basis of
behaviour. Drugs are also then developed on this basis, whilst family and adoption
studies can lead to an increased understanding of the concordance rates and heritability
of certain psychological characteristics. This increases the scientific credibility of
Psychology, through the strict control of extraneous and confounding variables.

Part 6 — The Psychodynamic Approach

A01 Introduction and Assumptions:

• Freud adopted the use of psychic determinism = This is the idea
that all behaviour is caused by unconscious internal conflicts, over
which we have no control.
• There are 3 levels of consciousness: The conscious, preconscious
and unconscious.
• We are only aware of our conscious. Contents of the preconscious
are revealed through parapraxes, slips of the tongue and dreaming.

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Therefore, since we are completely unaware of our unconscious, inferences of its
workings can be made through the psychoanalysis (analysing symbols in dreams) and
psychotherapy.
• The unconscious stores our biological drives and instincts (e.g. hunger, thirst and sex) as
well as upsetting and disturbing thoughts repressed from the conscious.

Freud’s Tripartite Personality:

• Freud viewed the personality as made up of three components i.e. ‘tripartite’. These are
the Id, ego and superego.
1. Id = This is the innate part of the personality, and operates on the pleasure principle.
Therefore, the Id constantly demands instant gratification (e.g. to fulfill innate,
biological instincts, such as hunger and thirst) and so is in conflict with the superego.

2. Ego = Formed during the first 3 years of life, and operates on the reality principle. The
ego helps to resolve the conflict between the id and the superego through the use of
defence mechanisms (repression, denial and displacement). The strength of the
unconscious depends upon how efficiently the ego resolves this conflict.
3. Superego = Formed at the end of the phallic stage, and operates on the morality
principle. This contains the child’s internalised sense of right and wrong, based upon
their same-sex parent. The superego is in constant conflict with the Id.

The Psychosexual Stages:

• Freud adopted a nomothetic approach by suggesting that there a series of
developmental stages through which all children progress, and in the same order.
• Each stage is characterised by a conflict, which must be resolved to pass to the next
stage, apart from latency.
• Failure to do so results in ‘fixation’ at that stage, where dysfunctional behaviours
associated with that stage are carried forwards to adulthood.
• The ideas of the Oedipus and Electra Complexes were developed on the basis of case
studies conducted on Little Hans, where Freud suggested that Little Hans’ phobia of
horses stemmed from a fear towards his father, due to having sexual desires for his
mother.
• This is an example of the idiographic approach to research (i.e. the use of case studied),
but with a nomothetic application (i.e. all boys experience the Oedipus Complex, whilst
all girls experience the Electra Complex).

A02 Potential Application Questions:

1. Comparisons between the psychodynamic approach and humanism.
2. Explanation of the case of Little Hans, using the psychosexual stages.

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3. Links between the psychodynamic approach and the current scientific status of
Psychology (synoptic with Research Methods).
4. Psychodynamic explanations of mental disorders, making links with the tripartite
personality and the role of the unconscious.

A03 Evaluation:

— Unconscious Concepts = Since we are unaware of the unconscious, then it is not

possible to objectively and systematically measure it. Therefore, this means that,
according to Karl Popper, that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific
criterion of falsification, leaving it unfalsifiable and a pseudoscience. This does little to
improve the scientific credibility of psychology, and indeed has left many with an
inaccurate view of psychology as a scientific discipline.

— The use of an idiographic approach / Case studies = Many of Freud’s theories, most
notably the Oedipus and Electra Complexes, were based on data from individual case
studies and interviews. There are several problems with this. The first, is that participants
selected to be subjects of case studies are often of some kind of special psychological
interest, and so cannot represent the experiences of the general population, so the
findings lack ecological validity. Secondly, mainly qualitative data is collected, which means
that the researcher draws their own subjective conclusions. This is particularly the case if
the researcher knows what they are looking for and/or the aims of the investigation, so the
results will be affected by researcher bias. Therefore, Freud’s data and theories suffer from
limited applications and generalisability.

— Psychic Determinism = Freud suggested that all behaviour is the product of

unconscious, internal conflicts (between the Id and the superego, whilst being mediated by
the ego) over which we have no control. This means that every action, even ‘accidental’
slips of the tongue, has some kind of meaning and can give us insight into our
unconscious. However, this adds to the subjectivity of interpretations of these meanings,
and therefore is not in line with scientific methods of investigating behaviour. This is all in
contrast to the hard determinism approach used by behaviourism, reciprocal determinism
used by social learning theory, soft determinism used by the cognitive approach and
biological determinism used by the biological approach.

+ Practical Applications = Psychotherapy and psychoanalysis are both rooted in the

psychodynamic approach and still have modern uses. For example, Kohlenberg et al
(2002) found that 8 “FECT / Functional Analytic Cognitive Therapy produced a greater
focus on the client-therapist relationship and is a promising approach for improving
outcomes and interpersonal functioning. It also appears that a focus during sessions on
clients’ problematic cognitions about the therapist adds to the efficacy”. Therefore,
Freud’s psychodynamic approach has made a long-lasting contribution towards
treatment of various mental disorders, such as depression.

Part 7 — The Humanistic Approach

A01 Introduction and Assumptions:

8
Robert J. Kohlenberg, Jonathan W. Kanter, Madelon Y. Bolling, Chauncey R. Parker, Mavis Tsai,
Enhancing cognitive therapy for depression with functional analytic psychotherapy: Treatment
guidelines and empirical findings, Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, Volume 9, Issue 3, 2002,
Pages 213-229,

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• Assumes that we all have free will and are ‘mistresses’ and ‘masters’ of our own
development, so we can ignore the influence of internal and external factors on our
behaviour.
• Sees self-actualisation, as achieved by being the top level of Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs, as a crucial part of being human.
• Due to having free will, we also have to ability to progress through this hierarchy of
needs and better ourselves.

Incongruence and Self-Actualisation:

• The ‘self’ is a term to describe all the ideas and values we have about ourselves,
including perceptions of our abilities.
• The ‘ideal self’ describes our perception of the best version of ourselves.
• When there is too large a gap between the self and the ideal self, we experience
incongruence. The consequent negative feelings of low self-worth and low self-esteem
prevent us from progressing through Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and so we cannot
achieve self-actualisation.
• When there is little or no gap between the self and the ideal self, then we have achieved
congruence, allowing us to progress up the hierarchy, with the aim of achieving self-
actualisation.
• Self-actualisation refers to the innate
desire we all have to become the best
version of ourselves, through personal
and psychological growth i.e. “achieving
one’s full potential” (as shown on the
right).

Rogerian Therapy, Conditions of Worth

and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:
• Rogerian therapy aims to reduce the gap
between the self and the ideal self, thus
increasing increasing the likelihood of
achieving congruence and subsequently,
self-actualisation.
• According to Rogers and Maslow, conditions such as low self-esteem and low self-worth
originate in childhood, where adults restrict the love they show towards their children, by
imposing conditions of worth e.g. “I will be proud of you only if you achieve top grades at
school”. This represents a lack of unconditional positive regard.
• Rogerian therapy views a good therapist as being open, genuine, empathic and most
importantly, providing the unconditional positive regard which the patient most likely
lacked during childhood.
• These therapies view patients as ‘experts’ of their conditions, and so they are
encouraged to arrive at their own solutions to these problems, with the help of a
therapist.

A02 Potential Application Questions:

1. The impact of humanism on counselling psychology.
2. Comparisons with other, reductionist approaches.
3. Explanation of mental disorders using the Maslow’s idea of a hierarchy of needs,
conditions of worth, a lack of unconditional positive regard in childhood and
subsequent incongruence.

[Link]
Approaches in Psychology
A03 Evaluation:
+ Practical Application to Therapy = Rogers’ client-centred therapy has had a major impact
on counselling psychology, and how such therapies are used both in the USA and the
UK. This therapy is particularly beneficial due to acknowledging that individuals do have
free will and do have the ability to improve themselves, through focussing on developing
solutions to the patient’s current problems. This is in stark contrast with Freud’s
psychotherapies, which tend to dwell upon childhood experiences and so may be
frustrating for the patient who has identified the cause of their problems. Nonetheless,
Roger’s client-centred approach is not suitable for treating serious mental disorders,
such as schizophrenia or depression.

+ Holistic Approach = The humanistic approach is unique in that it adopts holism, therefore
focussing on the individual’s subjective experiences as a whole, as a method of
investigating behaviour. This is in contrast with the cognitive approach (which sees the
brain’s functions as analogous to a computer), the biological approach (which sees
humans purely as biological organisms which are made up of physiological processes)
and behaviourism (where all behaviour is seen as the product of past reinforcement
contingencies). Therefore, humanism is a refreshing alternative, compared to other
reductionist explanations of behaviour.

— Untestable and subjective concepts = As with Freud’s psychodynamic approach,

humanism suffers from a lack of empirical evidence and no possibility of systematically
observing and measuring the processes which it describes. Self-actualisation cannot be
objectively measured, due to individual differences and a lack of a universal measuring
scale. Similarly, congruence may also be up to personal judgement, especially as opinions
of whether one has is their ‘ideal self’ will differ. This does little to improve the scientific
credibility of both humanism and Psychology.

— A culture-bound explanation of behaviour = Maslow’s ideas of self-actualisation, the

need to improve oneself, and congruence can be mostly viewed as attitudes typical of
Western, individualist cultures where the needs of the individual are greater than the
needs of the group. Therefore, due to this cultural bias, humanism may be more readily
accepted by Western cultures who will identify more with these values, as opposed to
Eastern collectivist cultures, where such a desire for personal growth may be seen as
selfish considering that the needs of the group are greater than that of the individual.

Part 8 — Comparison of Approaches:

Behaviourism SLT The Cognitive The Biological Humanism
Approach Approach

Nature Vs Behaviour is Behaviour is Babies are born The activity of Nurture — A

Nurture learnt through learnt through with a select genes, lack of
experience i.e. the observation few innate hormones and unconditional
stimulus- and imitation of schemas (e.g. neurotransmitte positive regard
response links. an identified sucking) but rs is inherited/ in childhood,
role model, develop other innate. due to
within a social sophisticated However, implemented
context. schemas over epigenetics conditions of
time. (affected by worth, leads to
external factors) low self-esteem
also affects and feelings of
gene worthlessness.
expression.

[Link]
Approaches in Psychology
Behaviourism SLT The Cognitive The Biological Humanism
Approach Approach

Holism Vs Environmental Reductionist Reductionist Biological Holism — The

Reductionism Reductionism view that view that Reductionism whole,
i.e. all behaviour can behaviour can — Behaviour subjective
behaviour is be explained in be explained in can only be human
explained in terms of terms of the explained by experience is
terms of simple classical influence of the actions of used to study
stimulus- conditioning, schemas. genes, behaviour,
response links. operant hormones and without
conditioning neurotransmitte formulating
and vicarious rs. general laws.
reinforcement.

Free Will Vs Environmental Reciprocal Soft Biological Free Will —

Determinism Determinism — Determinism — Determinism — Determinism — Humans are
All behaviour is We operate on We are free to All behaviour is free to reject
the result of the make caused by the external
classical and environment, conscious internal, forces that
operant but the decisions and biological operate on us,
conditioning, environment in reason within forces over because we are
where we have turn operates the limits of which we have ‘masters’/‘mistr
no conscious on us. what we know/ no control. esses’ of our
insight into our our cognitive own
behaviour. system. development.

Explanation of Caused by Caused by the Faulty schemas There may be A lack of

Mental associations observation generated candidate unconditional
Disorders made between and imitation of through specific genes for positive regard
the inappropriate experiences, specific mental in childhood,
unconditioned role models, leading to health disorders due to
and neutral using the 4 perceptual and criminality conditions of
stimulus mediational errors and e.g. CHD-13 worth imposed
(classical processes sensory stimuli (criminality) and by parents,
conditioning) (attention, distortions. 5HT1-D beta leads to
and retention, motor (OCD). These incongruence
maintenance reproduction genes then and an inability
through operant and motivation). influence to self-
conditioning The role model neurotransmitte actualise.
e.g. avoidance is seen as r and hormone
behaviour in particularly production.
OCD is desirable.
negatively
reinforced.

[Link]