Effects of processing and
storage of food
Fertilizers
Most plant crops are produced with the aid
of fertilized soils. High use of nitrogen
fertilizers tends to reduce the vitamin C
content in many fruits and vegetable crops.
It does not seem to make any difference to
the plant’s nutrient value whether the
fertilizer is organic or not.
Milling
• Cereals such as wheat can be ground to
remove the fibrous husks. The husks contain
most of the plant’s dietary fibre , B-group
vitamins, phytochemicals and some
minerals. That is why products such as white
bread are less nutritious than wholesome
varieties, even if they have been artificially
fortified with some of the nutrients that were
lost after milling. It is impossible to add
back everything that is that is taken out,
especially the phytochemicals. The fibre that
Milling
is added back to some products is often in
the form of resistant starch, which may not
be as beneficial as the fibre removed.
Blanching
Before a food is canned or frozen, it is
usually heated very quickly with steam or
water. The water-soluble vitamins including
vitamin C and B-complex are sensitive and
easily destroyed by blanching.
Canning
Food is heated inside the can to kill any
dangerous micro-organisms and extend the
food’s shelf life. Some types of
microorganisms require severe heat
treatment and this may affect the taste and
texture of food, making it less appealing.
Preservatives are generally not needed or
used in canned foods. Water soluble
vitamins are particularly sensitive to high
temperature.
Pasteurization
Pasteurization involves heating liquid foods
such as liquid milk and fruit juices to
specific temperatures to destroy micro
organisms. The nutrient value generally of
milk is generally unaffected. In the case of
pasteurized fruit juices, some losses of
vitamin C occur.
High Pressure processing
This alternative preservation method subjects
a food elevated pressures with or without the
use of heat to kill microorganisms. This
method has been used in foods such as fruit
juices. As heat is not required, this process
impacts less on the vitamin content, flavor
and odor of foods.
Dehydrating
Drying out foods such as fruits can reduce
the amount of vitamin C, but it can also
concentrate other nutrients, particularly fiber
in plant foods. Dehydrating food also makes
food products more energy dense, which
may contribute to weight gain. If a
dehydrated food is reconstituted and cooked
with water, further nutrients are leached out
of the food and lost in the cooking water.
Effect of preparation and
processing on Starch
Dry heat
The starch become more soluble in
comparison to untreated starch
Reduce thickening power
Some of the starch molecules are broken
down to dextrins and the process is known as
Dextrinization which is accompanied by
color and flavor changes.
A characteristics brown color and flavor
develops
Moist heat
When starch is heated with water, the
granules swell
The dispersion increases in viscosity until a
pick thickness is reached.
The dispersion increases its translucency
and this change is known as Gelatinization.
Gelatinization may be partial or complete.
Gel formation
As a starch-thickened mixture cools after
gelatinization is complete, bond form
between the molecules of starch in the
mixture.
This bond produces a three-dimensional
network that increases the rigidity of the
starch and form a gel
Water is trapped in the network of starch
This rigid shape of the gel forms only
gradually after the starch mixture has been
allowed to cool.
Syneresis
After gel formation, starch gels are allowed
to stand for some time, then additional
bonds are formed between the straight chain
amylose molecules.
Some of these molecules get associated and
aggregate in a particular area in an
organized crystalline manner.
As these molecules tend to pull together, the
gel network shrinks, pushing out the
entrapped water from the gel. This process
of weeping from a gel is called Syneresis.
Changes in Fat during cooking
and storage
What happens to fat when heated?
In cooking, fat transfer heat to foods and
prevents them from sticking. It also holds the
heat in food, emulsifies or thickens sauces
and creates a crisp texture when used for
frying. One important aspect of fat is its
ability to be heated to relatively high
temperatures without boiling or otherwise
breaking down.
Changes in Fat during cooking
The free fatty acid value increases,
indicating partial decomposition of fats
The temperature at which the fat smokes is
lowered
The fat polymerises
The fat darken in color
Deep frying
Deep frying is the most common and one of
the oldest methods of food preparation
worldwide. It involves heat and mass
transfer.
When heated repeatedly, changes in physical
appearance of the oil will occur such as
increased viscosity and darkening in color
which may alter the fatty acid composition
of the oil.
Deep Frying
Heating causes the oil to undergo a series of
chemical reactions like oxidation, hydrolysis
and polymerization.
During this process, many oxidative
products such as hydroperoxide and
aldehydes are produced, which can be
absorbed into the fried food.
Changes in Fats during storage
Flavor reversion
Rancidity
✓ Air (oxidation)
✓ Water (hydrolysis)
✓ Enzymes
Effect of preparation and
processing on Protein
Cooking effect on protein
All proteins are first denatured and then
coagulated by heat. The coagulation occurs
between 650 and 900 C
The temperature of coagulation increases
with the addition of other ingredients. For
example egg proteins coagulate at 650-700
but egg custard coagulates at 850-900C
Cooking results in softening of proteins in
foods such as egg, fish, poultry and meat as
water is bound in the process of coagulation.
Cooking effect on protein
If the coagulated protein is heated further, it
losses moisture and becomes dry and
rubbery.
Proteins are precipitated by change of pH
e.g., addition of lemon juice to prepare
paneer. Proteins bind water if the
coagulation is gradual e.g., addition of lactic
inoculums results in the formation of solid
curd from liquid milk.
How Common Cooking Methods
Affect Food
Boiling and Simmering
Boiling is a very popular cooking method
which involves immersing food in water and
cooking over heat.
Simmering uses a gentler heat to cook the
food.
The main advantage with boiling and
simmering is that there is no increase in the
calories of the food
Boiling fish preserves the omega-3 fats in the
fish better than microwaving and frying that
cause the loss of some of these healthy fats.
Boiling and Simmering
During boiling or simmering, nutrients like B
vitamins (B vitamins help the body to use the
carbohydrates, protein and fats in food) and
minerals in the food leach out into the liquid
around the food. Up to 60% of B vitamins
and 50% of vitamin C are lost during boiling
and simmering.
Steaming
Steaming involves the use of steam
generated from boiling water to cook food.
In this case, the food does not have direct
contact with the boiling water helping to
retain the nutrients that would leach out of
the food if it were boiled or simmered.
Vitamin C might be lost in this process
Steaming food like carrots before
consumption helps you to get more vitamin
A from the carrots than raw carrots.
Frying
Frying involves the use of hot oil to cook
food. There are different frying techniques:
pan-frying, deep frying, shallow frying and
stir frying; the difference is in how much oil
is used and whether or not the food is stirred
in the process.
Frying increases the total amount of fat in
the food which also causes an increase in the
number of calories in the food.
Frying
Frying leads to the loss of B vitamins and
vitamin C.
The kind of oil used for frying has been found
to have an effect on the nutritional quality of
fried foods if food is fried with unhealthy fats
then fried food will have a lot of unhealthy fats.
Frying foods like potatoes leads to the
formation of some resistant starch, which is
good but when you fry it till it turns brown, it
could be potentially harmful to health.
Microwaving
Microwaving is a safe method of cooking,
contrary to the popular notion that it is harmful.
Water in food is supplied with energy to a point
where the water heats up and that hot water in
the food heats the rest of the food.
Generally, due to the heating process, some of
the nutrients and other healthful chemicals in
foods may be affected. This is mainly
dependent on the intensity of the microwaves,
the microwave oven is set to operate at and how
long the food is microwaved.
Baking and Roasting
Baking and roasting are dry heat cooking
methods. They do not require the use of
water or other liquids to transfer heat to food
to cook it, but hot air.
Baking and roasting impart flavor to food
due to the browning that occurs.
Depending on the food, some chemicals
that is harmful may be formed.
Smoking
Smoking is one of the oldest methods of
cooking. It uses a combination of heat and
smoke to flavor and cook food in a way that
preserves it.
Smoking food directly above fire often
generates certain chemicals (polycylic
aromatic hydrocarbons) which could be
harmful to health. This happens when fat
drippings from the food fall into the fire and
the chemicals rise with the smoke ending up
in the food that is being smoked.
Grilling and Broiling
Grilling and broiling both use direct heat to
cook food. The only difference is grilling
cooks food with the heat source below the
food while broiling cooks food with the heat
source above the food.
During grilling or broiling about 40% of B
vitamins are lost.
Effect of preparation and
processing on vitamins and
minerals
Vitamin A
Food processing & storage can lead to 5-40%
destruction of vitamin A & carotenoids
In absence of O2 & at higher temp., in
cooking or food sterilization, the main
reactions are isomerization and fragmentation.
In presence of O2, oxidative degradation
leads to a series of products, some of which
are volatile. This oxidation often parallel lipid
oxidation. The rate of oxidation is influenced
by O2 partial pressure, water activity & temp.
etc.
Vitamin D
Vitamin D is sensitive to O2 & light.
Its stability in food is not a problem because
adults usually obtain a significant supply of
this vitamin
Vitamin E
Losses occur in vegetable oil processing
into margarine and shortening.
Losses are also encountered in intensive
lipid oxidation, particularly in dehydrated or
deep fried food.
Vitamin K
Vitamin K compounds are destroyed by
light & alkali.
They are relatively stable to atmospheric O2
& exposure to heat.
In the hydrogenation of oils, the double
bond in residue R is attached which is less
active
Thiamine
Thiamine stability in aqueous solution is
relatively low. It is influenced by pH, temp.,
ionic strength & metal ions.
The enzyme bound form is less stable than free
thiamine.
Strong nucleophili reagent such as HSO3- or
OH- cause rapid decomposition
Thermal degradation of thiamine yields the
thiazole & pyrimidine derivatives is involved in
the formation of meat like aroma in cooked
food
Riboflavin
Riboflavin is relatively stable in normal food
handling process. Losses range from 10-15%.
Exposure to light especially in the visible
spectrum from 420-560nm, photolytically
cleaves ribitol from the vitamin, converting it
to lumiflavin
Pyridoxine ( Vitamin B6 )
The most stable form of the vitamin is
pyridoxal and this form is used for vitamin
fortification of food.
Pyridoxin loss is 45% in cooking of meat
and 20-30% in cooking of vegetables
During milk sterilization a reaction with
cysteine transform the vitamins into an
inactive thiazolidine derivative. This reaction
may account for vitamin losses also in other
heat treated foods.
Pantothenic acid
Pantothenic acid is quite stable. 10% losses
are experienced in processing of milk. 10-
30% losses occur due to leaching during
cooking of vegetables.
Biotin
Biotin is quite stable. Losses during
processing & storage of food are 10-15%
Folic acid
Folic acid is quite stable. There is no
destruction during blanching of vegetables
while cooking of meat gives only small
losses.
Losses in milk are apparently due to an
oxidative process & parallel those of
ascorbic acid.
Cyanocobalamin
The stability of cyanocobalamin is very
dependent on a number of conditions. It is
fairly stable at pH 4-6, even at high temp.
In alkaline media or in the presence of
reducing agents, such as ascorbic acid or
SO2 , the vitamin is destroyed to a greater
extent.
Vitamin C
Ascorbic acid (I) is readily and reversibly
oxidized to dehydroasorbic acid (II) which is
present in aqueous media as a hydrated
hemiketal (IV). The biological activity
decreases by oxidation of I to II because
there are indications that the vitamin C
activity of II is only 10% of I. The activity is
completely lost when the dehydroascorbic
acid lactone ring is irreversibly opened
giving rise to 2,3-diketogulonic acid (III).
Vitamin C
The oxidation of ascorbic acid to
dehydroascorbic acid and further
degradation products depends upon oxygen,
partial pressure, pH, temperature and the
presence of heavy metal ions, Cu+2 & Fe+3
results in high losses at a higher rate than
non catalyzed auto oxidation