CHAPTER 5:

PHYSICAL DATABASE DESIGN AND

PERFORMANCE

Essentials of Database Management

Jeffrey A. Hoffer, Heikki Topi, V. Ramesh

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

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WHAT IS DATA NORMALİZATİON?
It’s no secret.

We are officially living in the era of big data.

Nearly every business—especially large-scale enterprises—collects, stores,

and analyzes data for the benefit of growth.

In most daily business operations, managing data is a norm, using tools such
as:

•Databases

•Automation systems

•CRM platforms

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WHAT İS DATA NORMALİZATİON?
 If you've worked in any company for some time, you've probably
encountered the term Data Normalization.
 Data normalization ensures:
• Consistency: Data is organized in a consistent format, reducing
redundancy.
• Accuracy: By removing duplicates, the accuracy of data is
improved.
• Efficiency: It streamlines data management, making it easier to
maintain and query.

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WHAT İS DATA NORMALİZATİON?
 Data normalization is generally considered the
development of clean data. Diving deeper,
however, the meaning or goal of data normalization
is twofold:

1. Data normalization is the organization of data to

appear similar across all records and fields.

2. It increases the cohesion of entry types leading to

cleansing, lead generation, segmentation, and
higher quality data.
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WHAT İS DATA NORMALİZATİON?
this process includes eliminating unstructured data and redundancy (duplicates) in
order to ensure logical data storage.

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WHO NEEDS DATA NORMALİZATİON?
 Database Administrators: They use normalization to design efficient and reliable
databases, minimizing redundancy and ensuring data integrity.

 Data Analysts: Normalized data is easier to query and analyze, leading to more
accurate insights and reports.

 Developers: Working with normalized data structures simplifies development and

maintenance of applications.

 Businesses: Any company that stores large amounts of data benefits from improved
data consistency and reduced storage costs.

 Researchers: Clean and organized data is crucial for accurate and replicable
research results.

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HOW DATA NORMALİZATİON WORKS
 Normalization is simply creating a standard format for
all data throughout a company:
 Miss EMILY will be written in Ms. Emily
 8023097864 will be written 802-309-7864
 24 canillas RD will be written 24 Canillas Road
 GoogleBiz will be written Google Biz, Inc.
 VP marketing will be written Vice President of Marketing

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1. FİRST NORMAL FORM (1NF)
For the purposes of complexity, in this article, the first and three most common
forms are discussed at a top-level and all data is considered in table format.

1. First Normal Form (1NF)

The most basic form of data normalization is 1NFm which ensures there are no
repeating entries in a group. To be considered 1NF, each entry must have only
one single value for each cell and each record must be unique.

For example, you are recording the name, address, gender of a person, and if
they bought cookies.

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2. SECOND NORMAL FORM (2NF)
 Again working to ensure no repeating entries, to be in the 2NF rule, the
data must first apply to all the 1NF requirements.

 Following that, data must have only one primary key.

 To separate data to only have one primary key, all subsets of data that
can be placed in multiple rows should be placed in separate tables.

 Then, relationships can be created through new foreign key labels.

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3. THİRD NORMAL FORM (3NF)

 For data to be in this rule, it must first comply with all the 2NF
requirements.

 Following that, data in a table must only be dependent on the primary

key.

 If the primary key is changed, all data that is impacted must be put into
a new table.

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BENEFİTS OF DATA NORMALİZATİON
Eliminates Data Redundancy

Improves Data Integrity

More space
Enhanced Query Performance Faster question answering

Facilitates Data Maintenance Better segmentation

Promotes Scalability

Better Data Relationships

Reduces Anomalies

Optimized Storage Use

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DATA NORMALIZATION IS NOT AN
OPTION
Mandatory for Data Integrity

Scalability

Facilitates Maintenance

In essence, normalization isn't just a best practice—it's a necessity

for any organization that relies on data for its operations and
decision-making processes.

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 OBJECTIVES
 Define terms
 Describe the physical database design
process
 Choose storage formats for attributes
 Select appropriate file organizations
 Describe three types of file organization
 Describe indexes and their appropriate use
 Translate a database model into efficient
structures, and know when/how to
denormalize
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PHYSICAL DATABASE DESIGN

 Purpose–translate the logical description

of data into the technical specifications
for storing and retrieving data
 Goal–create a design for storing data that
will provide adequate performance and
insure database integrity, security, and
recoverability

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 PHYSICAL DESIGN PROCESS
Inputs Decisions
Normalized relations
Attribute data types
Volume estimates
Physical record descriptions
Attribute definitions (doesn’t always match
logical design)
Response time
expectations File organizations
Leads to
Data security needs Indexes and database
architectures
Backup/recovery needs
Query optimization
Integrity expectations
DBMS technology used
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 PHYSICAL DESIGN FOR
REGULATORY COMPLIANCE
 Sarbanes- Oxley Act (SOX) – protect investors by
improving accuracy and reliability
 Committee of Sponsoring Organizations (COSO)
of the Treadway Commission
 IT Infrastructure Library (ITIL)

 Control Objectives for Information and Related

Technology (COBIT)
Regulations and standards that impact physical design decisions
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 DESIGNING FIELDS

 Field:smallest unit of application data

recognized by system software
 Field design
Choosing data type
Coding, compression, encryption

Controlling data integrity

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CHOOSING DATA TYPES

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Figure 5-1 Example of a code look-up table
(Pine Valley Furniture Company)

Code saves space, but costs

an additional lookup to
obtain actual value

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 FIELD DATA INTEGRITY
 Default value–assumed value if no explicit
value
 Range control–allowable value limitations
(constraints or validation rules)
 Null value control–allowing or prohibiting
empty fields
 Referential integrity–range control (and
null value allowances) for foreign-key to
primary-key match-ups
Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) legislates importance of financial data integrity
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HANDLING MISSING DATA

 Substitute an estimate of the missing

value (e.g., using a formula)
 Construct a report listing missing values

 In programs, ignore missing data unless

the value is significant (sensitivity testing)

Triggers can be used to perform these operations

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 DENORMALIZATION
 Transforming normalized relations into non-normalized
physical record specifications
 Benefits:
 Can improve performance (speed) by reducing number of table
lookups (i.e. reduce number of necessary join queries)
 Costs (due to data duplication)
 Wasted storage space
 Data integrity/consistency threats
 Common denormalization opportunities
 One-to-one relationship (Fig. 5-2)
 Many-to-many relationship with non-key attributes (associative entity)
(Fig. 5-3)
 Reference data (1:N relationship where 1-side has data not used in
any other relationship) (Fig. 5-4)

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Figure 5-2 A possible denormalization situation: two entities with one-
to-one relationship

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Figure 5-3 A possible denormalization situation: a many-to-many
relationship with nonkey attributes

Extra table
access
required

Null description possible

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Figure 5-4
A possible
denormalization
situation:
reference data

Extra table
access
required

Data duplication

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 DENORMALIZE WITH CAUTION
 Denormalization can
 Increase chance of errors and inconsistencies
 Reintroduce anomalies
 Force reprogramming when business rules
change
 Perhaps other methods could be used to
improve performance of joins
 Organization of tables in the database (file
organization and clustering)
 Proper query design and optimization

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DESIGNING PHYSICAL DATABASE FILES
 Physical File:
A named portion of secondary memory allocated
for the purpose of storing physical records
 Tablespace–named logical storage unit in which
data from multiple tables/views/objects can be
stored
 Tablespace components
 Segment – a table, index, or partition
 Extent–contiguous section of disk space
 Data block – smallest unit of storage

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 Figure 5-5 DBMS terminology in an Oracle 11g environment

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FILE ORGANIZATIONS
 Technique for physically arranging
records of a file on secondary
storage
 Types of file organizations
Sequential
Indexed
Hashed

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FILE ORGANIZATIONS
 Factors for selecting file
organization:
Fast data retrieval and throughput
Efficient storage space utilization
Protection from failure and data loss
Minimizing need for reorganization
Accommodating growth
Security from unauthorized use

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Figure 5-6a
Sequential file
organization

Records of the If sorted – every

insert or delete
file are stored in requires re-sort
sequence by the
primary key
field values
If not sorted
Average time to
find desired record
= n/2

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 INDEXED FILE ORGANIZATIONS
 Storage of records sequentially or
nonsequentially with an index that allows
software to locate individual records
 Index: a table or other data structure used to
determine in a file the location of records that
satisfy some condition
 Primary keys are automatically indexed
 Other fields or combinations of fields can also
be indexed; these are called secondary keys
(or nonunique keys)
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 Figure 5-6b Indexed file organization

uses a tree search

Average time to find desired
record = depth of the tree

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Figure 5-6c
Hashed file
organization

Hash algorithm
Usually uses division-
remainder to determine
record position. Records
with same position are
grouped in lists.

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Figure 5-7 Join Indexes–speeds up join operations

b) Join index for matching foreign

key (FK) and primary key (PK)

a) Join index
for common
non-key
columns

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USING AND SELECTING KEYS
 Creating a unique key index
 Example: CustomerID (primary key) of Customer

 Example: Composite primary key for OrderLine

 Creating a secondary key index

 Example: Description field for Product (not unique)

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RULES FOR USING INDEXES

1. Use on larger tables

2. Index the primary key of each table
3. Index search fields (fields frequently in
WHERE clause)
4. Fields in SQL ORDER BY and GROUP BY
commands
5. When there are >100 values but not when
there are <30 values

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 RULES FOR USING INDEXES (CONT.)
6. Avoid use of indexes for fields with long
values; perhaps compress values first
7. If key to index is used to determine location of
record, use surrogate (like sequence nbr) to
allow even spread in storage area
8. DBMS may have limit on number of indexes
per table and number of bytes per indexed
field(s)
9. Be careful of indexing attributes with null
values; many DBMSs will not recognize null
values in an index search

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QUERY OPTIMIZATION
 Parallel query processing–possible when
working in multiprocessor systems

 Overriding automatic query optimization–

allows for query writers to preempt the
automated optimization

 Data warehouses are already configured for

optimized query performance

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