NUCLEI

NUCLEI
According to Rutherford the size of an atom is of the order of 10-10 m, the
size of the atomic nucleus is of the order of 10-15 m. Thus, most of the space around the
nucleus of an atom is empty space.

Atomic Masses and Composition of Nucleus

 One atomic mass unit is defined as the of the mass of an atom of isotope.
As,
Avogadro’s number = 6.023 × 10
∴ Mass of 6.023 × 10 atoms of C = 12gm.
12
Mass of one atom of C = gm.
6.023 × 10
By defn,
1
1 a. m. u = × mass of one atom of C
12
1 12
1 a. m. u = × = 1.66 × 10 gm.
12 6.023 × 10
So, 1 a. m. u = 1.66 × 10 kg.
 Mass of electron in a.m.u (me) = 0.00055u.
 Mass of proton in a.m.u (mp) = 1.007825 u.
 Mass of neutron in a.m.u (mn) = 1.008665u.
Nucleons
Proton and neutrons which are present in the nuclei of atoms are collectively
known as nucleons.

Mass Number
The total number of a protons and neutrons present in a nucleus is called the
mass number of the element. It is denoted by A.

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Atomic Number
The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number of the element.
It is denoted by Z.
 Number of protons in atom= Number of electrons = Atomic number = Z.
 Number of nucleons in an atom = A.
 Number of neutrons in an atom = N = A- Z.

Nuclear Mass
The total mass of the protons and neutrons present in a nucleus is called the
nuclear mass.

 1 electron volt (eV) = . × .

1 Mega electron volt (MeV) = . × .
 1 a.m.u = 931 MeV.

Composition of Nucleus
1. Proton Electron Hypothesis
According to proton electron hypothesis the nucleus of an atom of mass
number and atomic number Z is made up of A protons and (A-Z) electrons. As every
atom is electrically neutral it must contains Z more electrons. They revolve around the
nucleus in circular orbits. However, this hypothesis was rejected later in view of the
following problems:

a) According to de Broglie hypothesis and Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, if an

electron is to exist inside the nucleus, it should possess energy ranging from 20MeV
to 200MeV.
But the energy of electrons emitted during β- decay is at the most 2 to 3 MeV.

b) The values of magnetic moments of nuclei are much smaller than the magnetic
moments of electrons.

c) The presence of a few electrons inside the nucleus and others is revolving in orbits
around the nucleus show dual role of electrons in atomic structure, which is difficult
to visualize.
From this reasons, therefore electrons cannot exist inside the nucleus.

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2. Discovery of Neutron
Chadwick observed that when beryllium was bombarded with alpha particles,
some neutral radiations were emitted and these neutral radiations consists of neutral
particles called neutrons, which carrying no charge and having mass equal roughly to
the mass of a proton.

3. Proton – Neutron Hypothesis

According to this hypothesis, a nucleus of mass number A and atomic number Z
contains Z protons, Z electrons and (A-Z) neutrons. As an atom is electrically
neutral, therefore number of electrons is equal to the number of protons.
Ex: zX → X is an element where A is mass number and Z is atomic number.

Isotopes
The atoms of an element which have the same atomic number but different
mass number are called isotopes.

Ex: 1H , 1H , 1H , are the isotopes of hydrogen.

6c , 6c , 6c , 6c , 6c , are the isotopes of carbon lithium has two isotopes

3Li and 3Li And

The atomic weight of an element is the weighted average of the masses of all
its isotopes.

For ex: Neon has two isotopes of masses 20 and 22 which occur in the ratio 9:1.

∴ Average atomic weight of neon

20 × 9 + 22 × 1 180 + 22
= = = .
(9 + 1) 10

 Isotopes of an element having identical chemical properties.

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Isobars
The atoms having the same mass number but different atomic number are
called isobars.
Ex: 20Ca , 18Ar are isobars.
17Cl , 16S are also isobars
Also, 6C , 7N are isobars.
 The chemical properties of isobars are widely different.

Isotones
The nuclides having the same number of neutrons are called isotones.
Ex: 17Cl and 19K are isones.

Number of neutrons (A-Z) = 20 for both.

Nuclear Size
Experimentally observations show that the volume of a nucleus is directly
proportional to its mass number.
V ∝A
4
πr ∝A
3
r ∝A

=
Where is an empirical constant = 1.2 × 10-15m.

Nuclear Density
Density of nuclear matter is the ratio of mass of nucleus to its volume.
Let, mass of nucleus = mA
Nuclear density,
mass of nucleus
ρ =
Volume of nucleus

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mA mA 3m
= = =
4 4 4πR
πr R A
3 3

ρ=

So, nuclear density is independent of mass number A.

Now, putting the standard values,
= . × .

Solved Examples
1. What is equivalent energy of a 10mg mass?
Ans:- E= mc = 10 × 10 × 9 × 10 = × .

2. The nuclear mass of is 55.85 amu. Calculate its nuclear density.

Ans:- Here
m = 55.85 amu = 55.85 × 1.66 × 10 kg
= 9.27 × 10 kg

Nuclear radius = R A = 1.1 × 10 × (56) m [∵ A = 56]

Nuclear mass m
ρ = =
Nuclear volume 4
πr
3
9.27 × 10
=
4π
× (1.1 × 10 ) × 56
3
= . × .
3. Express 16mg mass into equivalent energy in eV.
Ans:- Here m = 16mg = 16× 10 kg
c = 3 × 10 ms
∴ Equivalent energy,
E = mc = 16 × 10 × (3 × 10 ) J

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16 × 10 × (3 × 10 )
= eV = × .
1.6 × 10

4. What will be the ratio of the radii of two nuclei of mass numbers A1 and A2?
Ans:- Ratio of the radii of two nuclei,
/
R A
=
R A

5. (a) Two stable isotopes of lithium have respective abundances of

7.5% and 92.5%. These isotopes have masses 6.01512 amu and 7.01600 amu
respectively. Find the atomic weight of lithium.
(b) Boron has two stable isotopes, and . their respective masses are
10.01294 amu and 11.00931 amu, and the atomic weight of boron is 10.811 amu.
Find the aboundances of and .
Ans:- The atomic weight of lithium is
7.5 × 6.01512 + 92.5 × 7.01600
m (Li) =
100
45.1134 + 648.98 694.0934
= =
100 100
≈ . .
(b) Suppose the natural boron contains x% of B isotope and (100-x) % of B isotope.
Then,
Atomic masses of natural boron = Weighted average of the masses of two isotopes
x × 10.01294 + (100 − x) × 11.00931
∴ 10.811 =
100
or 1081.1 = −0.99637x + 1100.931
19.831
or x= = 19.9
0.99637
∴ Relative abundance of B isotope = . %
Relative abundance of B isotope = . %

6. The three stable isotopes of neon: , , have respective abundances

of 90.51%, 0.27% and 9.22%. the atomic masses of the three isotopes are 19.99
amu, 20.99 amu and 21.99 amu respectively. Obtain the average atomic mass of
neon.

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Ans:- The average atomic mass of neon is

. × . . × . . × . . . .
m (Ne) = =
1945.31
=
100
= . .
7. You are given two nuclides . (a) Are they isotopes of the same element?
Why? (b) Which one of the two is likely to be more stable? Give reason.
Ans:- (a) Yes, they are the isotopes of the same element because they have same atomic
number (Z = 3).
(b) The isotope X has 3 protons and 4 neutrons while the isotope Y has 3 protons
and 1 neutron. Due to the presence of a greater number of neutrons in X , the strong
attractive nuclear force dominates over the electrostatic repulsion between the protons. So
X is more stable than Y.

8. Group the following six nuclides into three pairs of (a) isotones, (b) isotopes and
(c) isobars:
, , , , ,
How does the size of a nucleus depend on its mass number? Hence explain why the
density of nuclear matter should be independent of the size of the nucleus.
Ans:- (a) Isotones: Hg and Au [Same (A − Z)]
(b) Isotopes: C, and C [Same Z but different A]
(c) Isobars: He and H. [Same A but different Z]

The effective radius of a nucleus is related to its mass number A and r= r0 A1/3, r0 is a
constant.
Volume f the nucleus
4 4 4
= πr = π r A / = πr A.
3 3 3
If m is the average mass of a nucleon, then mass of the nucleus = mA.
Mass mA 3m
Nuclear density = = =
Volume 4
πr A 4πr
3
Clearly, nuclear density is independent of the size of the nucleus.

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Mass- Energy Relation

Einstein was the first to establish the equivalence of mass and energy
through the famous relation.
=
Where, = × / . The relation means that when a certain mass m
disappears, an equivalent amount of energy E appears and vice- versa.

Nuclear Binding Energy

It may be expected that the mass of the nucleus is equal to the total mass of its
individual protons and neutrons. However the nuclear mass M is found to be always less
than this.
So, the difference in mass of a nuclear and its constituents is called Mass
defect (Δm).
∆ = + ( − ) −
Now, in an atom, protons and neutrons are bound together by means of strong
attractive nuclear forces.
So, the binding energy of a nucleus may be defined as the energy required to
break up a nuclear into its constituent protons and neutrons and to separate them to
such a large distance that they may not interact each other.

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Binding energy = mass defect × c
. = [ +( − ) − ]

 When Δm is in a. m. u, energy released in MeV (can be calculated directly by

multiplying mass defect with 931.5 MeV.
B.E = Δm × .

∆
 Packing fraction = =

 Binding per Nucleon is the average energy required to extract one nucleon from the
nucleus.
.
= .
Actually it gives a measure of force, which binds the nucleons together inside
a nucleus.
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 It also defined as if a certain number of neutrons and protons are brought together to
form a nucleus of a certain charge and mass, and energy B.E will be released in the
process. This energy B.E is called the binding energy of the nucleus.

Binding Energy Curve

The binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus gives a measure of the stability
of that nucleus. Greater is the binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus, more stable as the
nucleus.

The main Feature of This Graph :

a) The binding energy per nucleon B.E is practically constant i.e. practically
independent of the atomic number for nuclei of middle mass number (30 < A < 170).
This curve has a maximum of about 8.75 MeV For A= 56 and has a value of 7.6
MeV for A = 238.

b) B.E is lower for both light nuclei (A < 30) and heavy nuclei (A > 170).

c) Energy can be released when a heavy nucleus (A = 240) breaks into two roughly equal
fragments. This process is called nuclear fission.

d) Energy can be released when two or lighter nuclei (A ≤ 10) fuse together to form a
heavy nucleus. This process is called nuclear fusion.

e) The constancy of the binding energy in the range 30 < A < 170 is a consequence of
the fact that the nuclear force is short- ranged.

f) The B.E/ nucleon is small for light nuclei like , , .

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Nuclear force
Nuclear forces are the strong forces of attraction which hold together the
nucleolus (neutrons and protons) in the tiny nucleus of an atom, in spite of strong
electrostatic forces of repulsion between protons.

Some important Characteristics of these forces are :

a) Nuclear forces are the strongest forces in nature. It is 100 times that of electrostatic
force and 1038 times that of gravitational force.

b) The nuclear force between neutron – neutron, proton- proton and neutron- proton
is approximately the same and it is independent of the electric charge.

c) It is very short range forces. It is negligible, when distance between nucleons is more
than 10 Fermi and become strongly repulsive when distance between nucleons
becomes less than 0.8 fermi.

d) Nuclear forces of attraction develop on increasing rapidly with decreasing

distance. So, nuclear forces do not obey inverse square law.

e) The potential energy is a minimum at a distance r0 of about 0.8 fm. At this distance
nuclear force is zero. This means that the force is attractive for distances larger than
0.8 fm and repulsive if they are less than 0.8 fm.

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Solved Examples
1. Obtain the binding energy of nitrogen nucleus from the following data:
= . ; = . amu. Give your answer in MeV.
Ans:- The N nucleus contains 7 protons and 7 neutrons.
Mass of 7 protons = 7 × 1.00783 = 7.05481 amu
Mass of 7 neutrons = 7 × 1.00867 = 7.06069 amu
Total mass = 14. 11550 amu
Mass of N N nucleus = 14.00307 amu
Mass defect, Δm = 0.11243 amu
B.E. of nitrogen nucleus
= 0.11243 ×931 = 104.67 MeV.

2. A given coin has a mss of 3.0g. Calculate the nuclear energy that would be
required to separate all the neutrons and protons from each other. For simplicity
assume that the coil is entirely made of atoms (of mass 62.92960 amu) . The
masses of proton and neutron are 1.00783 amu and 1.00867 amu, respectively.
Ans:- The Cu nucleus contains 29 protons and 34 neutrons.
Mass of 29 protons = 29 × 1.00783 = 29.22707 amu
Mass of 34 protons = 34 × 1.00867 = 34.29478 amu
Total mass = 63. 52185 amu
Mass of Cu Nucleus = 62.92960 amu
Mass of defect, Δm = 0.59225 amu
B. E. of Cu Nucleus
= 0.59225 × 931 MeV = 551.385 MeV.
Number of atoms in 63g of Cu
Avogadro’s number = 6 × 10
∴ Number of atoms in 3 g of Cu
6 × 10 ×3
= = 2.86 × 10
63
Energy required to separate all the neutrons and protons from each other of 3g
copper coin.
= 551.385 × 2.86 × 10 = . × .

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3. The neutron separation energy is defined to be the energy required to remove a

neutron from a nucleus. Obtain the neutron separation energies of the nuclei
and :
= . ;
= . ;
= . ;
= . ;
= . ;
Ans:- Neutron separation energy S of a nucleus X is given by
S = m X +m −m X c
= m X + Zm +m − m X + Zm c
= m X +m −m X c
Here m refers to nuclear mass while m refers to atomic mass.
∴ Neutron separation energy of Ca is given by
S ( Ca) = [m( Ca) + m − m( Ca)]c
= [39.962591 + 1.008665 − 40.962278] × 931 MeV

= 0.008978 × 931 MeV . By using c = 931

= . .
Neutron separation energy of Al is given by
S ( Al) = [m( Al) + m − m( Al)]c
= [25.986895 + 1.008665 − 26.981541] × 931 MeV.
= 0.014019 × 931 MeV
= . .
4. (a) Define the terms (i) mass defect (ii) binding energy for a nucleus and state the
relation between the two.
(b) For a given nuclear reaction the B.E./nucleon of the product nucleus/nuclei is
more than that for the original nucleus/nuclei. Is this nuclear reaction exothermic or
endothermic in nature? Justify your choice.
Ans:- (a) (i) Mass defect: The difference between the rest mass of a nucleus (m) and the
sum of the rest masses of its constituent nucleons (m’) is called its mass defect. The mass
defect of nucleus is given by:
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∆m = m − m = Z + (A − Z)m − m
(ii) Binding energy: The binding energy of a nucleus id defined as the energy required to
break up a nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons and to separate them to such
a large distance that they may not interact with each other.
B. E = ∆m × c
(b) The given nuclear reaction is exothermic i.e., there is a release of energy.
The increase in B.E./nucleon implies that more mass has
been converted into energy. This would result in release of energy.

5. The potential energy (V), of a pair of nucleons varies with separation (r) between
them, in the manner shown in fig.

Use this graph to explain why the force between the nucleons must be regarded as:
a) Strongly repulsive for separation values less than r0.
b) Attractive nuclear force (r > r0).
Ans:- The potential energy of the two nucleons is minimum at a separation of r0.
a) For separation values less than r0, the P.E. increases rapidly with the decrease in
separation r. this indicates strong repulsion between the nucleons.
b) For separation values greater than r0, the P.E. is negative which falls to zero for a
separation more than a few femtometers. This indicates an attractive force between the
nucleons.

6. If the total number of neutron sand proton in a nuclear reaction is conserved,

how then is the energy absorbed or evolved in the reaction? Explain.
Ans:- Since proton number and neutron number are conserved in a nuclear reaction, the
total rest mass of neutrons and protons is the same on either side of a reaction. But the
total binding energy of the nuclei on the left side need not be the same as that on the right
hand side. The difference in these binding energies appears as energy released or
absorbed in a nuclear reaction.

7. A heavy nucleus X of mass number A = 240 and binding energy per nucleon 7.6
MeV is split into two nearly equal fragments Y and Z of mass numbers A1 = 110
and A2 = 130. The binding energy of each one of these nuclei is 8.5 MeV per
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nucleon. Calculate the total binding energy of each of the nuclei X, Y and Z and
hence the energy Q released per fission in MeV.
Ans:- For nucleus X: A = 240
B.E. per nucleon = 7.6MeV.
Total B.E. of X = 240 × 7.6 = 1824 MeV.
For nucleus Y: A1 = 110
B.E. per nucleon = 8.5MeV.
Total B.E. of Y = 110 × 8.5 = 935 MeV.
For nucleus Z: A2 = 130
B.E. per nucleon = 8.5MeV.
Total B.E. of Z = 130 × 8.5 = 1105 MeV.
Energy released per fission,
Q = B.E of Y + B.E of Z – B.E. Of X
= 935+1105 - 1824 = 2040 – 1824 = 216 MeV.

Check Your Skill

1. Express one atomic mass unit in energy units, first in Joules and then in MeV.
Using this, express the mass defect of .
Ans:- 127.5 MeV.

2. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of nucleus. Given

= .
( )= . ;
( )= . .
Ans:- 8.547 MeV.

3. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon nucleus. Given that:

Mass of = .
= .
Mass of proton = 1.007825 amu
Ans:- 8.79 MeV.

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4. Obtain the binding energy of the nuclei in units of MeV from the
following data:
= .
= .
= .
= .
= . .
Which nucleus has grater binding energy per nucleon?
Ans: 492.26 MeV , B.E/ N = 8.79 MeV , 1640.3 MeV , B/N = 7.85 MeV.

Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the phenomenon of spontaneous disintegration of the
nucleus of an atom without being any external agent (like temperature, pressure etc.)
 In this spontaneously of emit penetrating radiations were called radioactive substances
like α – particles, β- particles and γ- rays.
Ex:- Radioactive substance :
Uranium, Thorium, Polonium, Radium etc.

Three types of radio-active decay occur in nature:

a) α- decay with a helium nucleus He is emited, it will change into a new atom whose
atomic number is reduced by two and mass number is reduced by four.

 It is velocity ranges between 1.4× 107 m/sec to 2.1× 107 m/sec and penetrating
power is being times due to β- rays and times due to that γ – rays.
,

 = = × . × and = = × . × .

b) β- decay in which electrons and positrons (particles with the same mass as electrons,
but with a charge exactly opposite to that of electron) are emitted.

 The emission of a β – particle from an atomic atom will change it, into a new atom
whose atomic number is raised by one, without any change in its mass number.
 Its velocity ranges from 33% to 99% of the velocity of light.
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 q = e = 1.6 × 10 C of negative charge i.e. charge on electron and

m = 9.1 × 10 kg. = m

c) γ – decay in which high energy (hundreds of KeV or more) photons are emitted.

 The emission of γ- ray photon from an atom without change in its atomic number and
mass number.
 γ – rays travels with the speed of light and it has very large penetrating power.
 When a γ- ray passes close to a nucleus, it gets transformed into an elementary particle
and its antiparticle.
γ → 0 0
: +
γ − photon electron positron

Law of radioactivity decay

The number of nuclei / atoms disintegrating per second of a radioactive sample at any
instant is directly proportional to the number of undecayed nuclei / atoms present in
the sample at that instant.
 During disintegration of an atom either an α – particle or a β – particle is emitted,
both of these particles are never simultaneously.

− ∞

,
N → total number of atoms present in the sample initally at t = 0 .
N → the number of atoms present in the sample at any instant.

dN → the number of atoms which disintegrate in the small interval dt .

− = λN
Where λ is disintegration / decay constant.
dN
= −λdt
N
Integerating both sides ,

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dN
= −λ dt
N
Loge N = -λ t + C
Where c is a integeration of constant .
At, t = 0 , N = No
Log N = − λ × o + c
∴ C = Log N
now,
Log N = − λt + Log N
N
Log = − λt
N
N
= e
N

∴ = − −(2)
 Disintegration constant:
If t = then,
N
N= N e =N e =
e
N
N= = 0.368 N
2.718

= = . %

So, the Radioactive decay constant may be defined as the reciprocal of the
time interval during which the number of active nuclei in a given radioactive sample
raduces to 36.8% (or ) of its initial value.

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Half – Life
The time interval in which one- half of the radioactive nuclei originally
present in the radioactive sample disintegrate is called half-life of the radioactive
substance.
Let t = T / , N=
From eq. (2)
N= N e
N
=N e
2
1
= e
2
or, 2= e /

Taking log both sides,

Log 2 = Log e = λ T Log e

2.303Log 2 = λ T

or, 2.303 × 0.3010 = λ T /

.
∴ / = − − − −(3)

 Ex: half time of U − 238 = . × .

half life of R − 226 = .
half life of P − 212 = × .

 Rate of disintegration, R =
,
R = λN = λ N e (from eq 2)
= e (∵ =λN )
R is also called activity.
S.I unit: curie (ci) 1 curie = 3.7× decays per second.
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Bacquerel (B q)
1 Bacquerel = 1 Bq = 1decay per second.
And
Rutherford (rd)
1 Rutherford = 106 decays per second = 106 Bq.
And 1 ci = 3.7 × 104 rd.
At,

 t= T/ , N= =N (for first half life )

 t = 2T / , N= = N (for second half life )

 t = 3T / , N= = N (for third half life )

/
 t = nT , N= N =N
(for nth half life )

/ /
∴ = =
/ T1/2
So, = = =

Average or mean life of Radioactive element.

The average time for which the nuclei/atoms of a radioactive element exist
is called mean or average life of that sample.
sum of the lives of all the atoms
Mean life =
Total number of atoms.
Let, total life of d N atoms = t d N.

total life of all the N atoms = ∫ tdN

1
Mean life = tdN − − − −(1)
N

As , N= N e
Differentiating both sides,

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dN dN e
= = λN e
dt dt
∴ dN = λ N e dt − −(2)
When N = N , t = o and when N = 0, t = ∞.
So,

1
τ = λN e t dt
N

τ = λN e dt

te e
= λ − dt
−λ −λ

λ e
= 0+ e dt = e dt =
λ −λ
−1 −1
= [e −e ] = [0 − 1]
λ λ

So, =

Or,
/ .
= = . / ∵ / =
. λ

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Solved Examples
1. Find the half life of a radioactive material if its activity drops to 1/6th of its initial
value in 30 years.
Ans:- As activity ∝ No. of atoms present.
N
∴ N=
16
1
But N= N ,
2
Where n is the number of half lives
N 1 1 1
∴ =N or = or n = 4
16 2 2 2
Half- life period

= = . . (t = n T / )

2. A radioactive material is reduced to 1/16 of its original amount in 4 days. How

much material should one begin with so that 4 ×10-3 kg of the material is left after
6 days.
N 1 1 1
Ans: − As = ∴ =
N 2 16 2
1 1
or = or n = 4
2 2
t 4 days
T ⁄ = = = 1 day
n 4
Now, N = 4 × 10 kg, t = 6 days or n = 6
∴ N = N(2) = 4 × 10 ×2 = . .

3. An observer in a laboratory starts with nuclei of a radioactive sample and

keeps on observing the number (N) of left over nuclei at regular intervals of 10
minutes each. She prepares the following table on the basis of her observations:
Time (t) 0 10 20 30 40
(in min)
0 3.465 6.930 10.395 13.860

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Use this data to plot a graph of ( ) vs. time (t) and calculate the (i) decay
constant and (ii) half – life of the given sample.
Ans:- The graph between log (N ⁄N) and time (t) is shown in fig.
(i)Now log = λt
1 N
∴ λ= log
t N
When t = 10min,
N
log = 3.465
N
1
∴ λ= × 3.465 = . .
10
0.693 0.693
(ii) T⁄ = = = .
λ 0.3465

4. Prove that the instantaneous rate of change of the activity of a radioactive

substance is inversely proportional to the square of its half life.
dN
: − Instantaneous activity, R= − λN
dt
The instantaneous rate of change of the activity of a radioactive substance,
dR d dN
= (λ N) = λ = λ(−λN)
dt dt dt
log 2
= −λ N= − N
T⁄

∴ ∝
⁄

5. (i) The number of nuclei, of a given radioactive nucleus, at time t = 0 and t = T,

are and ( / ) . obtain an expression for the half life ⁄ of
this nucleus in terms of n and T.
(ii) Identify the nature of the ‘radioactive radiations,’ emitted in each step of the
‘decay chain’ given below:
→ → →
Ans:- (i) According to the exponential radioactive decay law,
N= N e

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At time t = T, N = N /n, so
N
= N e
n
or n=e
∴ log n = λT log = λT × 1
log
or λ=
T
0.693
∴ half life, T ⁄ =
λ
-
(ii) (i) α – particle (ii) γ – ray (iii) β - particle.

6. The normal activity of living carbon –containing matter is found to be about 15

decays per minute for every gram of carbon. This activity arises from the small
proportion of radioactive C14 present with the ordinary carbon isotope C12. When
the organism is dead, its interaction with the atmosphere (which maintains the
above equilibrium activity) ceases and its activity begins to drop. From the
known half life (= 5730 years) of C14, and the measured activity, the age of the
specimen can be approximately estimated. This is the principle of C14 dating used
in archaeology. Suppose a specimen from Mohenjodaro gives an activity of 9
decays per minute per gram of carbon. Estimate the approximate age of the
Indus- Valley civilization.
Ans:- Given normal activity,
R = 15 decays min
Present activity,
R = 9 decays min ,
T ⁄ = 5730 years
Since, activity is proportional to the number of radioactive atoms, therefore,
R N N e
= = =e
R N N
9 15
or = e or e =
15 9
Taking natural logarithms,

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 NUCLEI

15
log e = log
9
5
or λt log e = 2.303 log = 2.303 × 0.2218
3
0.5109
or t= [∵ log e = 1]
λ
0.693
As T⁄ =
λ
0.5109 0.5109
∴ t= = ×T ⁄
0.693 0.693
T⁄
0.5109 × 5730
= years
0.693
= .
7. Obtain the amount of necessary to provide a radioactive source of 8.0m Ci
strength. The half –life of is 5.3 years.
Ans:- Here R = 8.0mCi
= 8.0 × 10 × 3.7 × 10 dis s
= 29.6 × 10 dis s
T ⁄ = 5.3years = 5.3 × 3.16 × 10 s
0.693
But R = λN = ∙N
T⁄
RT ⁄ 29.6 × 10 × 5.3 × 3.16 × 10
∴ N= =
0.693 0.693
= 7.15 × 10 atoms.
As 60g of cobalt contains 6.023 × 10 atoms, so the amount necessary to obtain a
source of the required strength.
60 × 7.15 × 10
= = . × .
6.023 × 10

8. The half of is 28 years. What is the disintegration rate of 15mg of this

isotope?
Ans: −Here, T ⁄ = 28 years = 28 × 3.154 × 10 s , m = 15 mg = 0.015g, M = 90

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 NUCLEI

Number of atoms in 0.015g sample of Sr

m
N = × Avogadro s number
M
0.015 × 6.023 × 10 atoms
=
90
Activity of the sample,
0.693 0.693 × 0.015 × 6.023 × 10
R = λN = ∙N =
T⁄ 28 × 3.154 × 10 × 90
= 7.877 × 10 disintegrations/ second
7.877 × 10
= 7.877 × 10 Bq = Ci = . .
3.7 × 10

Check Your Skills

1. A given coin has a mass of 3.0g. Calculate the nuclear energy that would be
required to separate all the neutrons and protons from each other. For simplicity
assume that the coin is entirely made of atoms (of mass 62.92960 amu). The
masses of proton and neutron are 1.00783 amu and 1.00867 amu, respectively.
Ans:- 1.6× 10 MeV.

2. A radioactive isotope has a half-life of T years. How long will it take the activity
to reduce to (a) 3.125% (b) 1% of its original value?
Ans:- a) 5T years b) ≈ 6.65T years.

3. The half life of is 5700 years. What does it mean? Two radioactive nuclei Z
and Y initially contain an equal number of atoms. Their half life is 1 hour and 2
hours respectively. Calculate the ratio of their rates of distegration after two
hours.
Ans:- 1 :1 .

4. Name the physical quantity whose SI unit is becqueral (Bq). How is this quantity
related to (i) disintegration constant, (ii) half-life, and (iii) mean life of the
radioactive element?

5. Define the term ‘Activity’ of a radioactive substance. State its SI. unit. Two
different radioactive elements with half lives T1 and T2 have N1 and N2
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 NUCLEI
(undecayed) atoms respectively present at a given instant. Determine the ratio of
their activities at this instant.
Ans: = .

6. Define the activity of a radionuclide. Write its SI unit. Give a plot of the activity
of a radioactive species versus time. How long will a radioactive isotope, whose
half life is T years, take for its activity to reduce to 1/8th of its initial value?
Ans:- t = 3T.

7. Show that the decay rate ‘R’ of a sample of a radionuclide is related to the
number of radioactive nuclei ‘N’ at the same instant by the expression R = λN.

8. A radioactive substance decays to 1/32 th of its initial activity in 25 days.

Calculate its half life.
Ans: 5 days

9. The half life of against α –decay is 1.5× 1017s. what is the activity of sample
of . having 25× 1020 atoms?
Ans:- 11550 disintegrations/ second.

10. The half life of against α –decay is 4.5× 109 years. Calculate the activity of
1g sample of .
4
Ans:- 1.235×10 Bq.

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 NUCLEI

Alpha Decay
It is the phenomenon of emission of an α-particle from a radioactive nucleus.
When a nucleus emits an alpha particle, its mass number decreases
by 4 and atomic number decreases by 2.
zX ⎯⎯⎯⎯ z − 2X + 2He + Q

: 92U ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 90Th + 2He + Q

84Po ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 82Pb + 2He + Q

 Speed and kinetic of α-particle,
A−4
K. E = Q
A

2(A − 4)Q
and V =
Am

 Find out the value of Q in the reaction

Q = m zX − m Z − 2Y + m 2He × 931.5 MeV.

Beta –Decay
Beta decay is the phenomenon of emission of an electron
( ) or a ( ) radioactive nucleus.

: The mass of the radioactive nucleus remains unchanged but its atomic
number increases by one. An electron and a new particle antineutrino ( ) are emitted
from the nucleus.
zX ⎯⎯ z + 1X −1e + v
 The basic nuclear process underlying β decay is the conversion of neutron to
proton.
n →P+e + v
 An unstable nucleus has excess neutrons than needed for stability; a neutron converts
itself into a proton. So, in a decay an electron and an antineutrino are created.

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 NUCLEI

Ex: − ⎯⎯ + − + +

⎯⎯ + − + +
 Most of the β- particles emitted carry small energies, only very few β – particles carry
maxm energy called end point energy.

 The Q value of ⊕ .

 If the unstable nucleus has excess protons than that needed for stability a proton
coverts itself into a neutron. So, in a β decay a position and neutrino are created
and emitted from the nucleus.
P ⎯⎯ n + e + v
 The Q value of ⊖ .

Gamma (γ) Decay

The emission of a γ- ray photon during the radio –active disintegration of a
nucleus is called γ – decay.
As γ – ray photons have zero rest mass and carry no charge. So in a γ –
decay the mass number and atomic number of the nucleus remain unchanged and no new
element is formed.
⎯⎯⎯ +
(Excited state) (Ground state)

 After an α or a β- decay the daughter nucleus is usually left in the excited state. It
attains the ground state by single or successive transitions by emitting on or more
photons.
 Ex:- Here an unstable 27Co nucleus is transformed via a β- decay into an excited
Ni nucleus which in turn reached the stable ground state by emitting photons of
energies 1.17 MeV and 1.33, into two successive γ – decay process.

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 NUCLEI

 Usually γ – rays are emitted after α or β- decay.

Solved Examples
1. We are given the following atomic masses:
= . = .
= . = .
= .
Here the symbol Pa is for the element protactinium (Z = 91).
a) Calculate the energy released during the α-decay of .
b) Calculate the kinetic energy of the emitted α – particles.
c) Show that .
Ans:- (a) The equation for the α –decay of U may be written as
U ⎯⎯⎯ Th + He + Q
Where Q (called Q – value) represents kinetic energy. Using Einstein’s mass – energy
equivalence, we get.
Q = [m ( U) − m ( Th) − m ( He)] c
By adding and subtracting 92 m in the bracket, we can write Q in terms of atomic
masses as follows:
Q = [{m ( U) + 92 m } − {m ( Th) + 90 m } − {m ( He)+2m }]c
= [238.05079 − (234.04363 + 4.00260)] × 931.5MeV [∵ c = 931.5MeV/amu]
= 0.00456 × 931.5MeV = . .
( ) The kinetic energy of the α- particle,
A−4 238 − 4
E ≈ Q = × 4.25MeV.
A 238
= . .
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 NUCLEI

( )If U spontaneously emits a proton, the decay process would be:

U→ Pa + H
For this process to happen, the Q- value will be
Q = [m( U) − m ( Pa) − m( H)] c
= [238.05079 − 237.05121 − 1.00783] amu × c
MeV
= (−0.00825) amu × 931.5
amu
= − . .
As the Q – value of the process is negative, it cannot occur spontaneously.

2. Write the nuclear reaction equations for:

a) −
b) −
c) −
d) −
e) −
f) −
g)
Ans:- (a) Ra ⎯⎯⎯ Rn + He
b) Pu ⎯⎯⎯ U + He
c) Pu ⎯⎯⎯ S+ e + v
d) B ⎯⎯⎯ Po + e + v
e) C ⎯⎯⎯ B+ e + v
f) Tc ⎯⎯⎯ Mo + e + v
g) Xe + e ⎯⎯⎯ I +v

3. Find the Q - value and the kinetic energy of the emitted α-particle in the α-decay
of
(a) ( )
Given = . ,
= .
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 NUCLEI

= .
= .
Ans:- ( ) ⎯⎯⎯ + +
Q = [m( Ra) − m( Rn) − m( He)] c
= [226.02540-222.01750 - 4.00260] ×931.5MeV
= 0.0053×931.5 = 4.937MeV.
A−4
K = Q
A
226 − 4
= × 4.937 = . .
226
( ) ⎯⎯⎯ + +
Q = [m( Rn) − m( Po) − m( He)] c
= [220.01137 − 216.00189 − 4.00260] × 931.5MeV
= 0.00688 × 931.5 = 6.41MeV.
A−4
K = Q
A
220 − 4
= × 6.41 = . .
220

4. The radionuclide 11C decays according to

⎯⎯⎯ + + : / = . .
The maximum energy of the emitted positron is 0.960 MeV. Given the mass values:
= .
= . = .
Calculate Q and compare it with the maximum energy of the positron emitted.
:− ⎯⎯⎯ + + +
Q = [m ( C) − m ( B) − m ] c
To express Q-value in terms of atomic masses, we have to subtract 6m from the
atomic mass of carbon and 5m from the atomic mass of boron to get the corresponding
nuclear masses. So we get.
Q = m 11C − 6m − m 11B + 5m − m c
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 NUCLEI

= [m( C) − m( B) − 2m ] c
= [11.011434 − 11.009305 − 2 × 000548]amu × c
MeV
= 0.001033amu × 931.5
amu
= 0.9622MeV ~ . .
Clearly, this energy appears as the kinetic energy of the emitted position.

5. The Q value of a nuclear reaction A+b → C+d is defined by

= [ + − − ]
where the masses refer to nuclear rest masses. Determine from the given data
whether the following reactions are exothermic or endothermic.
a) + → +
b) + → +
Atomic masses are given to be:
= . amu
= . amu
= . amu
= .
= .
= .
Ans:- (a) H + H → H + H
Q = [m( H) + m( H ) − {m( H) + m( H)}]c
= (4.023874 − 4.028204) × 931.5 MeV.
= −0.00433 × 931.5 MeV = − . .
Negative value of Q indicates that the reaction is endothermic.
(b) C+ C→ Ne + He
Q = [2m( C) − {m( Ne) + m( He )}]c
= [2 × 12.000000 − (19.992439 + 4.002603)] × 931.5 MeV.
= [24 − 23.995042] × 931.5 MeV.

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 NUCLEI

= 0.004958 × 931.5 MeV = . .

Positive value of Q indicates that the reaction is exothermic.
6. For the β+ (positron) emission from a nucleus, there is another competing process
known as electron capture i.e., electron for an inner orbit (say K-shell) is
captured by the nucleus and neutrino is emitted:
⎯⎯⎯ +
+
Show that if β emission is energetically allowed, electron capture is necessarily
allowed but not vice versa.
Ans:- Consider the two competing processes:
Positron emission:
X ⎯⎯⎯ Y+e +v+Q
Electron capture:
e + X ⎯⎯⎯ Y+v+Q
The energy changes in the two processes are:
Q = m X −m Y + (Z − 1)m − m c
= m X −m Y − 2m c
Q = m X +m −m Y c
= m X −m Y c
This means >0 > 0 does not necessarily imply > 0. thus if
position emission is energetically allowed, electron capture is necessarily allowed but
not vice versa.

7. Consider the D-T reaction (deuterium – tritium fusion) given by the equation:
+ → +
a) Calculate the energy released in MeV in this reaction from the data:
= .
= .
= .
= .
b) Consider the radius of both deuterium and tritium to be approximately 2.0 fm.
What is the kinetic energy needed to overcome the coulomb repulsion? To what
temperature must the gases be heated to initiate the reaction?
Ans:- (a) The net reaction is:

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 NUCLEI

H + H ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ He + n + Q
∴ Energy released in the reaction is
Q = [m ( H ) + m ( H ) − m ( He) − m ] c
Adding and subtracting 2m we get
Q = [{m ( H ) + m } + {m ( H) + m } − {m ( He ) + 2m } − m ] c
Q = [m( H ) + m( H ) − m( He) − m ] c
= [2.014102 + 3.016049 − 4.002603 − 1.00867] × 931.5 MeV.
= 0.018883 × 931.5 MeV = . .
(b) Distance between the nuclei when they almost touch other is
d = 2r = 2 × 1.5 × 10 m = 3 × 10 m
∴ Repulsive potential energy of the two nuclei when they almost touch other.
1 q q
= ∙
4πε d
9 × 10 × (1.6 × 10 )
= J.
3 × 10
= 7.68 × 10 J [∵ q = q = 1.6 × 10 C]
A kinetic energy at least equal to the above amount is required to overcome Coulomb
repulsion.
Using the formula,
. .= [ = = . × / ]

We get the required temperature as

2 × K. E. 2 × 7.68 × 10 J
T= =
3k J
3 × 1.38 × 10
K
= . × .
8. Obtain the maximum kinetic energy of β- particles and the radiation frequencies
corresponding to γ-decays in the decay scheme shown in fig. you are given that,
( )= .
( )= .

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 NUCLEI

Ans:- The frequencies of γ-radiation will be equal to the corresponding energy

differences divided by Planck’s constant h.
E −E
ν=
h
(1.088 − 0) × 1.6 × 10
∴ ν(γ ) = = . ×
6.63 × 10
(0.412 − 0) × 1.6 × 10
ν(γ ) = = . ×
6.63 × 10
(1.088 − 0.412) × 1.6 × 10
ν(γ ) = = . ×
6.63 × 10
The β -decay can be represented as
Au ⎯⎯⎯⎯ Hg + e + Q (β ) + Q (γ )
where Q(γ ) = 1.088 MeV.
∴ Maximum kinetic energy of β particles is
K (β ) = [m( Au ) − m( Hg)] × 931.5 − 1.088
= [ 197.968233 − 197.966760] × 931.5 − 1.088
= 0.001473 × 931.5 − 1.088
= 1.371 − 1.088 = .
, ( ) = . .

9. The neutron separation energy is defined to be the energy required to remove a

neutron from a nucleus. Obtain the neutron separation energies of the nuclei
and from the following data:
= .
= .
= .
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 NUCLEI

= .
= .
Ans:- Neutron separation energy of Ca is given by
S ( Ca) = [m( Ca) + m − m( Ca)]c
= [39.962591 + 1.008665 − 40.962278] × 931MeV.
[By using c = 931MeV⁄amu]
= 0.008978 × 931MeV.
= . .
Neutron separation energy of A is given by
S ( A ) = [m( A ) + m − m( A )]c
= [25.986895 + 1.008665 − 26.981541] × 931MeV.
= 0.014019 × 931MeV
= . .
10. The nucleus of an atom , initially at rest, decays by emitting an α- particle as
per the equation → + + .
It is given that the binding energies per nucleon of the parent and the daughter
nuclei are 7.8MeV and 7.835 MeV respectively and that of α- particle is 7.07
MeV/nucleon. Assuming the daughter nucleus to be formed in the unexcited state
and neglecting its share in the energy of the reaction,
calculate the speed of the emitted α-particle. Take mass of α- particle to be
6.68×10-27kg.
Ans:- Total B. E. of Y = 7.8 × 235 = 1833 MeV
Total B. E. of X = 7.835 × 231 = 1809.9MeV
Total B. E. of H = 7.07 × 4 = 28.28 MeV
Energy released in the decay,
Q = Increase in B.E. after the reaction
= B.E. of X + B.E. of He – B.E. of Y
= 1809.9 + 28.28 – 1833 = 5.18MeV.
= 5.18 ×1.6× 10-13J.
1
K. E. of α − particle, mv = Q
2

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 NUCLEI

2Q
∴ Speed, v =
m

2 × 5.18 × 1.6 × 10
= ms
6.68 × 10

= √2.48 × 10 ms = . ×

Check Your Skill

1. What are alpha particles? In the reaction:

⎯⎯⎯⎯ +
Give the atomic number and mass number of Y.

2. The isotope of uranium decays successively to form

, , , , , . What are the radiations emitted in
each decay process?

3. Explain how radioactive nuclei can emit β-particles even though atomic nuclei do
not contain these particles. Hence explain why the mass number of a radioactive
nuclide does not change during β-decay.
Hint : A neutron from the nucleus decays to emit a proton, an electron and an
antineutrino. The electron is emitted in the form of a β- particle.
n ⎯⎯ p+ e+v
During β-decay, a neutron simply changes into a proton i.e, only the character or nucleon
changes. Hence the mass number of a radioactive nuclide does not change during a β-
decay.

4. A nucleus emits one alpha particle and one beta particle. Find the mass
number and atomic number of the product nucleus.
Hint:

X ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ Y ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ Z
α − decay β − decay
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 NUCLEI

Mass number of the product nucleus = m - 4

Atomic number of the product nucleus = n- 1.

5. With the help on an example, explain how the neutron to proton ratio changes
during the alpha decay of a nucleus.
Hint : Consider the α- decay:

U ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ Th
Neutron – proton ratio before α- decay
= =
Neutron – proton ratio after α -decay
= =
Clearly > . Thus the neutron proton ratio increases during an α – decay.

6. Explain with an example, whether the neutron-proton ratio in a nucleus

increases or decreases due to beta (β) decay.
Ans:- In a β- decay, a neutron gets converted into a proton. So the neutron-proton ratio
decreases.
Consider the β- decay:
B ⎯⎯⎯⎯ +
Neutron – proton ratio before β- decay
210 − 83 127
= =
83 83
Neutron – proton ratio after β- decay
210 − 84 126
= =
84 84

<

Thus, the neutron- proton ratio decreases in a β- decay.

7. Why is the energy distribution of beta rays continuous?

Ans:- In a β- decay, particles like antineutrinos are also emitted along with electrons.
The available energy is shared by electrons and antineutrinos in all proportions.
Electron’s energy is no longer fixed. Hence energy distribution of β- rays is continuous.

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 NUCLEI

8. The nucleus Ne23 decays by β- emission. Write down the β- decay equation and
determine the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons emitted from the
following data:
= . , = . .
Ans: 4.374 MeV.

9. Under certain circumstances, a nucleus can decay by emitting a particle more

massive than an α- particles. Consider the following decay process:
⎯⎯⎯⎯ +
⎯⎯⎯⎯ +
Calculate the Q-values for these decays and determine that both are energetically
allowed.
Ans: 31.85 MeV , 5.98MeV

Nuclear Fission
The phenomenon in which a heavy nucleus (A< 230) when excited splits
into two smaller nuclei of nearly comparable masses is called nuclear fission.

For ex: When Uranium is bombarded by slow moving neutrons, a 92U235 nucleus gets
excited by capturing a slow moving neutron and splits into two nearly equally fragments
like 56Ba141 and 36Kr92 along with the emission of 3 neutrons.

235 1 141 92
Nuclear reaction: 92U + 0n → 56Ba + 36 Kr +3 +
The Q value of this reaction it about 200 MeV.

 Let us take a nucleus with A = 240 breaking into two fragments each of A= 120 then.
B.E. for A = 240 is about 7.6 MeV.
B.E. for A = 120 is about 8.5 MeV.
∴ Gain in Binding energy per nucleon is about 0.9 MeV.
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 NUCLEI

Hence, the total gain in binding energy is 240 ×0.9 = 216 MeV.

 The source of energy in nuclear reactors, which produce electricity, is nuclear fission.

 Nuclear sources produces a million times more energy than a chemical source
for ex:
Fission of 1kg of uranium for example generates 1014 J of energy compare it
with burning of 1kg of coal that gives 107J.

 + 92U235 → 92U236 → 56Ba144 + 36 Kr92 +3 +

The same reaction can produce other pairs of inter mediate mass fragments.
+ 92U235 → 92U236 → 51Sb133 + 41 Nb99 +4 +
Or , as another example,
+ 92U235 → 54Xe140 + 38Sr94 + 2 + .

Nuclear Fussion

The process in which two light nuclei combine (at extremely high temperature)
to form a single heavier nucleus is called nuclear fusion.

For ex: Two protons combine to form a deuteron and a positron with release of
0.42MeV energy.
1
1H + 1H1 → 1H2 + e+ + v + 0.42 MeV.

Similarly,
Two deuterons combine either to form the light isotope of helium and a neutron
or a triton and a proton.
2
1H + 1H2 → 2He3 + 0n1 + 3.27 MeV.
2
1H + 1H2 → 1H3 + 1H1 + 4.03 MeV.

 When fusion is achieved by raising the temperature of the system so, that particle have
enough kinetic energy to overcome the coulomb repulsive behavior/coulomb
barrier, it is called thermo-nuclear fusion.

 Necessary conditions for nuclear fusion are at high temperature and high density.

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 NUCLEI

 Fusion as a source of energy in sun and stars, it has been radiating energy at the rate of
3.8× 1026 J sec -1 for several billion years.

 At extremely high temperatures which exist in interior of sun and stars, protons
fuse together to form helium nuclei, liberating a huge amount of energy.

For your knowledge

The age of the sun is about 5× 109 yr and it is estimated that there is enough
hydrogen in the sun to keep it going for another 5 billion years. After that the hydrogen
burning will stop and the sun will begin to cool and will starts to collapse under gravity,
which will raise the core temperature. The outer envelope of the sun will expand turning
it into the so called red giant.

 The fusion reaction of the sun is a multistep process in which the hydrogen is burned
into helium. Thus the fuel in the sun is the hydrogen in its core. The proton - proton
(P·P) cycle by which this occurs is represented by the following set of reactions:
1 1 2 +
1 H + 1 H → 1H + e + v + 0.42 MeV.

e+ + e - → γ + γ + 1.02 MeV.
2
1H + 1H1 → 2He3 + γ + 5.49 MeV.
3
2 He + 2He3 → 2He4+ 1H1 + 1H1 + 12.86 MeV.

Nuclear Reactor
It is a device in which a nuclear chain reaction is initiated, maintained and
controlled. It works on the principle of controlled chain reaction and provides energy at
a constant rate.
The main components of nuclear reactor are as shown in fig.

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 NUCLEI

a) Nuclear fuel: It is a fissionable material to be used for the fission process to take
place. Ex: U- 235, Th – 232 and Pu – 239 can be used as the reactor fuel.

b) Moderator: Its function is to slow down the fast moving neutrons produced during
the fission. Usually heavy water, graphite and paraffin etc. can be acts as
moderators. These moderators are rich in protons.

c) Control rods: They have the ability to capture the slow neutrons, basically to start
stop or control the chain reaction, rods of neutron absorbing material like boron,
cadmium are inserted in to the reactor core.

d) Coolant: A substance which is used to remove the heat produced and transfer it from
the core of the nuclear reactor to the surroundings is called coolant.
Ex:- At ordinary temperatures: heavy water
At high temperatures: Liquid sodium are good coolants.

e) Shielding: To protect the workers from the radians like γ- radiations, the reactor core
is surrounded by a thick concrete wall called reactor shield.

Working: Some neutrons are produced by the action of α- particles on polonium

or beryllium. To start the nuclear reaction, the cadmium rods are slowly removed and
to stop it, they are inserted. Fast neutrons are released in there fissions which are
slowed down to thermal velocities by passing through the moderator. These slow
neutrons cause fission of more 92U235 nuclei and these the chain reaction builds up.

Fast Breeder reactors: when fast neutrons strike uranium fuel in a reactor, 92U238
absorbs a neutron and becomes 92U239 . This is radioactive and undergoes β-decay twice
to produce 94Pu239 (Plutonium).
238
92U + O n1 → 92U239 ⎯⎯⎯ 93 Np 239 ⎯⎯⎯ 239
94Pu .

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 NUCLEI

Solved Examples
1. A neutron is absorbed by a nucleus with subsequent emission of an alpha
particle. Write the corresponding nuclear reaction. Calculate the energy released
in this reaction.
Given: = . ;
= . ;
= . ;
= . ;
Ans:- Li + n ⎯⎯⎯ He + H + Q

Initial masses Final masses

m( Li) = 6.015126 amu m( He) = 4.0026044 amu

m ( n) = 1.0086654 amu m( H) = 3.016049 amu

7.0237914 amu 7.0186534 amu

Mass defect,
∆ m = 7.0234914 – 7.0186534
= 0.005138 amu
Energy released,
Q = 0.005138 × 931 MeV.
= 4.78 MeV.

2. Calculate the disintegration energy Q for the fission of into two equal
fragments, . If Q turns out to be positive, explain why this process does not
occur spontaneously. Given that:
= .
. = .
= . .
Ans:- The fission Mo can be represented as
Mo + n ⎯⎯⎯ 2 Sc.+ Q
The disintegration energy in the fission of Mo is given by:

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Q = [m( Mo) + m − 2m( Sc)] c

= [97.90541 + 1.00867 − 2 × 48.95002] amu × c
MeV
= [98.91408 − 97.90004] amu × 931.5
amu
= 1.01404× 931.5 = 944.6 MeV.

3. Suppose, we think of fission of a nucleus into two equal fragments, . Is

the fission energetically possible? Argue by working out Q of the process. Given
= . . = . .
Ans:- Fe ⎯⎯⎯ Al + Al + Q
Q = m Fe − 2m( Al) c
= [55.93494 − 2 × 27.98191] × 931.5 MeV
= −0.02888 × 931.5 = − . .
As the Q-value is negative, the fission is not possible energetically.

4. The fission properties of are very similar to those . The arrange energy
released per fission is 180 MeV. How much energy, in MeV, is released if all the
atoms in 1kg of pure undergo fission?
Ans:- Number of atoms present in 239gm of Pu
= 6.023 × 1023
∴ Number of atoms present in 1kg or 1000g of Pu
. × ×
= = 2.52 × 10
Energy released per fission= 180 MeV
Total energy released
= 2.52 × 10 × 180 MeV
= . × .
5. A 1000 MW fission reactor consumes half of its fuel in 5.00y. How much did
it contain initially? Assume that all the energy generated arises from the fission
of and that this nuclide is consumed by the fission process.
Ans:- Power of the reactor, P = 1000 MW = 109 W
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Time of power generation,

t = 5y = 5 × 365× 24 ×60 ×60s = 5 × 3.16 × 10 sec.
total energy generated in 5y
= Pt = 109× 5 × 3.16 × 10 sec.
Energy generated in each fission of
= 200MeV = 200 ×1.6× 10-13 J
Number of atoms in 235g of U = 6 × 10
6 × 10
Number of atoms in 1g of U=
235
Energy generated per gram of U
200 × 1.6 × 10 × 6 × 10
= Jg
235
The amount of U consumed in 5y
Total energy generated
=
energy generated per gram
10 × 5 × 3.16 × 10 × 235
= g
200 × 1.6 × 10 × 6 × 10
= 1929937.5g ≃ 1930kg.
The amount is half the fuel taken initially.
∴ Mass of U taken initially = .

6. How long an electric lamp of 100W can be kept glowing by fusion of 2.0kg of
deuterium? The fusion reaction can be taken as:
+ → + + . .
: − Number of atoms present in 2 g of deuterium
= 6 × 10
Number of atoms present in 2.0 kg or 2000 g of deuterium
6 × 10 × 2000
= = 6 × 10
2
Energy released in the fusion of 2 deuterium atoms = 3.2MeV
Total energy released in the fusion of 2.0kg of deuterium atoms
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3.2
= × 6 × 10 = 9.6 × 10 MeV
2
= 9.6 × 10 × 1.6 × 10 J
= 15.34 × 10 J
Energy consumed by the bulb per second.
= 100J
Time for which the bulb will glow
15.34 × 10 15.34 × 10
= = years
100 3.15 × 10
= . × .
7. Calculate the height of the potential barrier for a head on collision of two
deuterons. (Hint. The height of the potential barrier is given by the Coulomb
repulsion between the two deuterons when they just touch each other. Assume
that they can be taken as hard spheres of radius 2.0fm.
Ans:- Charge on each deuteron,
e = 1.6 × 10 C
Radius of deuteron,
R = 2.0fm = 2.0 × 10 m
1 e
U = 2K = ∙
4πε 2R
1 e
The coulomb barrier is given by K = ∙
4πε 4R
9 × 10 × (1.6 × 10 )
= J
4 × 2 × 10
9 × 10 × (1.6 × 10 )
= keV = .
8 × 10 × 1.6 × 10

8. Consider the fission of by fast neutrons. In one fission event, no neutrons

are emitted and the final stable end products, after the beta-decay of the primary
fragments, are . calculating the Q for this fission process. The
relevant atomic and particle masses are:
Ans:- = .
= .
= .
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= .
Ans:- The fission may be represented as
U+ n ⎯⎯ Ce + Ru + 10 e+Q
The Q-value for the process is
Q = [m ( U) + m − m ( Ce) − m ( Ru) − 10m ]c
In terms of atomic masses, we can write
Q = [{m( U) − 92m } + m − {m( Ce) − 58 m }{−m( Ru) − 44m }
− 10m ]c
= [ m( U) + m − m( Ce) − m( Ru)]c
= [ 238.05079 + 1.00867 − 139.90543 − 98.90594] amu × c
MeV
= (239.05946 − 238.81137) amu × 931.5
amu
= 0.24809 × 931.5 = 231.09 MeV
= . .
9. Neutrons produced in fission can be slowed down even by using ordinary water.
Then, why is heavy water used for this purpose?
Ans:- Neutrons produced during fission get slowed if they collide with a nucleus of the
same mass, As ordinary water contains hydrogen atoms (of mass nearly that of neutrons),
so it can be used as a moderator. But it absorbs neutrons at a fast rate via the reaction:
n + p ⎯⎯ d + γ
Here d is deuteron. To overcome this difficulty, heavy water is used as a moderator which
has negligible cross-section for neutron absorption.

10. State the reason, why heavy water is generally used as a moderator in a nuclear
reactor.
Ans:- Heavy water contains protons (of mass nearly that of neutrons). Fast moving
neutrons undergo elastic collisions with these also moving neutrons and thus get slowed
down. Hence heavy water can be used as a moderator. Also, heavy water has negligible
cross-section for neutron absorption.

11. Calculate and compare the energy released by a) fusion of 1.0kg of hydrogen
deep within the sun and b) the fission of 1.0kg of in a fission reactor.
Ans : a ) 39 × 10 MeV b) 5.1 × 10 MeV.

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