‫دانشگاه محقق اردبیلی‬

‫‪University of Mohaghegh Ardabili‬‬

‫دینامیک سازه های پیشرفته‬

‫‪Advanced Structural Dynamics‬‬

‫مقدمه‬

‫دکتر حامد رحمن شکرگزار‬

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Course Outlines

Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Chapter 2: Analysis of SDOF Systems

Chapter 3: Analysis of MDOF Systems

Chapter 4: Analysis of Continues systems

Chapter 5: Numerical Methods

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

References
1. Dynamics of Structures, Theory and Applications to Earthquake Engineering, by Anil

K. Chopra, University of California at Berkeley

2. Mechanical Vibration, by Singiresu S. Rao, Prentice Hal

3. Structural Dynamics, Theory And Computations, by Mario Paz, William Leigh

4. Dynamics of Structures, by Ray W. Clough, Joseph Penzien,

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

How To Evaluate?

• Exercise: 10 %

• Presentation: 20 % (Two paper must be presented by each student)

• Project: 20 %

• Final Exam: 50%

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Objective of Structural Dynamics Analysis

• The primary purpose of structural dynamics is to present methods for analyzing the stresses
and deflections developed in any given type of structure when it is subjected to an

arbitrary dynamic loading.

• In one sense, this objective may be considered to be an extension of standard methods of

structural analysis, which generally are concerned with static loading only, to permit

consideration of dynamic loading as well.

• In this context, the static-loading condition may be looked upon merely as a special form
of dynamic loading.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Objective of Structural Dynamics Analysis

• However, in the analysis of a linear structure it is convenient to distinguish between the
static and the dynamic components of the applied loading, to evaluate the response to

each type of loading separately, and then to superpose the two response components to

obtain their total effect.

• For the purposes of this presentation, the term dynamic may be defined simply
as time-varying; thus a dynamic load is any load of which its magnitude, direction,

and/or position varies with time.

• Similarly, the structural response to a dynamic load, i.e., the resulting stresses and
deflections, is also time- varying, or dynamic.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Objective of Structural Dynamics Analysis

• Two basically different approaches are available for evaluating structural response to
dynamic loads:

o Deterministic Methods

o Nondeterministic Methods

• The choice of method to be used in any given case depends upon how the loading is

defined.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Objective of Structural Dynamics Analysis

• If the time variation of loading is fully known, even though it may be highly oscillatory or
irregular in character, and the analysis of the response of any specified structural system

to a prescribed dynamic loading is defined as a deterministic analysis.

• If the time variation is not completely known but can be defined in a statistical sense, the
loading is termed a random dynamic loading; and its corresponding analysis of response

is defined as a nondeterministic analysis.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Types of Prescribed Loadings

• Almost any type of structural system may be subjected to one form or another
of dynamic loading during its life time.

• Prescribed or deterministic loadings are divided into two basic categories :

• Periodic loadings

• Non-periodic loadings

• A periodic loading exhibits the same time variation successively for a large number of

cycles.

• Non-periodic loadings may be either short-duration impulsive loadings or long duration

general forms of loads.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Types of Prescribed Loadings

Periodic loadings:

1. The simplest periodic loading has the sinusoidal variation, loadings of this type are characteristic of

unbalanced-mass effects in rotating machinery.

2. Other forms of periodic loading, those caused by hydrodynamic pressures generated by a propeller at

the stern of a ship or by inertial effects in reciprocating machinery, frequently are more complex.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Types of Prescribed Loadings

Non-periodic loadings :

1. A blast or explosion is a typical source of impulsive load; for such short-duration loads.

2. Long-duration loading such as might result from an earthquake.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Types of Prescribed Loadings

Non-periodic loadings :

1. A blast or explosion is a typical source of impulsive load; for such short-duration loads.

2. Long-duration loading such as might result from an earthquake.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Essential Characteristics of A Dynamic Problem

• A structural-dynamic problem differs from its static-loading counterpart in two important
respects.

1. The first difference to be noted, is the time-varying nature of the dynamic problem.

Because both loading and response vary with time, it is evident that a dynamic

problem does not have a single solution, as a static problem does. Thus a dynamic

analysis is clearly more complex and time-consuming than a static analysis.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Essential Characteristics of A Dynamic Problem

• A structural-dynamic problem differs from its static-loading counterpart in two important
respects.

2. The second and more fundamental distinction between static and dynamic problems is

illustrated in below example.

If a simple beam is subjected to a static load p, as (a) static loading

shown in Fig. a, its internal moments and shears and
deflected shape depend only upon this load and they
can be computed by established principles of force
(b) dynamic loading
equilibrium.
Basic difference between static
and dynamic loads
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Essential Characteristics of A Dynamic Problem

• A structural-dynamic problem differs from its static-loading counterpart in two important
respects.

2. The second and more fundamental distinction between static and dynamic problems is

illustrated in below example.

If the load p(t) is applied dynamically (Fig. b) the resulting (a) static loading
displacements of the beam depend not only upon this load but also
upon inertial forces which oppose the accelerations producing them.
Thus the corresponding internal moments and shears in the beam must
equilibrate not only the externally applied force p(t) but also the inertial (b) dynamic loading
forces resulting from the accelerations of the beam.
Basic difference between static
and dynamic loads
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Classification of Problems in Structural Dynamics

• The study of structural dynamics can be organized and classified according to various criteria.

1. By the number of degrees of freedom:

o Single DOF
Lumped mass (discrete) system (finite DOF)
o MultipleDOFs
Continuous systems (infinitely many DOF)

Discrete systems are characterized by systems of ordinary differential equations, while

continuous systems are described by systems of partial differential equations.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Classification of Problems in Structural Dynamics

• The study of structural dynamics can be organized and classified according to various criteria.

2. By the linearity of the governing equations

o Linear systems (linear elasticity, small motions assumption)

Conservative (Elastic) Systems

o Nonlinear systems
Nonconservative (Inelastic) Systems
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Classification of Problems in Structural Dynamics

• The study of structural dynamics can be organized and classified according to various criteria.

3. By the type of excitation

Harmonic
o Free vibrations Periodic
Nonharmonic
Structural Loads
o Forced vibrations
Seismic Loads Deterministic Excitation

Transient
Stationary
Random Excitation
Nonstationary
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Classification of Problems in Structural Dynamics

• The study of structural dynamics can be organized and classified according to various criteria.

4. By the type of mathematical problem

o Static→ Boundary Value Problems

Eigenvalue Problems (Free Vibrations)

o Dynamic
Initial Value Problem, Propagation Problem (Waves)
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Classification of Problems in Structural Dynamics

• The study of structural dynamics can be organized and classified according to various criteria.

5. By the presence of energy dissipating mechanisms

o Undamped vibrations

viscous damping

o Damped vibrations hysteretic damping

Coulomb damping
etc.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Stress–Strain Relationships: Three-Dimensional State of Stress–Strain

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Stress–Strain Relationships: Plane Strain

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Stress–Strain Relationships: Plane Stress

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Stress–Strain Relationships:
Plane Stress versus Plane Strain: Equivalent Poisson’s Ratio

• We explore here the possibility of defining a plane strain system with Poisson’s ratio ෕
𝝂 such
that it is equivalent to a plane stress system with Poisson’s ratio ν while having the same shear
modulus G.
• Comparing the stress–strain equations for plane stress and plane strain, we see that this would
require the simultaneous satisfaction of the two equations.

which are indeed satisfied if Plane strain ratio ෕

𝝂 that is equivalent to the plane-
stress ratio ν .

• Hence, it is always possible to map a plane-stress problem into a plane-strain one.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Stiffnesses of Some Typical Linear Systems

Linear Spring
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Stiffnesses of Some Typical Linear Systems

Cantilever Shear Beam

A shear beam is infinitely stiff in rotation, which means that no

rotational deformation exists. However, a free (i.e., unrestrained)
shear beam may rotate as a rigid body.

Typical shear areas

Rectangular section: Ring:
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Stiffnesses of Some Typical Linear Systems

Cantilever Bending Beam

Notice that carrying out the static condensations we recover the

stiffness kx, kϕ for the two cases when the loaded end is free to rotate or translate.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Stiffnesses of Some Typical Linear Systems

Transverse Flexibility of Cantilever Bending Beam
A lateral load P and a counterclockwise
moment M are applied simultaneously
to a cantilever beam at some arbitrary
distance a from the support
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Stiffnesses of Some Typical Linear Systems

Transverse Flexibility of Simply Supported Bending Beam
A transverse load P and a counterclockwise moment
M are applied to a simply supported beam at some
arbitrary distance a from the support. Defining the
dimensionless coordinates α = a/L , β = 1-α and
ξ = x /L, the observed displacement and rotation are:
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Stiffnesses of Some Typical Linear Systems

Transverse Flexibility of Simply Supported Bending Beam
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Stiffnesses of Some Typical Linear Systems

Stiffness and Inertia of Free Beam with Shear Deformation Included

It has mass density ρ, Poison’s ratio ν, shear modulus G, Young’s modulus E = 2G(1+ν),
area-moment of inertia Iz about the horizontal bending axis z (i.e., bending in the plane),
cross section Ax, and shear area Asy for shearing in the transverse y direction. In the absence
of further information about shear deformation, one can choose either Asy= Ax or Asy = ꝏ.
Define:
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Stiffnesses of Some Typical Linear Systems

Stiffness and Inertia of Free Beam with Shear Deformation Included

The bending stiffness matrix KB for a bending beam with shear deformation included,
together with the consistent bending mass matrix MB, which accounts for both translational as
well as rotational inertia (rotations positive counterclockwise)
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Stiffnesses of Some Typical Linear Systems

Inhomogeneous, Cantilever Bending Beam

Active DOF are the two transverse displacements at the top (j = 1) and the
junction (j = 2). Rotations are passive (slave) DOF.

Define the member stiffnesses

The elements k11, k12, k21, k22 of the lateral stiffness matrix are then
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Rigid Body Condition of Stiffness Matrix

We show herein how the stiffness matrix of a one-dimensional member AB, such as a beam,
can be inferred from the stiffness submatrix of the ending node B by means of the rigid body
condition.
Let K be the stiffness matrix of the complete member whose displacements (or degrees of
freedom) uA, uB are defined at the two ends A,B with coordinates xA , xB. The stiffness matrix
of this element will be of the form:

Now, define a set of six rigid body displacements relative to any one end, say B, which
consists of three rotations and three translations. The displacements at the other end are then
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Rigid Body Condition of Stiffness Matrix

Where

On the other hand, a rigid body motion of a free body requires no external forces, so
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Rigid Body Condition of Stiffness Matrix

Hence
𝐾𝐴𝐴 𝑅 + 𝐾𝐴𝐵 𝐼 = 0 →
Also,

𝐾𝐵𝐴 𝑅 + 𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝐼 = 0 → 𝐾𝐵𝐵 = −𝐾𝐵𝐴 𝑅

so
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Mass Properties of Rigid, Homogeneous Bodies

Mass density is denoted by ρ, mass by m, mass moments of inertia (rotational inertia) by J,
and subscripts identify axes. Unless otherwise stated, all mass moments of inertia are
relative to principal, centroidal axes!

Arbitrary Body

Parallel Axis Theorem (Steiner’s Theorem)

in which d = distance from centroidal axis to parallel axis.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Mass Properties of Rigid, Homogeneous Bodies

Cylinder Rectangular Prism Thin Disk
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Mass Properties of Rigid, Homogeneous Bodies

Thin Bar Sphere

Ellipsoid
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Mass Properties of Rigid, Homogeneous Bodies

Cone Prismatic Solids of Various Shapes

Let A, Ixx, Iyy, be the area and

moments of inertia of the cross
section, and H the height of the
prism. The mass and mass-
moments of inertia are then
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Mass Properties of Rigid, Homogeneous Bodies

The values of Ixx, Iyy, Izz for various shapes are as follows:

Triangle (Isosceles)

Height of center of gravity above base of triangle = h/3

Circular Segment
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Mass Properties of Rigid, Homogeneous Bodies

The values of Ixx, Iyy, Izz for various shapes are as follows:

Circular Arc

t = thickness of arc

For ring, set α = 2π , sinα = 0

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Mass Properties of Rigid, Homogeneous Bodies

Arbitrary, Closed Polygon:
Properties given are for arbitrary axes. Use Steiner’s theorem to transfer to center of gravity.
The polygon has n vertices, numbered in counterclockwise direction. The vertices have
coordinates (x1, y1) through (xn, yn). By definition,
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Mass Properties of Rigid, Homogeneous Bodies

Arbitrary, Closed Polygon:

The polygon need not be convex. To construct a polygon with one or more interior holes,
connect the exterior boundary with the interior, and number the interior nodes in clockwise
direction
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Degrees of Freedom: Static Degrees of Freedom

• Consider an ideally massless structural system subjected to time-varying loads .

• The number of static degrees of freedom in this structure is the number of parameters

required to define its deformation state completely, which in turn depends on the number

of independent deformation modes that it possesses.

• For continuous systems, the number of possible deformation modes is generally infinite.

• However, if we restrict application of the loads to some discrete locations only then the

number of possible deformation modes will be finite.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Degrees of Freedom: Static Degrees of Freedom

• In general

Static DOF ≤ No. of independent load parameters ≤ No. of deformation modes

For example, consider a simply supported beam

• In principle, this beam could be deformed in an infinite number of ways by appropriate

application of loads.

• However, if we insist that the load acting on the beam can be only uniformly distributed,

then only one independent parameter exists, namely the intensity of the load.

• If so, this system would have only one static degree of freedom, and all physical response

quantities would depend uniquely on this parameter.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Degrees of Freedom: Static Degrees of Freedom

For example, consider a simply supported beam

• Alternatively, if we say that the beam is acted upon only by two concentrated loads p1, p2

at fixed locations x1, x2, then this structure will have only two static degrees of freedom.

• In this case, the entire deformational state of the system can be written as

• in which the f (x, xj) are the flexibility functions (= modes of deformation). Notice that all

physical response parameters, such as reactions, bending moments, shears, displacements,

or rotations, will be solely a function of the two independent load parameters.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Degrees of Freedom: Static Degrees of Freedom

For example, consider a simply supported beam

• In particular, the two displacements at the location of the loads are

• Furthermore, if we define u1, u2 as the master degrees of freedom, then all other

displacements and rotations anywhere else in the structure, that is, the slave degrees of

freedom, will be completely defined by u1, u2.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Degrees of Freedom: Dynamic Degrees of Freedom

• When a structure with discrete (i.e., lumped) masses is set in motion or vibration, then by

D’Alembert’s Principle, every free (i.e., unrestrained) point at which a mass is attached

experiences inertial loads opposing the motion.

• Every location, and each direction, for which such dynamic loads can take place will give

rise to an independent dynamic degree of freedom in the structure.

• In general, each discrete mass point can have up to six dynamic degrees of freedom, namely

three translations (associated each with the same inertial mass m) and three rotations

(associated with three usually unequal rotational mass moments of inertia Jxx, Jyy, Jzz).
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Degrees of Freedom: Dynamic Degrees of Freedom

• Loosely speaking, the total number of dynamic degrees of freedom is then equal to the

number of points and directions that can move and have an inertia property associated with

them.

• Clearly, a continuous system with distributed mass has infinitely many such points, so

continuous systems have infinitely many dynamic degrees of freedom.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Degrees of Freedom: Dynamic Degrees of Freedom

• Consider the following examples involving a massless, inextensible, simply supported beam

with lumped masses as shown (motion in plane of drawing only).

• Notice that because the beam is assumed to be axially rigid, the masses cannot move

horizontally:
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Degrees of Freedom: Dynamic Degrees of Freedom

2 DOF = rotation of the masses. Even though two translational

masses exist, there is no degree of freedom associated with
them, because the supports prevent the motion.

This system has now 3 DOF because, unlike the beam in the
second example above, the bending deformation of the arch
will elicit not only vertical and rotational motion but also
horizontal displacements
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems: Levels of Abstraction

• The art of modeling a structural system for dynamic loads relates to the process by which we
abstract the essential properties of an actual physical facility into an idealized mathematical
model that is amenable to analysis.
• To understand this process, it is instructive for us to consider the development of the model in
terms of steps or levels of abstraction.

• To illustrate these concepts, consider a two-story

frame subjected to lateral wind loads
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems: Levels of Abstraction

• As we shall see, the models for this frame in the first through fourth levels of abstraction will
be progressively reduced from infinitely many dynamic degrees of freedom, to 12, 8, and 2
DOF, respectively
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems: Levels of Abstraction

• In the first level of abstraction, the principal elements of

the actual system are identified, quantified, and idealized,
namely its distribution of mass, stiffness, and damping;
the support conditions; and the spatial-temporal
characteristics of the loads.

• This preliminary model is a continuous system with distributed mass and stiffness, it spans
the full three-dimensional space, and it has infinitely many degrees of freedom.
• Of course, in virtually all cases, such a model cannot be analyzed without further
simplifications.
• However, it is a useful conceptual starting point for the development of systems that can be
analyzed, using some of the techniques that will be described in the next section
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems: Levels of Abstraction

• In the second level of abstraction, we transform the

continuous system into a discrete system by lumping
masses at the nodes, and/or representing the structural
elements with ideal massless elements, such as beams,
plates, finite elements, and so forth.
• We also condense distributed dynamic loads, such as
wind pressures, into concentrated, equivalent forces
that act on the nodes alone.

• We initially allow the structural elements to deform in a most general fashion; for example,
we assume that beams may deform axially, in bending and in shear.
• Also, the nodal masses have both translational as well as rotational inertia, so that nodes
could typically have up to six degrees of freedom each.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems: Levels of Abstraction

• In general, this system will have a finite, but large

number of degrees of freedom. In the example shown,
the system has 12 DOF: 8 translational and 4 rotational
DOF.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems: Levels of Abstraction

• In a third level of abstraction, we may neglect vertical
inertia forces as well as rotational inertias.
• Note carefully that this does not imply that the vertical
motions or rotations vanish. Instead, these become
static degrees of freedom, and thus depend linearly on
the lateral translations, that is, they become slave DOF
to the lateral translations, which are the master DOF.

• In our example, the structure has now four dynamic degrees of freedom.
• The process of reducing the number of DOF as a result of neglecting rotational and
translational inertias can formally be achieved by matrix manipulations referred to as static
condensation
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems: Levels of Abstraction

• In a fourth and last level of abstraction, we introduce further
simplifications by assuming that certain structural elements are
ideally rigid, and cannot deform.
• For example we can usually neglect the axial deformations of beams
(i.e., floors), an assumption that establishes a kinematic constraint
between the axial components of motion at the two ends of the beam.
In our example, this means that the horizontal motions at each
elevation are uniform, that is, u1 = u3, u2 = u4.
• The system has now only 2 DOF. The formal process by which this is
accomplished through matrix manipulations is referred to as
kinematic condensation
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems: Transforming Continuous Systems into

Discrete Ones
• Most continuous systems cannot be analyzed as such, but must first be cast in the form of
discrete systems with a finite number of DOF.
• We can use two basic approaches to transform a continuous system into a discrete one.
1. Physical approximations (Heuristic approach): Use common sense to lump
masses, then basic methods to obtain the required stiffnesses.
2. Mathematical methods: Weighted residuals family of methods, the Rayleigh–Ritz
method, and the energy method based on the use of Lagrange’s equations.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems: Transforming Continuous Systems into

Discrete Ones
[Link] approximations (Heuristic approach):
In the heuristic method we use informal, common sense strategies for solving problems.
To develop a discrete model for a problem in structural dynamics, we use the following simple
steps:
• Idealize the structure as an assembly of structural elements (beams, plates, etc.),
abstracting the essential qualities of the physical system. This includes making decisions as
to which elements can be considered infinitely rigid (e.g., inextensional beams or columns,
rigid floor diaphragms, etc.), and also what the boundary conditions should be.
• Idealize the loading, in both space and time.
• On the basis of both the structural geometry and the spatial distribution of the loads, decide
on the number and location of the discrete mass points or nodes. These will define the active
degrees of freedom
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems: Transforming Continuous Systems into

Discrete Ones
[Link] approximations (Heuristic approach):
• Using common sense, lump (or concentrate) the translational and rotational masses at these
nodes. For this purpose, consider all the mass distributed in the vicinity of the active nodes,
utilizing the concept of tributary areas (or volume).

For example, in the simplest possible model for a beam, we would divide the beam into four
equal segments, and lump the mass and rotational inertia of the two mid-segments at the
center (i.e., half of the beam), and that of the lateral segments at each support (one quarter
each). In the case of a frame, we would probably lump the masses at the intersection of the
beams and columns.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems: Direct Superposition Method

• As the name implies, in this method the global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling
the complete system by superimposing the stiffness matrices for each of the structural
elements.
• Inasmuch as the orientation of the members does not generally coincide with the global
directions, it is necessary to first rotate the element matrices prior to overlapping, so as to
map the local displacements into the global coordinate system.
• You are forewarned that this method should never be used for hand computations, since
even for the simplest of structures this formal method will require an inordinate effort.
• However, it is the standard method in computer applications, especially in the finite
element method.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems: Direct Stiffness Approach

• To obtain the stiffness matrix for the structural system using the direct stiffness approach,
we use the following steps:
• Identify the active DOF.
• Constrain all active DOFs (and only the active DOF!). Thus, in a sense, they become
“supports.”
• Impose, one at a time, unit displacements (or rotations) at each and every one of the
constrained DOF. The force (or moment) required to impose each of these displacements
together with the “reaction” forces (or moments) at the remaining constrained nodes, are
numerically equal to the terms of the respective column of the desired stiffness matrix.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems: Direct Stiffness Approach

• This method usually requires considerable

effort, unless the structure is initially so
highly constrained that few DOF remain.
• An example is the case of a one-story frame
with many columns (perhaps each with
different ending conditions) that are tied
together by an infinitely rigid girder.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems: Flexibility Approach

• The flexibility approach is basically the converse of the direct stiffness approach, and
leads to the inverse of the stiffness matrix, which is the flexibility matrix .
• It is particularly well suited for statically determinate structures, but may require
considerable effort if the structure is indeterminate.
• The discrete flexibility matrix is obtained as follows:
1. Identify the active DOF.
2. Apply, one at a time, a unit force (or moment) at each and every active DOF. The
observed displacements (or rotations) at all active DOF are then numerically equal to
the columns of the flexibility matrix. The stiffness matrix, if desired, must be
obtained by inversion of the flexibility matrix.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems: Flexibility Approach

• To illustrate this method, consider once

more the example of the previous section.
Without constraining the structure, we now
solve for the displacements produced by
the two test loadings shown in front Figure
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems:

Example 1: Consider a simply supported, homogeneous bending beam subjected to a dynamic
load at the center, as shown in Figure.

• Although this structure can be analyzed rigorously as a continuous

system, we shall pretend ignorance of this fact, and attempt instead
to represent it as a discrete system.
• Clearly, the absolute simplest representation is a massless beam
with a concentrated mass lumped at the location of the load equal to
1
mass of the shaded (tributary) area, that is, m = 2 𝜌𝐿𝐴.

• The remaining mass may be lumped at the supports, but because they do not move, they
have no effect on the discrete model.
• This assumes that the temporal variation of the load changes no faster than the beam’s
fundamental period.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems:

Example 1: Consider a simply supported, homogeneous bending beam subjected to a dynamic
load at the center, as shown in Figure.
• From the flexibility approach, a unit static load at the center
1 𝐿3
causes a displacement f = 48 𝐸𝐼, so the stiffness of this 1-DOF

1 48𝐸𝐿
system is 𝑘 = 𝑓 = 𝐿3
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems:

Example 2: By way of contrast, consider next the same problem subjected to two dynamic
loads, as shown in Figure
• A satisfactory dynamic model would involve now two or more
masses, particularly if the loads are negatively correlated, that is, if
𝑝2 𝑡 ≈ −𝑝1 𝑡
• Each of the three lumped masses now equals one-fourth of the total
beam mass, while the elements of the 3 × 3 flexibility matrix can
readily be obtained from the formula for deflections listed in the
section on typical linear systems.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems:

Example 3: As a last example, consider a horizontally layered soil subjected to vertically
propagating shear waves (i.e., SH-waves).
• Inasmuch as motions in horizontal planes are
uniform, it suffices to consider a column of soil of
unit width and subjected to pure shear.
• We begin by discretizing the soil column into
elements j = 1, 2, 3… of unit cross section (Aj = 1)
whose thickness hj is small in comparison to the
typical wavelengths in the seismic motion.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems:

Example 3: As a last example, consider a horizontally layered soil subjected to vertically
propagating shear waves (i.e., SH-waves).
• Using the heuristic approach, we obtain lumped
masses and discrete springs whose values are :

• The mass and stiffness matrices are then

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems: Viscous Damping Matrix

• Damping forces in a mechanical system result from various phenomena that lead to
internal energy dissipation in the form of heat.
• These arise as a result of nonrecoverable processes associated with material hysteresis, drag,
or friction.
• A particularly simple dissipation mechanism is in the form of linear, viscous damping, in
which damping forces are proportional to the rate of material deformation, that is, to the
velocity of deformation.
• Although most structural systems exhibit damping forces that are not of a viscous nature,
it is nevertheless often convenient to approximate these as being of the viscous type.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Modeling Structural Systems: Viscous Damping Matrix

• Consider, for example, a system consisting of two spring–dashpot systems in series
subjected to forces p1, p2 that produce time-varying displacements u1, u2. The stiffness and
damping matrices are :

• and the force-deformation equations is

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Inertial

Reference Frames
• Consider a free, rigid body whose motion is being observed in a global or Newtonian
inertial reference frame with unit base vectors 𝑒1Ƹ , 𝑒Ƹ2 , 𝑒Ƹ3 .
• Fixed to this body at its center of mass is a set of local coordinate axes with unit base
vectors 𝑔ො1 , 𝑔ො2 , 𝑔ො3 at which the motions (translations and rotations) elicited by an external
force f and torque t are measured.

• The body has total mass m and a symmetric rotational inertia

tensor 𝐽 = 𝐽𝑖𝑗 𝑔ො𝑖 𝑔ො𝑗 (summation over repeated indices implied),
whose components are:

in which 𝛿𝑖𝑗 is the Kronecker delta, 𝑟 2 = 𝑥12 + 𝑥22 + 𝑥32 , and the coordinates 𝑥𝑖 are relative
to the center of mass.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Inertial

Reference Frames
• Consider a free, rigid body whose motion is being observed in a global or Newtonian
inertial reference frame with unit base vectors 𝑒1Ƹ , 𝑒Ƹ2 , 𝑒Ƹ3 .
• Fixed to this body at its center of mass is a set of local coordinate axes with unit base
vectors 𝑔ො1 , 𝑔ො2 , 𝑔ො3 at which the motions (translations and rotations) elicited by an external
force f and torque t are measured.

• The body has total mass m and a symmetric rotational inertia

tensor 𝐽 = 𝐽𝑖𝑗 𝑔ො𝑖 𝑔ො𝑗 (summation over repeated indices implied),
whose components are:

in which 𝛿𝑖𝑗 is the Kronecker delta, 𝑟 2 = 𝑥12 + 𝑥22 + 𝑥32 , and the coordinates 𝑥𝑖 are relative
to the center of mass.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Inertial

Reference Frames
• In mathematics, the Kronecker delta (named after Leopold Kronecker) is a function of
two variables, usually just non-negative integers. The function is 1 if the variables are equal,
and 0 otherwise

• For example, δ12 = 0, whereas δ33 = 1.

• The diagonal terms are the mass moments of inertia, while the offdiagonal terms are the
products of inertia; notice the negative sign in front of the second integral.
• If the axes are principal, then the products of inertia vanish, and only the diagonal terms
remain.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Kinematics of

Motion
• Consider a rigid body that moves and rotates in some arbitrary fashion.
• Within this body, choose as reference point the center of mass, which moves with velocity
v and about which the body rotates with instantaneous angular velocity ω.
• We also choose another arbitrary observation point p on the body whose position relative
to the reference point is r = r(t), and whose velocity is vp.
• From vector mechanics, the following holds:

• in which 𝛼 = 𝜔ሶ is the angular acceleration, 𝝎 × 𝝎 × 𝒓 = 𝝎 𝝎. 𝒓 − 𝝎𝟐 𝒓

and 𝝎𝟐 = 𝝎. 𝝎
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Kinematics of

Motion
• Now, the position vector r can be expressed either in local (rotating) or global
(nonrotating) coordinates with unit orthogonal basis vectors 𝑔ො𝑖 and 𝑒Ƹ𝑖 , respectively, that is,
𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖′ 𝑔ො𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 𝑒Ƹ𝑖
• In particular, if we choose one of the rotating basis vectors 𝑟 = 𝑔ො𝑖 = 𝛾𝑖𝑗 𝑒𝑗Ƹ in which the
𝛾𝑖𝑗 are the direction cosines of the rotated basis with respect to the global basis, then

or in matrix format
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Kinematics of

Motion
• The local components of the angular velocity vector are then

Cardanian Rotation
The rotation of a rigid body rotation in 3-D space can be described in terms of three
independent, right-handed rotations about the local coordinate axes or Cardanian angles
𝜃1 , 𝜃2 , 𝜃3 whose sequence must remain inviolate .
y

x
z
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Kinematics of

Motion y

Cardanian Rotation
x
Of various possible choices, we choose the following rule: z

• Rotate about the global x-axis by an angle 𝜃1 , which moves the axes to, say, position 𝑥ҧ 𝑦ത 𝑧ҧ
• Rotate about the local 𝑦ത by an angle 𝜃2 , which moves the axes to position 𝑥ҧ 𝑦ത𝑧.ҧ
• Rotate about the local 𝑧ҧ axis by an angle 𝜃3 which moves the axes to their final position
x’y’z′.

x=𝑥ҧ
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Kinematics of

Motion
Cardanian Rotation
The three rotation matrices needed to accomplish these three sequential elementary
rotations are

With the shorthand 𝐶𝑗 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑗 , 𝑆𝑗 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑗 we obtain the complete rotation matrix as

This matrix contains the direction cosines 𝛾𝑖𝑗 of the local axes with respect to the global axes.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Kinematics of

Motion
Cardanian Rotation
Using the preceding expressions together with MATLAB®’s symbolic manipulation
capability, it can be shown that the components of the angular velocity vector are given by
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Kinematics of

Motion
Eulerian Rotation
• The most common alternative approach to describe rotations is by means of the so-called
Eulerian angles, which differ from the Cardanian rotations in that one local axis is used
twice.
• These angles can be visualized as follows. Assume that initially, the local axes with unit
base vectors 𝑔ො1 , 𝑔ො2 , 𝑔ො3 and the global axes with unit base vectors 𝑒Ƹ1 , 𝑒Ƹ2 , 𝑒Ƹ3 coincide in
space.
• Thereafter, carry out the following three rotations (right-hand rule applies, and the
sequence must remain inviolate):
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Kinematics of

Motion
Eulerian Rotation
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Kinematics of

Motion
Eulerian Rotation
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Kinematics of

Motion
Eulerian Rotation

(i) (ii) (iii)

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Kinematics of

Motion
Eulerian Rotation

In local body coordinates, the components of the rotational velocity vector ω are then
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Rotational

Inertia Forces

Let’s now examine the rotational inertia forces in a body. For this purpose, let J denote the
rotational inertia tensor, which can be written in local or global coordinates

In local coordinates, the components J’ij of J are time invariant, so

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Rotational

Inertia Forces

Now, the principle of conservation of angular momentum states that the external moment (or
torque) t is given by the rate of change of the angular momentum ℎ = 𝐽 ∗ 𝜔, that is,

This is because 𝐉 ∗ 𝜔. ω = 0.
Notice also that ℎ = 𝑱 ∗ 𝜔 = 𝜔 ∗ 𝐉 because J is symmetric.
Expressing next the various terms in the expression above by means of the local (moving)
unit vectors, we obtain
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Rotational

Inertia Forces

Furthermore, if the moving axes attached to the rigid body are principal axes, then
only the diagonal terms of the inertia tensor exist, so

Hence,
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Rotational

Inertia Forces
In matrix form and in local (rotating) coordinates, Eq. can be written as

Finally, if we assume small rotations, we can neglect all double products of angular
velocities, in which case there is no difference between the local and global reference
frames.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Rotational

Inertia Forces
𝑑
If so, the angular velocities can be defined in terms of the rotations as 𝜔𝑗 = 𝑑𝑡 𝜃𝑗 = 𝜃𝑗ሶ , and

thus we recover the classical equation of linear structural dynamics relating applied torques
with angular accelerations
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Newton’s Laws

Newton’s famous three laws are

• A rigid body at rest or in uniform motion will continue in that state until an external force

is applied.

• The force needed to impart some acceleration to a body is proportional to the mass of the

body and coincides in direction with the acceleration.

• To each action (i.e., force) there is an equal and opposite reaction.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Newton’s Laws

• These laws are valid only in an inertial reference frame.

1. The first law is a verbal description of the principle of conservation of linear momentum,

2. The second law is a statement about dynamic equilibrium and defines the concept of mass,

3. While the third is a statement about the forces between bodies that interact with one

another.

• For example, when we push a car with some force, the car pushes back on us with that same

force, and we in turn transfer that force to the ground through our feet.

• The formulation of Newton’s laws for rigid bodies undergoing rectilinear motion is

straightforward, but the rotational case is complicated by the fact that the local axes change

orientation in space as the body rotates, as we have already seen.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Newton’s Laws

(a) Rectilinear Motion
The external force f required to impart onto the body an acceleration 𝒂 = 𝒗ሶ is
𝒇 = 𝒎𝒂
This is Newton’s second law
(b) Rotational Motion
When an external torque t is applied to the body, it imparts on the body an angular acceleration
𝑑
𝛼 = 𝑑𝑡 𝜔.

In the local frame moving and rotating with the body, the elements of J are constant, but not so
the base vectors, because as the body’s axes rotate in space, it changes its global orientation.
Thus, the time derivative of J does not vanish.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Newton’s Laws

(b) Rotational Motion
In this moving system, the angular acceleration relates to the torque and the instantaneous
angular velocity ω through the expression

where 𝒉 = 𝑱 ⋅ 𝝎 is the angular momentum.

If the rotations remain small at all times

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Kinetic Energy

The total kinetic energy of a body is the sum of its translational and rotational kinetic
energies (summation over repeated indices implied)
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Conservation of

Linear and Angular Momentum
If v and ω are the instantaneous linear and angular velocity vectors, then the products m.v
and J⋅ω are, respectively, referred to as the linear momentum and angular momentum of
the rigid body.
On the other hand, the linear impulse and the angular impulse are defined as the integrals in
time of the external force and torque vectors, respectively. The following principles then apply

(a) Rectilinear Motion

The change in linear momentum p=mv between two arbitrary times t1, t2 equals the total
external linear impulse applied, that is,
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Conservation of

Linear and Angular Momentum
(a) Rectilinear Motion
• If the external force vector is zero, then the linear momentum p=mv remains constant, in
which case the body’s center of mass continues to move with unchanging speed and direction,
or remains altogether at rest.
• This is the principle of conservation of linear momentum.

(b) Rotational Motion

The change in angular momentum 𝒉 = 𝑱 ⋅ 𝝎 between two instants t1, t2 equals the total external
angular impulse applied, that is,
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: D’Alembert’s

Principle
• This principle is a very useful alternative interpretation of Newton’s laws, which is arrived at

by rewriting the force–acceleration equations as

• In this new form, these two equations can be interpreted in the same way as the force and

moment equilibrium equations in statics.

• It suffices to interpret -ma and – J.α as fictitious external forces acting in direction opposite to

the positive directions of acceleration, and from this point on treat these as static forces.

• Hence, the above equations can be referred to as the dynamic equilibrium equations
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Extension of

Principles to System of Particles and Deformable Bodies
• The dynamic principles previously stated for a rigid body also apply to a system of particles or

to an elastic, deformable body.

• It suffices to carry out a sum over all particles, or integrate over the volume of the elastic

body.

• For example, the principles of linear and angular momentum for a system of N particles (ideal

point masses) are now

• in which f, t are the net external force and torque, and ri is the instantaneous position vector

for the ith particle

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Extension of

Principles to System of Particles and Deformable Bodies
• Internal forces between the particles, if any, or elastic forces within the body, do not contribute

to these expressions, because they will always appear in equal and opposite

• If there is no net external force and torque acting on the system of particles, then the total

linear and angular momenta are conserved.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Conservation of

Momentum versus Conservation of Energy
• One should be aware of a very important point: the conservation of linear and/or angular

momentum in a system of particles or in a deformable body has nothing to do with

conservation of energy in that system.

• In fact, mechanical energy, such as kinetic or elastic energy, need not be conserved, even when

the momentum is conserved

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Conservation of

Momentum versus Conservation of Energy
• To illustrate this concept, consider the impact of a bullet onto a rigid body at rest. The bullet

after impact remains embedded in, and moves with the body.

• If mb and vb are the mass and travel velocity of the bullet, and m, v are the mass of the body

and its velocity after the impact, then from the principle of conservation of linear momentum,

we have

• The ratio of kinetic energy after the impact to that before the impact is then
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Fundamental Dynamic Principles for a Rigid Body: Conservation of

Momentum versus Conservation of Energy
• As can be seen, the kinetic energy is not conserved, but is partially transformed into heat as a

result of the plastic deformation and internal rupture caused by the bullet.

• If we knew instead that the kinetic energy was conserved during the collision of two bodies,

then we could use the kinetic energy equation to determine the travel velocities of these bodies

after the collision, provided these are rigid.

• By contrast, if the two colliding bodies are elastic, then some of the mechanical energy will be

converted into vibrational energy (i.e., waves) within these bodies, in which case the total

kinetic energy equation could not be used without much ado to decide on the final velocities

of the two bodies after impact

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics

• At the heart of the formal methods in analytical mechanics and dynamics lie the equations of

Lagrange, which constitute a powerful means for deriving the equations of motion of

complicated mechanical and structural systems.

• These equations are based on abstract mathematical manipulations of various forms of

mechanical energy in a system, such as kinetic and elastic energies, and allow these to be

expressed in terms of generalized displacement coordinates.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics

• Because kinetic and elastic energies are scalar quantities, the methods based on Lagrange’s

equations have the great advantage of accomplishing their goal without recourse to either

vector mechanics or considerations of free body equilibrium in the deformed and displaced

configuration.

• Thus, it is not necessary to decompose forces or displacements along coordinate directions to

find the equations of motion.

• The approach is particularly powerful when displacements and rotations are large.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Generalized Coordinates and Its

Derivatives
• Assume that the displacement vector u at any point x of a dynamic system can be completely

defined by n independent generalized coordinates (or parameters), each of which depends on

time only:

• Clearly, such a system has only n degrees of freedom.

Notice also that in the expression of the displacement vector in terms of the generalized

coordinates, we do not include t as an explicit parameter, since the dependence of u on t is

completely captured by the coordinates themselves.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Generalized Coordinates and Its

Derivatives
• From this definition, it follows immediately that

• In the last expression, the partial derivative with respect to time was dropped because u does

not depend explicitly on t. Also

• which again results from the fact that the partial derivatives of u with respect to 𝒒𝒊 do not

depend on 𝒒ሶ𝒊 .
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Generalized Coordinates and Its

Derivatives
𝝏𝒖ሶ 𝝏 𝝏𝒖 𝝏 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
= 𝒒ሶ = 𝒒ሶ + 𝒒ሶ = 0 × 𝒒ሶ 𝒊 + ×𝟏=
𝝏𝒒𝒊ሶ 𝝏𝒒𝒊ሶ 𝝏𝒒𝒊 𝒊 𝝏𝒒𝒊ሶ 𝝏𝒒𝒊 𝒊 𝝏𝒒𝒊 𝝏𝒒𝒊ሶ 𝒊 𝝏𝒒𝒊 𝝏𝒒𝒊

• Hence, we have obtained a most important rule, which is known as the cancellation of the dot

• Finally,
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Generalized Coordinates and Its

Derivatives
• If we define the matrix of partial derivatives and the generalized coordinates vector as

• then we can write the previous boxed expressions in compact form as

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Generalized Coordinates and Its

Derivatives
• In terms of these definitions, a perturbation (or complete differential) δu can be written

symbolically as

• This shorthand is also useful in the evaluation of quadratic forms. For example, consider

• a symmetric matrix A forming the scalar function f

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Generalized Coordinates and Its

Derivatives
• The partial derivative of f with respect to 𝒒𝒋 (the result of which is a scalar!) is

• in which ej is a vector whose jth element is 1, and all others are zero.

• The second line above follows because the second term on the first line is a scalar, and the

transpose of a scalar equals the scalar itself.

• In addition, A +AT=2A because the matrix is symmetric

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Generalized Coordinates and Its

Derivatives
• Writing all of the partial derivatives in matrix form, we obtain
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Lagrange’s Equations

• We proceed next to derive Lagrange’s equations. For this purpose, we start from the principle

of virtual work, which states:

A system is in dynamic equilibrium if the virtual work done by the external forces,
including the work done by the inertia or D’Alembert forces (i.e., the change in
kinetic energy), equals the increase in strain (or deformation) energy plus the
energy dissipated by damping.

• Clearly, this is simply a statement that no energy gets lost, only transformed (i.e., conservation

of energy).

• in which the δ symbol denotes a virtual quantity (i.e., an imagined perturbation or variation).
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Lagrange’s Equations

a) Elastic Forces

• We begin on the left-hand side with the virtual work done by elastic forces, and to focus

ideas, we assume at first and without loss of generality that the elastic forces originate from a

number springs of stiffnesses kj that undergo instantaneous elongations 𝑒𝑗 = 𝑒𝑗 (𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , … . , 𝑞𝑛 )

along directions that generally change with time.

• Thus, the elastic forces along the instantaneous local directions of these members are:

• in which K = diag(kj) is the constant (time invariant) matrix of spring stiffnesses.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Lagrange’s Equations

a) Elastic Forces

• Applying virtual elongations δe along the direction of the forces, we conclude that they

perform an amount of work given by

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Lagrange’s Equations

a) Elastic Forces

1
• in which 𝑉 = 2 𝒆𝑻 𝑲𝒆 is the elastic potential, or also the potential energy function of the

elastic system.

• More generally, in the case of continuous solid media, the strain (i.e.,potential) energy

function is of the form

• with ε and E being, respectively, the strain vector at a point and the constitutive matrix (i.e.,

the matrix of elastic constants), and Vol is the volume of the body in question.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Lagrange’s Equations

a) Elastic Forces

• Thus, we conclude that the generalized elastic forces are

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Lagrange’s Equations

b) Damping Forces

• Next, we consider the virtual work dissipated by the generalized damping forces.

• For viscous damping, these forces are solely a function of the instantaneous rate of

deformation

• of the members, and not of their current position or past deformation history.

• Hence, their virtual work can be obtained from a damping potential D in ways that perfectly

parallel those of the elastic forces V.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Lagrange’s Equations

b) Damping Forces

• Indeed, consider a set of viscous dashpots ci oriented along some generally time-varying

directions that are subjected to instantaneous rates of deformation 𝒆𝒊ሶ along those same

directions:

• The virtual work done by these forces is then

• The last identity is due to the cancellation of the dots rule.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Lagrange’s Equations

b) Damping Forces

• Hence

• Hence, the generalized viscous damping forces are

• in which is the “viscous damping potential,” which has

dimensions of instantaneous power dissipation, and not of energy

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Lagrange’s Equations

b) Damping Forces

• In the case of continuous media and small strain, the damping potential is of the form

• with 𝜺ሶ and D being, respectively, the vector of instantaneous rate of strain at a point and the

viscosity matrix (i.e., the matrix of viscous constants)

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Lagrange’s Equations

c) External Loads

• We consider next the work done by the external loads. If 𝒑𝑗 = 𝒑𝑗 (𝑥, 𝑡) are the external body

forces acting on the system at discrete points xj, then

• in which fe is the generalized load vector

• In particular, if the loads do not depend on the displacements (i.e., on the generalized

coordinates), then
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Lagrange’s Equations

c) External Loads

• in which We is the external work function.

• Alternatively, if the loads can be derived from a potential Ve, then We = - Ve .

• In the case of continuous solid media subjected to body loads b(x,t), the corresponding

formulae are

• with
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Lagrange’s Equations

c) External Loads

• in which We is the external work function.

• Alternatively, if the loads can be derived from a potential Ve, then We = - Ve .

• In the case of continuous solid media subjected to body loads b(x,t), the corresponding

formulae are

• with
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Lagrange’s Equations

c) External Loads

• Again, if the actual body loads are not a function of the generalized coordinates, or if they can

be derived from a load potential Ve, then

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Lagrange’s Equations

d) Inertia Forces

• Finally, we consider the inertia or D’Alembert forces. Their virtual work is

• in which dm = ρ.dVol is the elementary mass. But

• Hence
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Lagrange’s Equations

d) Inertia Forces

And

We introduce at this point the kinetic energy function

which ostensibly satisfies

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Lagrange’s Equations

d) Inertia Forces

And

(The last identity is due to the cancellation of dots rule.)

Finally
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Lagrange’s Equations

e) Combined Virtual Work

Combining all four terms and factoring out the virtual variation of generalized coordinates, we

obtain

and since this must be true for arbitrary variations of the generalized coordinates δq, then
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Elements of Analytical Mechanics: Lagrange’s Equations

e) Combined Virtual Work

or in terms of the individual components

𝜕𝑉
In most cases, the strain energy function V does not depend on the 𝑞𝑖ሶ , so = 0, and the loads
𝜕𝑞ሶ

can be derived from a potential.

If so, we can write the previous expression as

in which L = K-V is the Lagrangian.

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 1: Cylinder Rolling on Surface

1
Consider a cylinder of radius R, mass m and mass moment of inertia 𝐽 = 2 𝑚𝑅2 that rolls

without friction or slipping on a flat surface, as shown below. A harness of mass m1 attached to
the axis of the cylinder is connected to a spring k1 in line with the axis. A second spring k2 is
connected to a plate of mass m2 that rests on the cylinder and is dragged along laterally without
slipping Determine the equation of motion.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 1: Cylinder Rolling on Surface

u2

u1

Let u1, u2 be the lateral displacements of the plates at the center and top of the cylinder,

respectively, and let θ be the rotation of the cylinder. Since the system rotates instantaneously

about the contact point without sliding, this point has zero instantaneous velocity. Hence

Thus, this system has only one generalized coordinate (or degree of freedom), which is the

rotation θ.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 1: Cylinder Rolling on Surface

u2

u1

Assuming the springs to be unstressed in the equilibrium position, then the elastic and kinetic

energies are

Lagrangian equation is (L = K-V ):

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 1: Cylinder Rolling on Surface

Hence

That is,

Observe that a derivation using equilibrium concepts and free body diagrams would have
required considerably more work.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 2: Rigid Bar on Springs and Dashpots

Consider a perfectly rigid bar of length 4L,
mounted on springs and dashpots, which is
subjected to external time-varying forces,
as in Figure. The bar has total mass m and
mass moment of inertia J about the center
of mass, which is known to be at the
geometric center. The system is
constrained to only translate vertically
and/or rotate about some point in the plane.
Derive the equations of motion for small
rotations.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 2: Rigid Bar on Springs and Dashpots

Clearly, this is a 2-DOF system. We choose

the translation and rotation of the center of
mass as the generalized coordinates, that is,

In terms of these generalized coordinates,

𝜃
the displacements at the points of
ua u𝛾 u uβ uδ
attachment of the springs, force, and
dashpot are, respectively
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 2: Rigid Bar on Springs and Dashpots

which are positive in the upward direction. In term of these parameters, we have

The required partial derivatives are

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 2: Rigid Bar on Springs and Dashpots

Lagrangian equation is (L = K-V ):

Hence, the two Lagrange equations are

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 2: Rigid Bar on Springs and Dashpots

or in matrix form
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 3: Hanging Mass on Wheel that Rolls without Slippage

Consider a wheel of radius R, total mass m1 and mass
1
moment of inertia 𝐽 = 2 𝑚1 𝑅2 that rolls without

slipping on a flat horizontal surface. The axis of the

wheel is attached via a harness to a horizontal spring of
stiffness k, as shown. In addition, a second mass hangs
from a string that is wound on the wheel. The length of
this string is L when the wheel is in the starting
position and the second mass hangs vertically. The axis
of the wheel is subjected to a horizontal force F (t ).
Considering the effect of gravity and neglecting any
frictional losses, formulate the equations of motions
using Lagrange’s equations.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 3: Hanging Mass on Wheel that Rolls without Slippage

To formulate this problem, we begin by
setting the origin of coordinates x1=0,
y1=0, at the center of the wheel when the
spring is not deformed, as shown in and
denote the horizontal position of the wheel
at later times by the coordinate x1 of this
center. Also, the second mass has an
instantaneous position x2, y2 and oscillates
as a pendulum, as shown in Figure, which
also illustrates the various kinematic (i.e.,
motion) conditions.
As the mass moves back and forth, the point at which it is tangent to the wheel changes with
time.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 3: Hanging Mass on Wheel that Rolls without Slippage

We denote the angle by which the wheel
rotates as θ1 (positive clockwise), and the
angle that the string forms with the
vertical as θ2 (positive counterclockwise!).
Since the string remains taut as it
oscillates (an assumption!), this is also the
angle formed with the horizontal by the
radius from the center of the wheel to the
point at which the string is tangent. From
Figure, the instantaneous positions of the
two masses are as follows:
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 3: Hanging Mass on Wheel that Rolls without Slippage

Also, the chain rule gives

Hence

On the other hand, the kinetic energy is

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 3: Hanging Mass on Wheel that Rolls without Slippage

Also, the potential energy is the sum of the energy in the spring and the gravitational energy:

Choosing generalized coordinates q1 ≡ θ1 and q2 ≡ θ2 , then the various partial derivatives

needed are as follows:
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 3: Hanging Mass on Wheel that Rolls without Slippage

The total time derivatives that will be needed are then

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 3: Hanging Mass on Wheel that Rolls without Slippage

 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 3: Hanging Mass on Wheel that Rolls without Slippage

for which we have already expressions for all of the derivatives. On the other hand, the partial
derivatives of the potential energy term is
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 3: Hanging Mass on Wheel that Rolls without Slippage

Also,

Finally

which is formed with the expressions already found.

• After solving the two non-linear equations of motion (which can be done only
numerically), one must verify that the tension in the string is always nonnegative (i.e., zero
or positive). This will depend in turn on the initial conditions and the actual variation of the
force with time, and of course, on the material properties and physical dimensions.
• A linear solution for small oscillations can be obtained by setting sinθ2≈θ2 , cosθ2 ≈1 and
neglecting powers and products of motions, for example, θ1 θ2 ≈ 0, and so on.
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 4: Pendulum with Multiple Masses

A pendulum consists of a chain of n masses mj (j = 1, 2, …n)
that are connected by rigid, massless links of length Lj that
are pivoted to one another, as shown below. Determine the
equations of free vibration for arbitrarily large oscillations.

If θj are the rotations of each link with respect to the vertical,

then the horizontal (i.e., left to right) and vertical
displacements (i.e., upward from the equilibrium position)
are:
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 4: Pendulum with Multiple Masses

Hence, the velocities are

The increase in gravitational energy from the rest position and the
kinetic energy are then
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 4: Pendulum with Multiple Masses

Hence,
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 4: Pendulum with Multiple Masses

Also

Finally

That is
 Advanced Structural Dynamics By: Dr. Hamed [Link]
Chapter 1: Review of Fundamental Principals of Structural Dynamics

Example 4: Pendulum with Multiple Masses

If rotations remain small, then these equations can be
linearized by neglecting quadratic terms and approximating
the trigonometric functions, which results in