THEUNI

VERSI
TYOFZAMBI
A

I
NASSOCI
ATI
ONWI
TH

DAVI
DLI
VINGSTONE COLLEGEOFEDUCATI
ON

BACHELOROFEDUCATI
ON(
SECONDARY)

STUDYMATERI
AL

CED–4121POPULATI
ONANDENVI
RONMENTALEDUCATI
ON

BATCHONE(
1)

DALI
CE2020

By
:Wahi
l
a.J.

TABLEOFCONTENTS
UNI
TONE………………………………………………………………………….

Concept
sinPopul
ati
onst
udi
es………………………………………………………1
I
ntr
oduct
ion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
..
..
1

Def
ini
ti
onofPopul
ati
on………………………………………………………………………………………………………1

Concept
sinPopul
ati
onSt
udi
es……………………………………………………………………………………………1-
5

Popul
ati
onSt
ruct
ure………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
..
6

Popul
ati
onPy
rami
ds………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
..
6

Popul
ati
onDy
nami
cs……………………………………………………………………………………………………………7

Popul
ati
onDi
str
ibut
ion……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
.7

Fact
orsaf
fect
ingPopul
ati
onDensi
ty……………………………………………………………………………………8

I
mpl
i
cat
ionofr
api
dPopul
ati
onGr
owt
h…………………………………………………………………………….
…8-
10

Measur
est
ocont
rol
Popul
ati
on……………………………………………………………………………………….
.…10-
12

UNI
T2…………………………………………………………………………

Theor
iesofPopul
ati
onGr
owt
h………………………………………………………13

I
ntr
oduct
ion……………………………………………………………………….
..
..
.13

Demogr
aphi
cTr
ansi
ti
onTheor
y…………………………………………………….
.13-
17

Mal
thusi
anTheor
y……………………………………………………………………17-
20

Mar
xistTheor
y……………………………………………………………………….
20-
21

Neo-
Mal
thusi
anTheor
y………………………………………………………………21

UNI
T3……………………………………………………………………………….

Mi
grat
ionandUr
bani
sat
ion………………………………………………………….
23
I
ntr
oduct
ion…………………………………………………………………….
..
.23

Mi
grat
ion………………………………………………………………………….
23

Def
ini
ti
onofMi
grat
ion………………………………………………………….
..
23

Mi
grant
s………………………………………………………………………….
.24-
25

Ty
pesofMi
grat
ion……………………………………………………………….
25-
26

Dr
iver
sofMi
grat
ion…………………………………………………………….
..
26-
35

Mi
grat
ionGov
ernance…………………………………………………………….
35-
36

I
mpl
i
cat
ionsofMi
grat
ion……………………………………………………….
..
37-
40

Ur
bani
sat
ion………………………………………………………………………40

CausesofUr
bani
sat
ion……………………………………………………………41-
42

Ef
fect
sofUr
bani
sat
ion……………………………………………………………42-
44

Sol
uti
onst
oUr
bani
sat
ion…………………………………………………………44-
45
 UNI
T1

CONCERPTSI
NPOPULATI
ONSTUDI
ES

Lear
ningout
comesf
ort
hisuni
t,LSBAT

 Def
inePopul
ati
on

 I
dent
if
yandexpl
ainconcept
sofPopul
ati
on

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Thi
suni
tint
roducesst
udent
stov
ari
ousconcept
sthatar
eusedi
npopul
ati
onst
udi
es.I
t

st
art
sbydef
ini
ngt
het
erm‘
popul
ati
on’
andexpl
orest
hebasi
cst
hatbr
ingabouti
tsbest

under
standi
ng.

Def
ini
ti
onofPopul
ati
on

Popul
ati
on i
sagr
oup ofor
gani
smsbel
ongi
ng t
othesamespeci
est
hatl
i
veand

i
nter
breed i
n a par
ti
cul
arar
[Link]
sofa popul
ati
on of
ten r
elyon t
he same

r
esour
ces,ar
e subj
ectt
o si
mil
arenv
ironment
alconst
rai
nts,and depend on t
he

av
ail
abi
l
ityofot
hermember
stoper
sistov
ert
[Link]
ent
ist
sst
udyapopul
ati
onby

exami
ninghow i
ndi
vi
dual
sint
hatpopul
ati
oni
nter
actwi
theachot
herandhow t
he

popul
ati
onasawhol
eint
eract
swi
thi
tsenv
ironment
.Asat
oolf
orobj
ect
ivel
yst
udy
ing

popul
ati
ons,popul
ati
onecol
ogi
stsr
elyonaser
iesofst
ati
sti
calmeasur
es,knownas

demogr
aphi
cpar
amet
ers.

Concept
sofpopul
ati
onst
udi
es

[Link]
aphy

1
Thi
sist
hest
udyoft
hesi
ze,t
err
it
ori
aldi
str
ibut
ionandcomposi
ti
onofpopul
ati
on,

changest
her
einandt
hecomponent
sofsuchchangeswhi
chmaybei
dent
if
iedas

nat
ali
ty,mor
tal
i
ty,t
err
it
ori
almov
ement
s(mi
grat
ion)andsoci
almobi
l
ity(
changesof

st
atus)
.

Popul
ati
onSi
ze

Measur
est
henumberofi
ndi
vi
dual
spr
esenti
nasubj
ect
ivel
ydesi
gnat
edgeogr
aphi
c

r
ange.

Popul
ati
onDensi
ty

Thi
sist
hesi
zeoft
hepopul
ati
oni
nrel
ati
ont
otheamountofspacet
hati
toccupi
es.

Densi
tyi
susual
l
yexpr
essedast
henumberofi
ndi
vi
dual
speruni
tar
ea.

Bi
rt
hRat
e

Thi
sist
henumberoft
otall
i
vebi
rt
hsf
orev
ery1000peopl
epery
eari
napopul
ati
on.I
t

canbecal
cul
atedasf
oll
ows:

CBR=B*
100

Wher
e:B=Numberofbi
rt
hspery
ear

P=Tot
alpopul
ati
oni
nay
ear

Deat
hRat
e

Measur
est
het
otaldeat
hsi
napopul
ati
onofaspeci
fi
edar
eaov
eraper
iodoft
ime;i
tis

2
expr
essedast
henumberofdeat
hsper1,
000oft
hepopul
ati
onpery
ear
.Iti
scal
cul
ated

asf
oll
ows:

CDR=D*
100

Wher
e:D=Numberofdeat
hpery
ear

P=Tot
alpopul
ati
oni
nay
ear

I
nfantMor
tal
i
ty

I
sthedeat
hofani
nfantbef
orehi
s/herf
ir
stbi
rt
hday
.Thei
nfantmor
tal
i
tyr
atei
s

t
her
efor
ethenumberofi
nfantdeat
hsf
orev
ery1,
000l
i
vebi
rt
hs.

Chi
l
dMor
tal
i
ty

Ref
erst
othedeat
hsofchi
l
drenundert
heageoff
ive.

Fer
ti
li
ty

Thi
sist
heabi
l
ityt
oconcei
veandbearchi
l
drent
hroughnor
malsexualact
ivi
tyort
he

nat
ural
capabi
l
ityt
opr
oduceof
fspr
ing.

I
nfer
ti
li
ty

I
sthei
nabi
l
ityt
oconcei
veaf
ter12mont
hsofunpr
otect
edi
nter
cour
se.

Fer
ti
li
tyRat
e

I
sthenumberofof
fspr
ingbor
npermat
ingpai
r,i
ndi
vi
dual
orpopul
ati
on.

3
Tot
alFer
ti
li
tyRat
e

i
sdef
inedast
het
otalnumberofchi
l
drent
hatwoul
dbebor
ntoeachwomani
fshe

woul
dpasst
hroughherchi
l
d-bear
ingageal
i
gnedwi
tht
hepr
evai
l
ingage-speci
fi
c

f
ert
il
it
yrat
esofwomen.

Nat
ural
bal
ance/Nat
ural
Incr
ease

Thi
sist
hedi
ff
erencebet
weent
henumberofbi
rt
hsandt
henumberofdeat
hsr
ecor
ded

ov
eraper
iod.

Nat
ural
Growt
hRat
e/Nat
ural
Incr
easeRat
e

i
sast
ati
sti
calcal
cul
atedbysubt
ract
ingt
hecr
udedeat
hrat
efr
om t
hecr
udebi
rt
hrat
e

ofagi
venar
ea.

Zer
oPopul
ati
onGr
owt
h

Thi
sisacondi
ti
oni
nagi
venpopul
ati
oni
nwhi
cht
hebi
rt
hrat
eequal
sthedeat
hrat
e,so

t
hatt
hepopul
ati
onr
emai
nsconst
ant
.

SexRat
io

I
sthepr
opor
ti
onofmal
est
ofemal
esi
napopul
ati
onasexpr
essedbyt
henumberof

mal
esperhundr
edf
emal
es.I
tisexpr
essedasf
oll
ows:

Mal
es *K Wher
eKi
saconst
antof100

Femal
es

DependencyRat
io

4
I
sameasur
eoft
henumberofdependent
sagedzer
oto14andov
ert
heage65,

compar
edt
othet
otalpopul
ati
onaged15t
o64.I
tisademogr
aphi
cindi
cat
ort
hatgi
ves

i
nsi
ghti
ntot
henumberofpeopl
eofnon-
wor
kingage,compar
edwi
tht
henumberof

t
hosewor
kingage.

Ov
er-Popul
ati
on

Ref
erst
o a popul
ati
on whi
ch exceeds i
ts sust
ainabl
e si
ze wi
thi
n a par
ti
cul
ar

env
ironmentorhabi
tat
.Itoccur
swhenaspeci
esi
napopul
ati
onexceedst
hecar
ryi
ng

capaci
tyofi
tsecol
ogi
cal
niche.

Under
-Popul
ati
on

Thi
sisasi
tuat
ioni
nwhi
cht
her
ear
etoof
ewpeopl
etor
eal
i
zet
heeconomi
cpot
ent
ialof

anar
eaorsuppor
tit
spopul
ati
on’
sst
andar
dofl
i
ving.I
tcanbeexpr
essedashav
inga

l
owerpopul
ati
ondensi
tyt
hannor
mal
ordesi
rabl
e.

Opt
imum Popul
ati
on

I
sdef
inedast
hatsi
zeofpopul
ati
onenabl
i
ngpercapi
taout
putoft
hemaxi
mum or
der
s

accompani
edbyt
hehi
ghestpossi
blest
andar
dofl
i
vingunderagi
vensetofeconomi
c

andt
echnol
ogi
cal
condi
ti
ons.

Li
feExpect
ancy

Thi
sisanest
imat
eoft
heav
erageaget
hatmember
sofapar
ti
cul
arpopul
ati
ongr
oup

wi
l
lbewhent
heydi
e.

Doubl
i
ngTi
me

5
i
stheamountoft
imei
ttakesf
orav
aluet
hati
ncr
easesataconsi
stentr
ate,
butwev
ery

of
tenusei
ttost
udyhumanpopul
ati
ongr
owt
h.

Mi
grat
ion

i
sthepr
ocessofaper
sonorpeopl
etr
avel
l
ingt
oanot
herpl
aceorcount
ry,usual
l
yin

or
dert
ofi
ndwor
kandl
i
vet
her
etempor
ari
l
yorper
manent
ly.

Popul
ati
onst
ruct
ure

Popul
ati
onst
ruct
urei
ssi
mpl
ythe‘
makeup’orcomposi
ti
onofapopul
ati
[Link]

popul
ati
onst
ruct
ureofapl
aceshowshowt
hepopul
ati
oni
sdi
vi
dedupbet
weenmal
es

andf
emal
esofdi
ff
erentagegr
[Link],t
heageandsexst
ruct
ureofapopul
ati
on

canbeshownusi
ngapopul
ati
onpy
rami
d.

Popul
ati
onpy
rami
d

Popul
ati
onpy
rami
dorage-
genderpy
rami
disagr
aphi
cali
l
lust
rat
iont
hatshowst
he

di
str
ibut
ionofv
ari
ousagegr
oupsi
napopul
ati
on,whi
chf
ormst
heshapeofapy
rami
d

whent
hepopul
ati
oni
sgr
owi
[Link]
stoolcanbeused t
ovi
sual
i
zet
heageofa

par
ti
cul
arpopul
ati
on.I
tisal
sousedi
necol
ogyt
odet
ermi
net
heov
eral
lagedi
str
ibut
ion

ofapopul
ati
on;ani
ndi
cat
ionoft
her
epr
oduct
ivecapabi
l
iti
esandl
i
kel
i
hoodoft
he

cont
inuat
ionofaspeci
es.

Ty
pesofpopul
ati
onpy
rami
ds

Popul
ati
on py
rami
ds wi
l
lbe def
ined as t
he f
oll
owi
ng:st
ati
onar
y,expansi
ve,or

const
ri
cti
[Link]
ypeshav
ebeeni
dent
if
iedbyt
hef
ert
il
it
yandmor
tal
i
tyr
atesofa

count
ry.

6
  St
ati
onar
ypy
rami
d

Apy
rami
dcanbedescr
ibedasst
ati
onar
yift
heper
cent
agesofpopul
ati
on(
age

andsex)r
emai
nconst
antov
ert
[Link]
ati
onar
ypopul
ati
oni
swhenapopul
ati
on

cont
ainsequal
bir
thr
atesanddeat
hrat
es.

 Expansi
vepy
rami
d

Apopul
ati
onpy
rami
dthati
sver
ywi
deatt
hey
oungerages,char
act
eri
sti
csof

count
ri
eswi
thhi
ghbi
rt
hrat
eandl
owl
i
feexpect
ancy
.Thepopul
ati
oni
ssai
dto

bef
astgr
owi
ng,
andt
hesi
zeofeachbi
rt
hcohor
tget
slar
gert
hant
hesi
zeoft
he

pr
evi
ousy
ear
.

 Const
ri
cti
vepy
rami
d

Apopul
ati
onpy
rami
dthati
snar
rowedatt
hebot
[Link]
ati
oni
sgener
all
y

ol
deronav
erage,ast
hecount
ryhasl
ongl
i
feexpect
ancy
,al
ow deat
hrat
e,but

al
soal
ow bi
rt
hrat
[Link]
cent
ageofy
oungerpopul
ati
oni
sext
remel
ylow,

whi
chmi
ghtcausei
ssueswi
thdependencyr
ati
ooft
hepopul
ati
[Link]
sisa

t
ypi
calpat
ter
nforav
erydev
elopedcount
ry,ahi
ghl
evelofeducat
ion,easy

accesst
oandi
ncent
ivet
ousebi
rt
hcont
rol
,goodheal
thcar
e,andf
ewnegat
ive

env
ironment
alf
act
ors.

Popul
ati
onDy
nami
cs

Bynowweal
readyknowt
hatapopul
ati
oni
ssi
mpl
yacol
l
ect
ionofi
ndi
vi
dualor
gani
sms

oft
hesamespeci
est
hatoccupysomespeci
fi
car
[Link]
oseobser
vat
ionont
hese

or
gani
smsi
naspeci
fi
edar
ea,show somechangesi
nthepat
ter
[Link],t
het
erm

7
‘
popul
ati
ondy
nami
csr
efer
stohowt
henumberofi
ndi
vi
dual
sinapopul
ati
onchanges

ov
ert
[Link]
napopul
ati
onar
easar tofbi
esul rt
handdeat
hrat
esaswel
las

mi
grat
[Link]
lthesef
act
orsdet
ermi
newhet
herandhowqui
ckl
yapopul
ati
ongr
ows.

Popul
ati
onDi
str
ibut
ion

Popul
ati
on di
str
ibut
ion means t
he pat
ter
n ofwher
e peopl
eli
[Link]
ld popul
ati
on

di
str
ibut
ioni
sunev
[Link]
sel
ypopul
atedar
eascont
ainf
ewpeopl
e,whi
l
epl
aceswhi
ch

ar
edensel
ypopul
atedcont
ainmanypeopl
[Link]
sel
ypopul
atedpl
acest
endt
obe

di
ff
icul
tpl
acest
oli
[Link]
eusual
l
ypl
aceswi
thhost
il
eenv
ironment
se.
gAnt
arct
ica

r
egi
[Link]
aceswhi
char
edensel
ypopul
atedar
ehabi
tabl
eenv
ironment
se.
gEur
ope.

Hencesomear
eashav
eahi
ghpopul
ati
ondensi
tywhi
l
eot
her
shav
eal
ow popul
ati
on

densi
ty.

Fact
orsaf
fect
ingpopul
ati
ondensi
ty

Theser
angef
rom humant
onat
ural
fact
ors.

Phy
sical
fact
ors

 Rel
i
ef(
shapeandhei
ghtofl
and)
.Low l
andwhi
chi
sfl
atat
tr
act
shi
ghdensi
ty

whi
l
ehi
ghl
andwhi
chi
smount
ainousat
tract
slowdensi
tye.
gHi
mal
ayas

 Resour
[Link]
easr
ichi
nresour
ces(
coal
,oi
l
,wood,f
ishi
ng)t
endt
obedensel
y

popul
atede.
gWest
ernEur
[Link]
easwi
thf
ew r
esour
cest
endt
obespar
sel
y

popul
ated

 Cl
i
mat
[Link]
easwi
tht
emper
atecl
i
mat
est
endt
obedensel
ypopul
atedwhi
l
ear
eas

wi
thext
remecl
i
mat
esofhotandcol
dtendt
obespar
sel
ypopul
ated

8
 Humanf
act
ors

 Pol
i
tical
.Count
ri
eswi
thst
abl
egov
ernment
stendt
ohav
eahi
ghpopul
ati
on

densi
ty e.
g Si
ngapor
[Link]
abl
e count
ri
es l
i
ke Af
ghani
stan hav
elower

popul
ati
ondensi
ti
esaspeopl
emaymi
grat
e.

 Soci
[Link]
oupsofpeopl
ewantt
oli
vecl
oset
oeachot
herf
orsecur
it
[Link]
her

gr
oupsofpeopl
epr
efert
obei
sol
ated.

 Economi
[Link]
oboppor
tuni
ti
esencour
agehi
ghpopul
ati
ondensi
ti
eswhi
l
e

l
i
mit
edj
oboppor
tuni
ti
escausesomear
east
obespar
sel
ypopul
ated.

I
mpl
i
cat
ionofr
api
dpopul
ati
ongr
owt
h

Hi
gh f
ert
il
it
y and r
api
d popul
ati
on gr
owt
h hav
e ser
ious adv
erse ef
fect
s on t
he

economi
esandsoci
eti
esofcount
ri
es.

Ov
eruseofr
esour
ces.

Rapi
d popul
ati
on gr
owt
htends t
o ov
eruse t
he count
ry’
s nat
uralr
esour
ces hence

depl
[Link]
thhasl
i
mit
ednat
ural
resour
cesi
nfor
m ofwat
er,
fauna,
flor
a,mi
ner
als,

f
ossi
lfuel
[Link]
hem,somear
erenewabl
eandsomear
enon-
renewabl
eresour
ces.

Thenon-
renewabl
eresour
cesar
ebei
ngext
inctbecauseofov
erut
il
izat
ion.

I
ndust
ri
ali
sat
ionandur
bani
sat
ion

Asacount
rydev
elopsf
rom pr
imar
il
yanagr
icul
tur
alt
oani
ndust
ri
aleconomy
,lar
ge-

scal
eemi
grat
ionalr
uralr
esi
dent
stot
ownsandci
ti
est
akespl
[Link]
ingt
hepr
ocess,

t
hegr
owt
hrat
eofur
banar
easi
sty
pical
l
ydoubl
ethepaceofov
eral
lpopul
ati
oni
ncr
ease.

9
Shr
inki
ngagr
icul
tur
all
and

Ther
eisunbr
eakabl
ecy
cleoft
ransf
ormat
ionoff
orestl
andi
ntoagr
icul
tur
all
and,and

t
heagr
icul
tur
all
andsar
ebei
ngconv
ert
edi
ntoconst
ruct
ionofr
esi
dent
ialcol
oni
esand

est
abl
i
shmentofi
ndust
ri
esi
nandar
oundt
heci
ti
es.

Gl
obal
war
ming

Thei
ncr
easei
npopul
ati
onl
eadst
ogr
eat
erconsumpt
ionofr
esour
[Link]

CO2andot
hergr
eenhousegassesi
ncr
[Link]
scausesr
isei
ngl
obal
temper
atur
es.

Env
ironment
alpol
l
uti
on

Thet
remendousgr
owt
hinpopul
ati
onhasl
edt
othedegr
adat
ionoft
heenv
ironment
.Ai
r,

wat
er,
andsoi
lhav
egotpol
l
uted.

Pov
ert
y,mal
nut
ri
ti
onandf
ami
ne

Pov
ert
yandmal
nut
ri
ti
oni
sagr
owi
ngandcommonphenomenoni
ntheunderdev
eloped

count
ri
[Link]
l
li
onsofpeopl
eli
vei
nhungerandsuf
ferf
rom mal
nour
ishmentast
hey

cannotaf
for
dtobuynut
ri
ti
ousf
oodandcannotaf
for
dfar
mingsuppl
i
esont
hei
rown.

Popul
ati
onr
educest
her
ateofcapi
tal
for
mat
ion

Joboppor
tuni
ti
esar
etool
essi
npoorcount
ri
es,hencet
her
eisl
i
ttl
escopef
orsav
ings

andcapi
talf
ormat
[Link]
tai
ncomei
sal
sol
owbecauset
hedependent
shav
eto

bef
edandt
akencar
eof
.

Popul
ati
ongr
owt
hweakenssoci
ali
nfr
ast
ruct
ure

10
Vasti
ncr
easei
npopul
ati
oncast
saheav
ybur
denont
hegov
ernmentandder
ail
smany

pl
ans

MEASURESTOCONTROLPOPULATI
ON

 Del
ayedmar
ri
[Link]
ri
ageatat
enderagel
eadst
oal
ongspanf
orgi
vi
ng

bi
rt
[Link]
soy
oungagemar
ri
agedev
oidpeopl
eoft
heeducat
ionandawar
eness

r
equi
redt
obesensi
ti
vet
owar
dsandunder
standt
heconsequencesofr
aisi
ngt
oo

manychi
l
[Link]
epor
tsuggest
sasi
gni
fi
cantdecl
i
nei
nwor
ldpopul
ati
oni
f

t
hel
egal
formar
ri
agei
smade20y
ear
s.

 Medi
calf
aci
l
iti
[Link]
ail
abi
l
ity ofgood hospi
tal
s and doct
orsi
n dev
elopi
ng

count
ri
esi
sli
mit
edt
husr
esul
ti
ngi
nhi
ghi
nfantmor
tal
i
tyr
atei
nrur
alar
eas.

Opt
imal
medi
cal
faci
l
iti
escer
tai
nlyr
educespopul
ati
onr
ate.

 Legi
slat
iveact
[Link]
ri
ctl
egalst
epsar
erequi
redf
orchi
l
dmar
ri
age,educat
ion,

abol
i
tionofchi
l
dlaborand beggar
yand f
ami
l
ypl
anni
ng t
oreap si
gni
fi
cant

benef
it
sfr
om i
[Link]
operenf
orcementofl
awsr
elat
edt
ochi
l
dlabor
,sl
aver
yand

beggar
ywi
l
lensur
ethatpar
ent
sdon’
tsel
lthei
rchi
l
drenorsendt
hem outt
owor
k

t
husf
orci
ngt
hem t
orai
sel
essernumberofki
ds.

 Pr
ovi
dingi
ncent
ives.I
ncent
iveshav
epr
ovedt
obeanef
fi
cientpol
i
cymeasur
ein

combat
ingmostdev
elopmenti
ssuesi
ncl
udi
ngpopul
ati
[Link]
ovi
dingaheal
th,

educat
ionalorev
en f
inanci
ali
ncent
ivecan bea hi
ghl
yef
fect
ivepopul
ati
on

measur
[Link]
ear
ecer
tai
nincent
ivepol
i
ciesl
i
kepay
ingcer
tai
npeopl
ewi
thnot

mor
ethant
woki
dsorf
reeordi
scount
ededucat
ionf
orsi
ngl
echi
l
det
[Link]
char
e

i
npl
acei
nmostdev
elopi
ngcount
ri
esf
aci
ngpopul
ati
onr
elat
edchal
l
engesand

11
 hasal
sopr
ovedt
obeausef
ulmeasur
e.

 Spr
ead awar
[Link]
e need t
o be t
old and made t
o under
stand t
he

consequencesofhav
ingt
oomanychi
l
[Link]
ernmentandnon-
gov
ernment

i
nst
it
uti
onscancar
ryawar
enesscampai
gnsi
nfor
mingpeopl
ehow t
heywi
l
lbe

unabl
etopr
ovi
degoodnut
ri
ti
on,
educat
ionormedi
calf
aci
l
iti
est
othei
rchi
l
dreni
f

t
heyhav
etoomany
.

 Womenempower
ment
.Genderdi
scr
imi
nat
ioni
samaj
orr
easonf
orpopul
ati
on

gr
owt
[Link]
e keep gi
vi
ng bi
rt
hto ki
dsi
n or
dert
o hav
e mor
e sonst
han

daught
[Link]
ingwomenwi
thasayi
nmat
ter
sconcer
ningt
hem l
i
kechi
l
d

bi
rt
handeducat
ingt
hem t
ofi
ghtagai
nstdi
scr
imi
nat
ionwi
l
lensur
eaheal
thyand

awar
esoci
ety
.

 Er
adi
cat
epov
ert
[Link]
ert
yhasadi
rectr
elat
iont
othepopul
ati
ongr
owt
h. I
n

dev
elopi
ngcount
ri
esofAsi
aandAf
ri
ca,chi
l
dlabor
,sl
avet
radi
ngandhuman

t
raf
fi
cki
ngi
shi
ghl
ypr
eval
ent
.Thus,gov
ernment
sshoul
dcomeupwi
thgood

economi
cpol
i
ciest
hatwoul
der
adi
cat
epov
ert
yamongt
heci
ti
zenr
y.

 Educat
[Link]
ionf
ormst
hebackboneofani
ndi
vi
dualandeconomy
.Once

educat
ed peopl
e know and under
stand t
he har
ms whi
ch a hi
gh popul
ati
on

gr
owt
hrat
[Link]
ion,especi
all
yamongt
hewomenf
olkcanwor
k

wonder
sincont
rol
l
ingpopul
ati
[Link]
edmanandwomancanr
eadi
l
y

under
standt
hebenef
it
sofasmal
lfami
l
y.

 Av
ail
abi
l
ityofcont
racept
[Link]
ingt
hatpeopl
ehav
eeasyandcheapaccess

t
ocont
racept
iont
ool
swi
l
lhel
pav
oidi
ngcasesofunwant
edpr
egnanci
esand

12
 bi
rt
hs.

 Dev
elopment
.Lackofdev
elopmenti
mpl
i
eshi
ghpov
ert
y,hi
ghi
l
li
ter
acy
,hi
gh

di
scr
imi
nat
ion,l
ackofawar
eness,l
ackofmedi
calf
aci
l
iti
esandt
husi
ntur
n

i
ncr
easedpopul
ati
ongr
owt
[Link]
ingdev
elopmentoft
hewhol
epopul
ati
on

woul
del
i
minat
ethechal
l
engeofpopul
ati
ongr
owt
hforonce.

Act
ivi
ty

 How doespopul
ati
onsi
zeandpopul
ati
ondensi
tydi
ff
erf
rom eachot
her
,in

r
elat
iont
othei
rimpor
tancei
npr
edi
cti
ngcompet
it
ioni
napopul
ati
on?

 Whati
stheuni
tforpopul
ati
ondensi
ty?

 Whatef
fectdoest
heeconomyhav
eonpopul
ati
ongr
owt
h?

 Di
scusswhyi
tisi
mpor
tantf
orbot
hpar
tner
sengagi
ngi
nasexualactt
oact

t
oget
hert
oknowcont
racept
iveopt
ionsandhowt
heywor
k.

UNI
T2

THEORI
ESOFPOPULATI
ONGROWTH

Leani
ngout
comes:
SBAT

-I
dent
if
ysomeoft
het
heor
iesi
npopul
ati
ongr
owt
h

13
2.
0Int
roduct
ion

Theuni
tout
li
nespopul
ati
ont
heor
iesandhowt
heset
heor
ieshel
pust
ounder
standt
hegr
owt
h

ofpopul
ati
on.

2.
1Demogr
aphi
cTr
ansi
ti
onalTheor
y

Thedemogr
aphi
ctr
ansi
ti
ont
heor
ytel
l
sust
hatpopul
ati
onofanyr
egi
onchangesf
rom

hi
ghbi
rt
hsandhi
ghdeat
hst
olow bi
rt
hsandl
ow deat
hsassoci
etypr
ogr
essesf
rom

r
uralagr
ari
anandi
l
li
ter
atet
our
bani
ndust
ri
alandl
i
ter
atesoci
ety
.Thet
heor
yisa

gener
ali
zeddescr
ipt
ionoft
hechangi
ngpat
ter
nofmor
tal
i
ty,
fer
ti
li
tyandgr
owt
hrat
esas

soci
eti
esmov
efr
om onedemogr
aphi
cregi
met
oanot
her
.Thesechangesoccuri
n

st
ageswhi
char
ecol
l
ect
ivel
yknownast
hedemogr
aphi
ccy
[Link]
gument
sint
hismodel

ar
ebasedont
hef
oll
owi
ngv
ari
abl
es:

 Bi
rt
hrat
es

 Deat
hrat
es(
mor
tal
i
ty)

 Nat
ural
incr
ease

 Tot
alpopul
ati
on

 Ti
me(
year
s)

TheDemogr
aphi
cTr
ansi
ti
onModelsuggest
sthatpopul
ati
onwi
l
lal
way
sexper
ience

i
nst
abi
l
ityduet
oint
eract
ionoff
ert
il
it
yandmor
tal
i
ty.I
tal
sosuggest
str
ansi
ti
onf
rom

hi
gherl
evel
sofi
nst
abi
l
ityaswel
lasl
owerl
evel
sofst
abi
l
ity
.Iff
ert
il
it
yincr
easesv
ery

much,mor
tal
i
tyort
henat
urali
ncr
easesphenomenawi
l
lcheckf
ert
il
it
ysot
hatt
hey

14
bal
[Link]
aphi
c Tr
ansi
ti
on Modeli
s a pr
ocess ofper
manentchange i
na

soci
ety
’spopul
ati
onf
rom hi
ght
olowv
ital
rat
es.

Not
est
ein(
1945)obser
vedt
hatt
hemodeli
srel
atedt
olev
elsofdev
elopment
.He

obser
ved t
hatwhent
hecount
ryi
sint
hel
ow st
agesofdev
elopmentf
ert
il
it
yand

mor
tal
i
tyr
atest
endt
obehi
gher
.Mor
tal
i
tyt
endst
oosci
l
lat
ear
oundf
ert
il
it
y.

St
agesofDemogr
aphi
cTr
ansi
ti
onTheor
y

2.
1.1St
age1Pr
e-I
ndust
ri
al/Tr
adi
ti
onal
Soci
ety
:-

Thi
sst
ageappl
i
edt
omostoft
hewor
ldbef
oret
hei
ndust
ri
alr
evol
uti
[Link]
hbi
rt
hrat
es

anddeat
hrat
esar
ehi
ghandr
oughl
yinbal
[Link]
esul
t,popul
ati
onsi
zer
emai
ns

f
air
lyconst
antbuthasmaj
orswi
ngswi
thev
ent
ssuchaswar
sorpandemi
[Link]
ery

pr
esentdaycount
ryhasgonepastt
hisst
age.

 Bi
rt
hrat
est
endt
obehi
ghf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons;

 Pr
e–i
ndust
ri
alr
evol
uti
onhencel
owdev
elopmentl
evel
s

 Low t
echnol
ogy(
medi
calt
echnol
ogy
)hencenof
ami
l
ypl
anni
ngt
echnol
ogi
es

r
esul
ti
ngi
ntohi
ghf
ert
il
it
yrat
e.

 Ther
ewasnomoder
ntr
adeonl
ybar
tersy
stem exi
sted

 Chi
l
drenwer
ehi
ghl
yval
ued9ol
dagesecur
it
y,sour
ceofcheapl
abour–Cal
dwel
l
,

1982)

 Hi
ghdeat
hrat
es(
whi
chf
luct
uat
esmor
ethanbi
rt
hrat
eswi
tht
ime)duet
o:

15
  Foodshor
tages

 Poormedi
cal
technol
ogy

 Pooreconomi
cper
for
mance

 Lowl
evel
sofdev
elopment

 Low popul
ati
ongr
owt
hrat
e(l
ow nat
urali
ncr
ease– NI
)duet
ohi
ghl
evel
sof

mor
tal
i
tyhencehi
ghst
ati
onar
yst
age

 Hi
ghl
evel
sofmor
tal
i
tyhencehi
ghst
ati
onar
yst
age

 I
ndust
ri
alr
evol
uti
onhasani
mpactonmor
tal
i
tyr
atehencemov
ement
sto

st
age2

2.
1.2St
age2Dev
elopi
ngCount
ry:
-(st
agesofmor
tal
i
tyt
ransi
ti
onandaccel
erat
ing

Nat
ural
Incr
easeNI
)

Thei
ntr
oduct
ionofmoder
nmedi
cinel
ower
sdeat
hrat
esespeci
all
yamongchi
l
dren,

whi
l
e bi
rt
hrat
es r
emai
n hi
gh;t
he r
esul
tisr
api
d popul
ati
on gr
owt
[Link]
eis

i
mpr
ovementi
nfood suppl
yand publ
i
cheal
th and agr
icul
tur
[Link]
hel
east

dev
elopedcount
ri
est
odayar
einst
[Link]
oll
owi
ngchar
act
eri
sti
csar
eobser
ved:

 Peopl
erespondqui
ckert
odeat
hst
hanbi
rt
hs(
psy
chol
ogi
cal
)

 Rel
i
gionandt
radi
ti
onspl
aysar
olei
nfer
ti
li
tyr
atesasnumberofchi
l
dreni
s

consi
der
edt
obeal
esspr
obl
em (
Godwi
l
ltakecar
eoft
hem –pr
oduceandf
il
l

16
 t
heear
th)

 Medi
calt
echnol
ogybegi
nto be i
mpor
ted f
rom west
ern count
ri
es and t
his

r
educedmor
tal
i
tyr
atesconsi
der
abl
y,par
ti
cul
arl
y,i
nfantmor
tal
i
[Link]
sresul
ted

i
ntoapopul
ati
onpy
rami
dwi
thabr
oaderbase–agespeci
fi
cmor
tal
i
ty–i
nfant

wi
thr
elat
ivel
yhi
ghsur
viv
alr
ate-butl
owl
i
feexpect
ancy
.

2.
1.3St
age3Tr
ansi
ti
onorPost–I
ndust
ri
al:
-

Bi
rt
hrat
esgr
adual
l
ydecr
ease,usual
l
yasar
esul
tofi
mpr
ovedeconomi
ccondi
ti
ons,an

i
ncr
easei
nwomen’
sst
atus,andaccesst
ocont
racept
[Link]
i
nei
nbi
rt
hrat
est
art
sto

bal
ancet
hel
ower
ingdeat
hrat
esPopul
ati
ongr
owt
hcont
inues,butatl
owerr
[Link]

dev
elopi
ng count
ri
es ar
eint
his st
[Link]
ail
ed char
act
eri
zat
ion oft
his st
age i
s

obser
vedasf
oll
ows:

 Remar
kabl
edecl
i
nei
nbi
rt
hrat
esf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons:

 I
ncr
easedl
evel
sdev
elopment–i
ndust
ri
alr
evol
uti
on-soci
etyi
schangi
ngf
rom an

agr
ari
ansoci
etyt
oani
ndust
ri
ali
zedsoci
ety

 Moder
nizat
ionofcr
opsi
nthushi
ghl
evel
sofci
vi
li
zat
ion–peopl
ebegi
ntof
orego

chi
l
drenf
orl
uxur
iousl
i
fee.
[Link]
ngacar
,qual
i
tyofl
i
fef
orchi
l
dreni
nter
msof

heal
thandeducat
ionpr
ovi
[Link]
l
drenar
eper
cei
vedasal
i
abi
l
ity
.

 Peopl
ebegi
ntoappr
eci
atesmal
l
erf
ami
l
ysi
ze

 Womenbegi
ntobeabsor
bedi
ntot
hel
abourf
orce(r
egul
arempl
oyment
)–

gendersensi
ti
veness

17
  Cont
ract
ingdemogr
aphi
cgap(
NI)duet
ofer
ti
li
tydecl
i
nebutt
otalpopul
ati
on

cont
inuet
ori
sebecauseofhi
ghsur
viv
alr
[Link]
eratt
heendoft
hest
age

popul
ati
onbegi
ntost
abi
l
ize

 Cont
inueddecl
i
ningdeat
hrat
es

 Att
heendoft
hisst
agedeat
hrat
esst
abi
l
ize

 Heal
tht
echnol
ogyhi
ghl
yimpr
oved

 Count
ri
esi
nthi
sst
agear
emost
lywest
erncount
ri
[Link]
er,t
her
ear
e

somet
hir
dwor
ldcount
ri
eswhi
chhav
eent
eredt
hisst
ageoft
heDTT.

 Bi
rt
hrat
eanddeat
hrat
ebegi
ntoconv
ergenar
rowi
ngNI

2.
1.4St
age4LowSt
ati
onar
ySt
age:
-

Bi
rt
handdeat
hrat
esar
ebot
hlow,st
abi
l
izi
ngt
hepopul
ati
[Link]
ri
est
endt
o

hav
e st
rongereconomi
es,hi
gherl
evel
s ofeducat
ion,bet
terheal
th car
e,a hi
gher

pr
opor
ti
onofwor
kingwomen,andaf
ert
il
it
yrat
ehov
eri
ngar
oundt
wochi
l
drenper

[Link]
der
lypopul
ati
oni
sgr
eat
ert
hant
hey
out
hfulpopul
ati
[Link]
eloped

count
ri
esar
einst
age4.

Themodelbel
ow hi
ghl
i
ght
sthegr
owt
hofpopul
ati
oni
nal
lcount
ri
esoft
hewor
ldand

i
l
lust
rat
est
hepat
ter
ninf
ourdi
sti
nctst
agesknownasdemogr
aphi
ctr
ansi
ti
on.

18
Sour
ce:st
udy
li
[Link]

2.
2Mal
thusi
anTheor
y

Rober
tThomasMal
thus(
1766-
1834)wasanEngl
i
shschol
arandcl
eri
cwhoexami
ned

t
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenpopul
ati
ongr
owt
handr
esour
[Link]
om t
his,
hedev
elopedt
he

Mal
thusi
ant
heor
yofpopul
ati
ongr
owt
hinwhi
chhewr
otet
hatpopul
ati
ongr
owt
h

occur
sex
ponent
ial
l
y,soi
tincr
easesaccor
dingt
obi
rt
hrat
e. Forexampl
e,i
fev
ery

memberofaf
ami
l
ytr
eer
epr
oduces,
thet
reewi
l
lcont
inuet
ogr
owwi
theachgener
ati
on.

Ont
heot
herhand,
foodpr
oduct
ioni
ncr
easesar
it
hmet
ical
l
y,soi
tonl
yincr
easesatgi
ven

poi
ntsi
nti
[Link],hear
guedt
hati
fthi
str
endwasl
eftunchecked,apopul
ati
on

woul
dout
growi
tsr
esour
ces,
leadi
ngt
oahostofpr
obl
ems.

Mal
thusi
anTheor
yofPopul
ati
ongr
owt
h

19
Sour
ce:st
udy
.com

Accor
dingt
oMal
thus,t
her
ear
etwot
ypesof‘
checks’t
hatcanr
educeapopul
ati
on’
s

gr
owt
hrat
e;pr
event
ivechecksandposi
ti
[Link]
event
ivechecksar
evol
unt
ary

act
ionspeopl
ecant
aket
oav
oidcont
ri
but
ingt
othepopul
ati
[Link]
srel
i
gious

bel
i
efs,
hesuppor
tedaconcepthecal
l
edmor
alr
est
rai
nt,
inwhi
chpeopl
eresi
stt
heur
ge

t
omar
ryandr
epr
oduceunt
ilt
heyar
ecapabl
eofsuppor
ti
ngaf
ami
l
[Link]
sof
tenmeans

wai
ti
ngunt
ilal
ateraget
omar
[Link]
sowr
otet
hatt
her
ear
e‘i
mmor
al’
way
stochecka

popul
ati
on,suchasv
ices,adul
ter
y,pr
ost
it
uti
on,andbi
rt
hcont
rol
.Duet
ohi
sbel
i
efs,he

f
avor
edmor
alr
est
rai
ntanddi
dn’
tsuppor
tthel
att
erpr
act
ices.

Posi
ti
vecheckst
opopul
ati
ongr
owt
hont
heot
herhandar
ethi
ngst
hatmayshor
tent
he

av
erage l
i
fespan,such as di
sease,war
far
e,f
ami
ne,and poorl
i
ving and wor
king

20
env
ironment
[Link]
dingt
oMal
thus,ev
ent
ual
l
ytheseposi
ti
vecheckswoul
dresul
tina

Mal
thusi
ancat
ast
rophe(
alsosomet
imescal
l
edaMal
thusi
ancr
isi
s),whi
chi
saf
orced

r
etur
n of a popul
ati
on t
o basi
c sur
viv
[Link]
s ov
eral
lar
gument was t
hat t
his

unpr
ecedent
edgr
owt
hmayputast
rai
nonourenv
ironment
,economi
es,gov
ernment
s,

i
nfr
ast
ruct
ures,
andsoci
ali
nst
it
uti
ons.

2.
2.1I
mpor
tanceofMal
thusi
anTheor
y

 Faci
l
itat
ed di
ff
erentmet
hods ofcol
l
ect
ing dat
ali
ke census,sur
vey
s,v
ital

st
ati
sti
cs,
migr
ati
onet
c.

 Ledt
othei
ntr
oduct
ionofpopul
ati
onpol
i
cies

 I
nfl
uencedsoci
alpol
i
ciessuchas“
poorl
aw”i
nEngl
andanddev
elopi
ngcount
ri
es

(
e.g.f
reef
oodv
sfoodf
orwor
k)–poorpeopl
ebei
ngpuni
shedf
orbei
ngl
azy

 I
nfl
uencedt
hei
ntr
oduct
ionoff
ami
l
ycont
rol
met
hods

2.
2.2Chal
l
engest
otheMal
thusi
anTheor
y

 Mal
thusi
ant
heor
ywasl
i
mit
edt
oEngl
and

 Mal
thusdi
dnoenv
isaget
hecont
roloff
ert
il
it
ywi
thi
nmar
ri
age,butmostoft
he

bi
rt
hsoccuri
nmar
it
aluni
[Link]
ance,
forexampl
e,i
n1922adv
ocat
edt
heuseof

bi
rt
hcont
rol
bymar
ri
edcoupl
es(
fl
ew,
1970:
26)

 Mal
thus emphasi
sed t
he l
i
mit
ed suppl
yofl
and,butdi
d notant
ici
pat
ethe

benef
it
sfr
om i
mpr
oved t
ranspor
tcombi
ned wi
tht
he openi
ng up ofnew

agr
icul
tur
all
ands

 Fer
ti
li
tycont
rolcan f
allas economi
c dev
elopmentt
akes pl
ace and as t
he

21
 st
andar
dofl
i
vingr
ises

 I
mpr
ovementi
ntechnol
ogye.
g.i
mpr
ovedagr
icul
tur
almet
hods,suchast
heuse

off
ert
il
izer
s,newt
ypesofseedwhi
chhav
egr
eat
lyi
ncr
easedpr
oduct
ivi
ty,of
fset

t
hei
mpactoff
astgr
owi
ngpopul
ati
on

2.
3Mar
xistTheor
y

Kar
lMar
xdi
smi
ssedMal
thusi
annot
iont
hatt
hewor
ldpopul
ati
oni
ncr
easesonaccount

off
ert
il
it
ybuti
tincr
easesonl
yonaccountoncapi
tal
i
stpol
i
[Link]
xar
guedt
hatwhen

soci
etyi
swel
lor
der
ed,i
ncr
easesi
nthepopul
ati
onshoul
dleadt
ogr
eat
erweal
th,not

hungerandmi
ser
[Link]
m,pov
ert
yandunempl
oymentwer
enotduet
oincr
eased

popul
ati
on,
butoncapi
tal
i
stsy
stem whi
chf
ail
edt
opr
ovi
dej
[Link]
x’scl
aim wast
hat

t
her
ewasenoughf
oodandot
herr
esour
cesi
nthewor
ldt
osust
aint
hemushr
oomi
ng

popul
ati
onbutt
hepr
obl
em wast
hatt
her
esour
ceswer
eunev
enl
ydi
str
ibut
ed.I
nshor
t,

hesawt
hatt
hepr
obl
em wast
heev
il
sofcapi
tal
i
stsy
stem.

I
not
herwor
ds,hebel
i
evedt
hatt
hesy
stem ofcapi
tal
i
sm hast
hecapaci
tyt
opr
oduce

f
oodandot
hernecessi
ti
es,buti
twast
heunequaldi
str
ibut
ionofsoci
alandeconomi
c

weal
tht
hatundet
ermi
ned pr
oduct
[Link] r
elat
ed popul
ati
on gr
owt
h wi
th pr
esent

economi
csy
stem and f
orhi
m bot
hwer
einsepar
abl
[Link]
pluspopul
ati
onwast
he

consequencef
orr
ealpr
oduct
ionandunev
endi
str
ibut
ionofweal
thandf
orpr
ovi
ding

j
obst
oonl
yfew per
[Link]
otheconcl
usi
ont
hatmai
ncauseofsur
plusof

popul
ati
onwasnot
hingel
sebutwr
ongpol
i
ticsoft
hecapi
tal
i
sts.

2.
4Neo-Mal
thusi
anTheor
y

22
Neo-Mal
thusi
ansr
efer
stopeopl
ewi
tht
hesamebasi
cconcer
nsasMal
thus,who

adv
ocat
eforpopul
ati
oncont
rolpr
ogr
ams,t
oensur
eresour
cesf
orcur
rentandf
utur
e

popul
ati
[Link]
eoft
hebel
i
eft
hatt
heear
th’
sresour
cescanonl
ysuppor
taf
ini
te

popul
ati
[Link]-Mal
thusi
ansseem t
odi
ff
erf
rom Mal
thus’
stheor
iesmai
nlyi
nthei
r

ent
husi
asm f
orcont
racept
ivet
echni
[Link]-Mal
thusi
ansar
emor
econcer
nedwi
th

env
ironment
aldegr
adat
ion(soi
ldegr
adat
ion,soi
lnut
ri
entl
oss,depl
eti
onofi
rr
igat
ion

sour
ces,soi
lsal
i
nizat
ion)and cat
ast
rophi
cfami
net
han wi
th pov
ert
[Link]
essur
eon

scar
cer
esour
cesl
eadst
ofami
neandwar
.Inot
herwor
ds,t
heybel
i
evet
hatpr
essur
e

t
hatov
erpopul
ati
onaswel
lasov
erconsumpt
ionmayi
ncr
easer
esour
cedepl
eti
onand/

orenv
ironment
aldegr
adat
ionwi
l
lleadt
oecol
ogi
cal
col
l
apseorot
herhazar
ds.

Neo-Mal
thusi
anTheor
yofPopul
ati
on

Sour
ce:handout
li
fe.
com

Act
ivi
ty

23
[Link]
uci
dat
ethel
evel
sint
hedemogr
aphi
ctr
ansi
ti
onmodel

[Link]
nesomeoft
hel
i
mit
ati
onsofMal
thusi
anmodel
.

3.I
nwhi
chway
sdoesMar
xistt
heor
ydi
ff
erf
rom Mal
thusi
an?

UNI
T3

MI
GRATI
ONANDURBANI
SATI
ON

Lear
ningout
comes:
SBAT

24
  Def
inemi
grat
ion

 Exami
net
hei
mpact
sofmi
grat
ion

 Under
standi
ngur
bani
sat
ionandi
tsef
fect
s

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Thi
s chapt
erpr
ovi
des and under
standi
ng ofwhatmi
grat
ion and ur
bani
sat
ion i
s.
Fur
ther
mor
e,t
heef
fect
soft
hesephenomenonsar
eout
li
ned.

3.
1MI
GRATI
ON

Mi
grat
ioni
sasol
dashumanki
[Link]
ehav
eal
way
smov
edi
nsear
chofbet
terl
i
ving

condi
ti
onsf
ort
hemsel
vesandf
ort
hei
rlov
edonesorescapi
ngdr
amat
icsi
tuat
ionsi
n

t
hei
rhomel
[Link]
womaj
ordr
iver
swer
ethef
undament
alsoft
he‘
pushandpul
l
’

t
heor
ythatwasf
ir
stpr
oposedbyLeei
n1966,
encompassi
ngeconomi
c,env
ironment
al,

soci
alandpol
i
ticalf
act
orspushi
ngoutf
rom t
hei
ndi
vi
dualhomel
andandat
tr
act
ing

hi
m/hert
owar
dst
hedest
inat
ioncount
ry.

3.
1.1Def
ini
ti
onofMi
grat
ion

Mi
grat
ioni
sthemov
ementofpeopl
efr
om onegeogr
aphi
calpl
acet
oli
vei
nanot
her
.

Thei
ntent
ionsbehi
ndt
hismov
ementar
eforset
tl
ing,mor
eorl
essper
manent
lyor

t
empor
aryatanew l
ocat
[Link]
emaymi
grat
easi
ndi
vi
dual
s,i
nfami
l
yuni
tsori
n

l
argegr
[Link]
grant
sleav
ethei
rcount
ry,
whi
l
eimmi
grant
sent
eracount
ry.

Mi
grat
ioni
sacompl
exphenomenon,wher
e‘macr
o’-
,‘meso’
-and‘
micr
o’-
fact
orsact

t
oget
hert
oinf
orm t
hef
inali
ndi
vi
dualdeci
sion t
o mi
grat
e,i
ntegr
ati
ng t
hesi
mpl
er

pr
evi
ouspush–pul
ltheor
y he‘
.Amongt macr
o-f
act
ors’
,t
hepol
i
tical
,demogr
aphi
c,soci
o-

economi
candenv
ironment
alsi
tuat
ionsar
emaj
orcont
ri
but
orst
omi
grat
[Link]
e

t
hemai
ndr
iver
soff
orcedmi
grat
ion,ei
theri
nter
nat
ionalori
nter
nal
,andl
argel
youtof

25
i
ndi
vi
dual
s’cont
rol he ‘
.Among t meso-
fact
ors’
,communi
cat
ion t
echnol
ogy
,land

gr
abbi
nganddi
aspor
icl
i
nkspl
ayani
mpor
tantr
ole.I
npar
ti
cul
ar,soci
almedi
aat
tr
act

peopl
eoutoft
hei
ror
igi
ncount
ri
esbyr
aisi
ngawar
enessofl
i
vingcondi
ti
onsi
nthe

af
fl
uentwor
ld,
albei
tof
tengr
ossl
yexagger
ated,
wit
hthedi
aspor
ali
nkal
soact
ingasan

at
tr
act
[Link]
er,‘
micr
o-f
act
ors’such as educat
ion,r
eli
gion,mar
it
alst
atus and

per
sonalat
ti
tudet
omi
grat
ional
sohav
eakeyr
olei
nmaki
ngt
hef
inaldeci
siont
o

mi
grat
eani
ndi
vi
dualchoi
[Link]
ereot
ypeoft
hei
l
li
ter
ate,poorandr
uralmi
grant

r
eachi
ngt
hebor
der
sofaf
fl
uentcount
ri
eshast
[Link]
estpeopl
e

si
mpl
ydonothav
ethemeanst
oescapewarandpov
ert
yandr
emai
ntr
appedi
nthei
r

count
ryori
nthenei
ghbour
ingone.

3.
1.2Mi
grant
s

Accor
dingt
otheI
nter
nat
ionalOr
gani
zat
ionf
orMi
grat
ion(
IOM)
,ami
granti
s‘anyper
son

whoi
smov
ingorhasmov
edacr
ossani
nter
nat
ionalbor
derorwi
thi
naSt
ateawayf
rom

hi
s/herhabi
tualpl
aceofr
esi
dence,r
egar
dlessof(
1)t
heper
son’
slegalst
atus;(
2)

whet
hert
he mov
ementi
svol
unt
ary ori
nvol
unt
ary
;(3)whatt
he causes f
ort
he

mov
ementar
e;or(
4)whatt
hel
engt
hoft
hest
ayi
s’
,abr
oaddef
ini
ti
oni
[Link]

suchdef
ini
ti
on,andst
ri
ctl
yli
mit
ingouranal
ysi
stosout
h-t
o-nor
thmi
grant
s,t
womaj
or

br
oadcat
egor
iesmaybei
dent
if
ied:

I
nthi
srespect
,iti
susef
ult
orepor
tbel
ow t
hesy
nthet
icdef
ini
ti
onsofasy
lum seeker
s

andr
efugeesf
rom I
OM.

3.
1.2.
1Asy
lum seeker

Aper
sonwhoseekssaf
etyf
rom per
secut
ionorser
ioushar
minacount
ryot
hert
hanhi
s

26
orherownandawai
tsadeci
sionont
heappl
i
cat
ionf
orr
efugeest
atusunderr
elev
ant

i
nter
nat
ionalandnat
ionali
nst
rument
s.I
ncaseofanegat
ivedeci
sion,t
heper
sonmust

l
eav
ethecount
ryand maybeexpel
l
ed,unl
essper
missi
ont
o st
ayi
spr
ovi
ded on

humani
tar
iangr
ounds.

3.
1.2.
2Ref
ugee

Aper
sonwho,
‘owi
ngt
oawel
l
-foundedf
earofper
secut
ionf
orr
easonsofr
ace,
rel
i
gion,

nat
ional
i
ty,member
shi
pofapar
ti
cul
arsoci
algr
ouporpol
i
ticalopi
nions,i
sout
sidet
he

count
ryofhi
snat
ional
i
tyandi
sunabl
eor
,owi
ngt
osuchf
ear
,isunwi
l
li
ngt
oav
ail

hi
msel
foft
hepr
otect
ionoft
hatcount
ry(
Genev
aConv
ent
ion,
1951,
Art
.1A)
.’

3.
1.3Ty
pesofMi
grat
ion

Ther
ear
etwobasi
cty
pesofmi
grat
ionst
udi
edbydemogr
apher
s:

3.
1.3.
1Int
ernalMi
grat
[Link]
sref
erst
o a change ofr
esi
dence wi
thi
n nat
ional

boundar
ies,suchasbet
weenst
ates,pr
ovi
nces,ci
ti
es,ormuni
cipal
i
[Link]
nter
nal

mi
granti
ssomeonewhomov
est
oadi
ff
erentadmi
nist
rat
ivet
err
it
ory
.

3.
1.3.
2Int
ernat
ional
/Ext
ernalMi
grat
[Link]
sref
erst
o change ofr
esi
dence ov
er

nat
ionalboundar
[Link]
nter
nat
ionalmi
granti
ssomeonewhomov
est
oadi
ff
erent

count
ry.I
nter
nat
ionalmi
grant
s ar
efur
thercl
assi
fi
ed as l
egali
mmi
grant
s,i
l
legal

i
mmi
grant
s,and r
[Link]
mmi
grant
sar
ethosewho mov
ed wi
tht
hel
egal

per
missi
onoft
her
ecei
vernat
ion,
il
legali
mmi
grant
sar
ethosewhomov
edwi
thoutl
egal

per
missi
on,andr
efugeesar
ethosewhocr
ossani
nter
nat
ionalboundar
ytoescape

per
secut
ion.

27
JayWei
nst
einandVi
j
ayanPi
l
lai(
2001)denot
eat
hir
dcl
assi
fi
cat
ion:f
orcedmi
grat
ion.

For
cedmi
grat
ionexi
stswhenaper
soni
smov
edagai
nstt
hei
rwi
l
l(sl
aves)
,orwhent
he

mov
eisi
nit
iat
ed because ofext
ernalf
act
ors(
nat
uraldi
sast
erorci
vi
lwar
).The

di
sti
nct
ionbet
weeni
nter
nalandi
nter
nat
ionalmi
grat
ioni
scr
uci
albecauset
heyhappen

f
ordi
ff
erentr
[Link]
ruct
uralbar
ri
ersar
emor
eli
kel
ytoi
mpedet
hemobi
l
ity

ofapot
ent
iali
nter
nat
ionalmi
grantt
hanani
nter
nalmi
grant
—int
ernat
ionalmi
grat
ion

i
nvol
ves mor
e admi
nist
rat
ive pr
ocedur
es,gr
eat
erexpense,and mor
e di
ff
icul
ti
es

associ
ated wi
th obt
aini
ng empl
oyment
,accessi
ng st
ate ser
vices,l
ear
ning a new

l
anguage,and t
he l
i
ke—t
he mot
ivat
ions behi
nd i
nter
nat
ionalmi
grat
ion ar
e usual
l
y

st
rongert
hant
hosebehi
ndi
nter
nal
migr
ati
on.

3.
1.4Dr
iver
sofmi
grat
ionexpl
ained

Bynow wear
efami
l
iarwi
tht
hef
act
orst
hatactt
oget
heranddet
ermi
net
hef
inal

deci
si
onofani
ndi
vi
dualt
omi
grat
eandt
hesehav
ebeensubdi
vi
dedi
nmacr
o-el
ement
s

(
lar
gel
yindependentf
rom t
hei
ndi
vi
dual
),meso-
element
s(mor
ecl
osel
yrel
atedt
othe

i
ndi
vi
dualbutnotcompl
etel
y undert
he i
ndi
vi
dual
’
s cont
rol
)and mi
cro-
element

(
per
sonalchar
act
eri
sti
csandat
ti
tudes)
.Thoset
hathav
ebeenmor
eext
ensi
vel
yst
udi
ed

wi
l
lbedi
scussedi
nthi
schapt
er.

3.
1.4.
1Inadequat
ehumanandeconomi
cdev
elopment

Humandev
elopmenti
senor
mousl
yunbal
ancedi
nthev
ari
ousr
egi
onsoft
hepl
anetand

t
hegapi
sincr
easi
ngl
ywi
[Link]
candpol
i
ticalr
easonsunder
lyi
ngt
hissad

si
tuat
ionar
ebey
ondt
hescopeoft
hisar
ti
[Link]
elopmentI
ndex(
HDI
)isa

composi
tei
ndexcombi
ningt
heper
for
mancesoft
hedi
ff
erentcount
ri
esonheal
th(
li
fe-

28
expect
ancy
),educat
ion (
year
s ofschool
i
ng)and economi
cs (
percapi
tai
ncome)

pr
oposedbyt
heUni
tedNat
ionsDev
elopmentPr
ogr
am (
UNDP)
.

The 2016 HDIt

op r
anki
ng i
ncl
udes 15 west
ern count
ri
es (
11 Eur
opean,2 Nor
th

Amer
ican,
2inOceani
a)and5Asi
ancount
ri
esamongt
hef
ir
st20r
ankednat
[Link]
he

opposi
teext
remi
tyoft
hel
i
st,19outoft
hel
ast20nat
ionswi
tht
hel
owestHDIi
ndexes

wer
efr
om Af
ri
ca,ast
ri
ki
ngdi
ff
[Link]
er,dur
ingt
hef
ir
stdecadeoft
henew

mi
l
lenni
um,manyAf
ri
cancount
ri
esexper
iencedar
emar
kabl
eeconomi
cgr
owt
h,wi
th

gr
ossdomest
icpr
oduct(
GDP)i
ncr
easesexceedi
ng5% i
nav
erageaccor
dingt
othe

I
nter
nat
ional
Monet
[Link]
ort
unat
ely
,theconsequentr
elat
iveweal
thhasnotbeen

equi
tabl
ydi
str
ibut
edi
nthepopul
ati
onandt
hesubsequentwor
ldeconomi
ccr
isi
ssi
nce

2011hassl
oweddownt
heeconomi
cper
for
mancesofmostAf
ri
cancount
ri
est
oabar
e

2%y
ear
lyGDPi
ncr
[Link],
mostj
obsi
ndev
elopi
ngcount
ri
esar
est
il
li
n

t
hei
nfor
malsect
or,wi
thl
i
ttl
esal
aryandsoci
alpr
otect
ion,t
husnur
tur
ingt
hewi
l
li
ngt
o

f
indbet
terj
obcondi
ti
onsel
sewher
[Link] per
for
mancesi
ntheheal
th,educat
ionand

economi
c sect
ors ar
ear
efl
ex oft
he v
ulner
abi
l
ity oft
he heal
th,educat
ion and

pr
oduct
ivesy
stemswhi
chi
scausedbyt
hel
ackofeconomi
candhumanr
esour
ces.

Wi
th par
ti
cul
ar r
egar
dtot
he heal
th sect
or,such si
tuat
ions t
hatpr
ovi
de l
i
ttl
e

pr
ofessi
onalandeconomi
cmot
ivat
ionpav
ethewayf
orqual
i
fiedheal
thpr
ofessi
onal
s

t
oleav
ethei
ror
igi
ncount
ri
es,aphenomenonknownas‘
brai
ndr
ain’andcr
eat
inga

v
ici
ousci
rcl
e.

Poorheal
thser
vices,l
i
ttl
eeducat
edandqual
i
fiedwor
kfor
ceandpov
ert
yar
eaf
ert
il
e

backgr
ound pr
omot
ing mi
grat
ion of i
ndi
vi
dual
sin sear
ch of bet
ter l
i
[Link]

communi
cat
iont
echnol
ogi
es,l
argel
yav
ail
abl
einur
banset
ti
ngsev
eni
ndev
elopi
ng

29
count
ri
es,
all
owspeopl
etocompar
ethewest
ernl
i
fest
ylewi
tht
hel
ocal
sit
uat
ionswher
e

t
hel
uxur
ioushousesandcar
sofexpat
ri
ates(
andl
ocal
aut
hor
it
ies…)of
tencont
rastwi
th

t
hepoorl
i
vingcondi
ti
onsoft
hel
ocal
popul
ati
[Link]
osper
it
ygr
adi
ent
.

Mi
grat
ionanddev
elopmentar
est
ri
ctl
yli
nkedandi
nfl
uenceeachot
her
.Par
adoxi
cal
l
y

enough,i
nfact
,mi
grat
ionmaybedr
ivenbybot
hal
ackofdev
elopmentandbyan

i
ncr
easi
ngsoci
o-economi
cdev
elopmenti
naspeci
fi
ccount
ry,atl
easti
nthei
nit
ial

phase.

3.
1.4.
2Demogr
aphi
cincr
ease,
urbani
zat
ion

Thewor
ld’
sli
vi
ngpopul
ati
onhasi
ncr
easedi
nanunpr
ecedent
edwaydur
ingt
hel
astt
wo

cent
uri
es,f
rom 1bi
l
li
onest
imat
edt
oli
vei
nthey
ear1800t
othemor
ethan6bi
l
li
on

l
i
vingatt
hebegi
nni
ngoft
hesecondmi
l
lenni
um,t
other
oughl
y11bi
l
li
ont
hatwi
l
l

pr
obabl
yinhabi
ttheear
thi
[Link]
koft
hismassi
vei
ncr
easei
staki
ngpl
acei
n

Asi
aandAf
ri
ca,wher
ehi
ghf
ert
il
it
yrat
es,dr
ivenbyi
nfantmor
tal
i
ty,andpoorbi
rt
h

cont
rol
progr
ammesr
esul
tinhi
ghannual
popul
ati
oni
ncr
easer
[Link]
hecont
rar
y,t
he

f
ert
il
it
yrat
einwest
erni
ndust
ri
ali
zedcount
ri
esi
sshr
inki
[Link]
dingt
otheWor
ldBank,

t
heav
eragef
ert
il
it
yrat
einhi
ghi
ncomecount
ri
eswas1.
7chi
l
drenperwomani
n2015,

whi
l
eitwas4.
8perwomani
nlow-
incomecount
ri
[Link]
obalr
esul
t,t
hepopul
ati
on

ofwest
erni
ndust
ri
ali
zedcount
ri
esi
sreduci
ngi
nsi
zeandget
ti
ngpr
ogr
essi
vel
yol
d

(
agi
ngpopul
ati
on)
,whi
l
ethey
oungwor
king-
agepopul
ati
onoft
hedev
elopi
ngcount
ri
es

i
srapi
dlyi
ncr
easi
[Link]
ri
cancont
inentof
fer
sast
ri
ki
ngexampl
[Link]
om 493mi
l
li
on

i
n1990,
theAf
ri
canpopul
ati
ongr
ewt
o1bi
l
li
oni
n2015andi
tisexpect
edt
ori
set
o2.
2

bi
l
li
oni
n2050andt
o4bi
l
li
oni
n2100.

30
Wi
thpar
ti
cul
arr
egar
dtot
heAf
ri
cancont
inent
,thei
ncr
easi
ngl
yyoungpopul
ati
onwi
l
l

pr
obabl
y exceed by f
ar t
he ot
her
wise i
mpr
ovi
ng—but not equi
tabl
y

di
str
ibut
ed—economy
,gi
vi
ngor
igi
ntot
heso-
cal
l
ed‘
j
obl
essgener
ati
on’phenomenon.

Thi
smeanst
hatt
hei
ncr
easi
nggl
obalweal
thi
snotmi
rr
oredbyapr
opor
ti
onalnumber

ofj
obst
osat
isf
ythei
ncr
easi
ngex
pect
ati
onsoft
hegr
owi
ngski
l
ledy
ounggener
ati
on,
at

l
easti
ntheshor
t-
medi
um t
erm.

Asamat
teroff
act
,thef
lowofmi
grat
ioni
nrel
ati
ont
odemogr
aphi
cincr
easecoul
dal
so

ber
egar
dedi
ntheopposi
teway
,rai
singt
hequest
ion‘
whydosof
ewpeopl
emi
grat
e?’
In

f
act
,ev
eni
fthest
ereot
ypeofmi
grat
ionpr
oposesamodelof‘
mass’i
nvasi
onofr
ich

count
ri
esbymi
grant
sfr
om l
ow-
incomecount
ri
esi
nter
msofabsol
utenumber
s,t
he

pr
opor
ti
onofmi
grat
ingpeopl
eisqui
test
abl
e(3.
3% oft
hewor
ldpopul
ati
oni
n2015,

2.
4%oft
hewor
ldpopul
ati
oni
n1960)
.

3.
1.4.
3Cl
i
mat
echanges

I
tisnowal
mostuni
ver
sal
l
yaccept
edt
hatt
hecl
i
mat
eisbecomi
ngwar
merandwar
mer

atani
ncr
easi
ngspeed,causi
ngheal
thi
nequal
i
tiesacr
osst
hewor
ld,apar
tfr
om ot
her

unwant
edef
fect
s.I
tisal
soaccept
edt
hatt
hedr
ivi
ngcausesofsuchcl
i
mat
echanges

st
art
edwi
tht
hei
ndust
ri
alr
evol
uti
on,
mai
nlyant
hropogeni
cinnat
ureandar
elar
gel
ydue

t
otheemi
ssi
onofgr
eenhousegases(
inpar
ti
cul
arCO2,met
haneandni
tr
ousoxi
de)by

i
ndust
ri
alact
ivi
ti
esf
rom car
bon-
basedener
gy.I
thasbeenest
imat
edt
hat97%ofsuch

emi
ssi
onsoccuri
nindust
ri
ali
zedr
ichcount
ri
es,
leav
ingamer
e3%emi
ssi
oncomi
ngout

f
rom l
ow-
incomecount
ri
[Link]
mpactofcl
i
mat
echangesi
sast
oni
shi
ngl
ysev
erei
n

t
hesout
hoft
hewor
ld,wher
e150000ar
eest
imat
edt
ohav
edi
edi
n2000f
rom t
he

consequencesoft
hepl
anetwar
[Link]
ought
,fl
oodi
ng,i
ncr
easesi
nar
thr
opodbor
ne

31
i
nfect
ionsduet
ovect
orspr
eadi
ngi
nregi
onswher
ethecont
rastmeasur
esar
edi
ff
icul
t

t
oimpl
ementdue t
o scar
cit
yofmeans al
so i
ndi
rect
lyi
mpacton mor
bidi
tyand

economi
cagr
icul
tur
alr
[Link]
sext
remebutenl
i
ght
eni
ng.

Fr
om t
henear
ly25000squar
eki
l
omet
resLakeChadhadi
n1963,
itswat
ernowcov
ersa

bar
eone-
twent
iet
hofi
tsor
igi
nalext
ensi
on,wi
thsev
erei
mpactont
hef
ert
il
it
yoft
he

sur
roundi
ngl
[Link]
sshor
tageofwat
er,
foodandagr
icul
tur
alr
esour
cesf
orcespeopl
e

and l
i
vest
ockt
o mov
einsear
chofal
esshost
il
eenv
ironment
.Exampl
esofl
and

degr
adat
ioni
nducedbycl
i
mat
echangesar
emul
ti
pleandr
epr
esentadr
ivi
ngf
orcef
or

peopl
etomi
grat
ebypr
oduci
ngf
oodi
nsecur
it
yandr
iskofheal
th-
rel
atedcr
isi
s.

Accor
dingt
otheI
OM,env
ironment
almi
grant
sar
ethose‘
per
sonsorgr
oupsofper
sons

who,f
orr
easonofsuddenorpr
ogr
essi
vechangesi
ntheenv
ironmentt
hatadv
ersel
y

af
fectt
hei
rli
vesorl
i
vingcondi
ti
ons,ar
eobl
i
gedt
oleav
ethei
rhabi
tualhomes,or

chooset
odoso,ei
thert
empor
ari
l
yorper
manent
ly,andwhomov
eei
therwi
thi
nthei
r

count
ryorabr
oad’
.

I
thasbeensuggest
edt
hatt
heenv
ironmentmayi
mpactonmi
grat
ionf
lowsbydi
rect
ly

af
fect
ing t
he hazar
dousness ofpl
ace butal
so i
ndi
rect
lychangi
ng t
he economi
c,

pol
i
tical
,soci
alanddemogr
aphi
ccont
extwi
thv
erycompl
exi
nter
rel
ati
onshi
ps.

The ‘
cl
imat
ic mi
grant
s’,as t
hey ar
e somet
imes cal
l
ed,mi
ghtpossi
blyr
each t
he

ast
oni
shi
ngf
igur
eof200mi
l
li
onbyt
hey
ear2050,accor
dingt
otheI
[Link]
er,

f
orecast
sar
edi
ff
icul
ttomakebecausesoundsci
ent
if
icdat
aont
hist
opi
car
eext
remel
y

scar
ceanddonotper
mitr
eli
abl
eest
imat
[Link]
her
eali
mpactof

wor
seni
ngenv
ironment
alcondi
ti
ons,al
bei
tlogi
cal
,woul
dgr
eat
lybenef
itf
rom sound

r
esear
chst
udi
es.

32
3.
1.4.
4War
sanddi
ctat
orshi
p

Ev
ennow,
att
hebegi
nni
ngoft
het
hir
dmi
l
lenni
um,
manyar
easoft
hewor
ld—i
nvi
rt
ual
l
y

al
lcont
inent
s—hostbl
oodyconf
li
ctsandsoci
ali
nst
abi
l
itywher
ear
medpar
ti
esf
ightor

wher
erudedi
ctat
orshi
psar
erul
i
nganddeny
ingsoci
alr
ight
[Link]
ewel
l
-knownt
o

t
hepubl
i
c(i
.[Link]
riaandAf
ghani
stan)
,whi
l
eot
her
sar
enotasi
sthecaseoft
heHor
nof

Af
ri
ca(
Eri
tr
ea,
Somal
i
a)andsomear
easofWestAf
ri
ca(
Mal
i
,Gambi
a)andt
heSahel
i
an

r
egi
onori
nCent
ralandSout
her
nAmer
[Link]
emaybedeni
edbasi
chumanr
ight
s

andt
heaccesst
oeducat
ionandadi
gni
fi
edl
i
femaybepr
event
ed,especi
all
yfor

f
emal
[Link]
ali
sm i
ssuchcount
ri
esmayeasi
l
ygr
ow,asi
tist
hecasewi
tht
he

deadl
yact
ivi
ti
esofBokoHar
am i
nNor
ther
nNi
ger
ia,
thati
tisest
imat
edt
ohav
ecaused

t
hei
nter
naldi
spl
acementofnear
ly2mi
l
li
onpeopl
e.I
tist
obenot
edt
hatt
hemaj
ori
tyof

di
spl
acedpeopl
einwar
ri
ngnat
ionsar
erel
ocat
edwi
thi
nnat
ionalbor
der
s,t
husof
fi
cial
l
y

t
heyar
enotconsi
der
edi
nter
nat
ional
migr
ant
s,butr
atheri
nter
nal
ref
ugees.

3.
1.4.
5Landgr
abbi
ng

Landgr
abbi
ngi
saphenomenont
hathasbecomei
ncr
easi
ngl
yimpor
tantsi
ncet
he

begi
nni
ng oft
henew mi
l
lenni
[Link]
erm ‘
l
and gr
abbi
ng’r
efer
stot
hei
ntensi
ve

expl
oit
ati
onofv
astar
easofl
andi
nrur
alar
easofl
ow-
incomecount
ri
esbypr
ivat
e

i
nter
nat
ionalent
erpr
isesorev
enbyf
orei
gngov
ernment
sinor
dert
oimpl
ementl
arge-

scal
eint
ensi
vecul
ti
vat
ions(
mai
nlybi
ofuel
sandf
oodcr
ops)ort
oexpl
oitmi
ner
als,

f
orest
ryort
het
our
ist
ici
ndust
[Link]
shappenst
othedet
ri
mentoft
hepoorl
ocal

popul
ati
on,whi
chi
spoor
ly(
andof
tenf
orcedl
y)compensat
edandv
irt
ual
l
yobl
i
gedt
o

l
eav
ether
uralar
east
oreacht
hedegr
adedur
banper
ipher
ieswi
thi
nthei
rowncount
ri
es,

wher
etheyof
tenl
i
veadi
ff
icul
tli
fei
nadi
ff
erentset
ti
ngf
rom t
heonet
heyandt
hei
r

33
f
ami
l
ieshav
eexper
ienced f
orcent
uri
[Link]
chol
ogi
caland phy
sicali
mpai
rmenti
s

f
requenti
nsuchcommuni
ti
esandi
nter
nat
ionalmi
grat
ionmayt
henoccur
.Apar
tfr
om

t
his di
recti
mpact
,the economi
c benef
itofsmal
l
-scal
e agr
icul
tur
ali
ndust
ryi
s of

adv
ant
ageoft
hel
ocalcommuni
ti
es,whi
l
ethei
ntensi
veexpl
oit
ati
onofl
andsasa

consequenceofl
andgr
abbi
ngi
smai
nlyt
othebenef
itoft
hepr
ivat
eent
erpr
isest
ock

owner
sandt
hei
nter
nat
ionalmar
ket
,leadi
ngt
othepr
ogr
essi
vei
mpov
eri
shmentoft
he

i
ncr
easi
ngl
yresour
ce-
poorcount
[Link]
herwi
th env
ironment
aldamages due t
o

cl
i
mat
echanges,t
hel
ossofsmal
l
-scal
elandpr
oper
tyandi
tst
urni
ngi
ntoi
ntensi
ve

expl
oit
ati
on causes a pr
ogr
essi
vel
and degr
adat
ion,whi
ch l
eads t
o a pr
ogr
essi
ve

abandonmentofnat
ivel
andsbyamassofpeopl
e.

3.
1.4.
6Rel
i
gion

Thi
sissuewi
l
lonl
ybebr
ief
lyal
l
udedt
o,asi
tist
oowi
deandcompl
ext
obeadequat
ely

addr
essedi
nsuchcont
ext
.Thehi
stor
yofhumanki
ndof
fer
smanyexampl
esofmass

popul
ati
onmov
ement
scausedbyr
eli
gionper
secut
ionorf
oll
owi
ngt
hedr
eam ofal
and

wher
eindi
vi
dualf
ait
hcoul
dbef
reel
ypr
[Link]
er,t
hesemov
ement
shav
eof
ten

beent
heconsequenceofapol
i
ticalwi
l
lasi
thasbeent
hecaseoft
heconf
li
cti
ve

Musl
i
m,Hi
nduandSi
khmov
ementacr
osst
henewl
ycr
eat
edbor
derbet
weenI
ndi
aand

EastPaki
stan(
now Bangl
adesh)i
[Link]
mil
arl
y,Jewsf
lowedt
oPal
est
ineaf
tert
he

SecondWor
ldWar
,al
soat
tract
edbyt
hel
aw ofr
etur
n,f
avour
ingmi
grat
ionofJewi
sh

peopl
etot
henewst
ateofI
srael
.Inmanyot
heri
nst
ances,
rel
i
gionhasbeent
hepr
etext

f
oret
hni
cper
secut
ionandexpul
sion,asi
spossi
blyt
hecasef
ort
heRohi
ngy
aMusl
i
m

popul
ati
onf
rom My
anmarort
hemassmov
ement
scausedbyar
medf
undament
ali
sts

gr
oupssuchasDaeshorBokoHar
am i
ntheMi
ddl
eEastandsub-
Sahar
anWestAf
ri
ca,

34
r
espect
ivel
y.

3.
1.4.
7Sexuali
dent
it
y

Anumberofcount
ri
eshav
eaqui
ter
est
ri
cti
vepol
i
cyonsexuali
dent
it
yandLTGBpeopl
e

(
lesbi
ans,gay
,tr
ansgenderandbi
sexualpeopl
e)f
acepsy
chol
ogi
calandev
enphy
sical

v
iol
ence,f
orci
ngt
hem t
ohi
det
hei
rsexuali
dent
it
[Link]
mpactofsuchpol
i
cieson

i
nter
nat
ionalmi
grat
ionhasr
ecent
lybeent
hesubj
ectofsomei
nvest
igat
iont
hati
sini
ts

i
nfancy
.Nodoubt
,howev
er,t
hatani
mpactexi
sts,especi
all
yfr
om count
ri
eswher
e

‘
machi
smo’i
sconsi
der
edav
[Link]
ehensi
veov
erv
iew oft
hei
ssuesr
elat
edt
o

t
hepr
otect
ionofsoci
alr
ight
sint
hosepeopl
efor
cedt
omi
grat
eduet
othei
rsexual

or
ient
ati
onmaybef
oundi
nthe2013t
hemat
ici
ssueofFor
cedMi
grat
ionRev
iew.

3.
1.4.
8Educat
ion

Af
inalnot
ehast
o bededi
cat
ed t
otheeducat
ionl
evelofmi
grant
s.I
nter
nat
ional

mi
grant
sar
eof
tenr
egar
dedasi
l
li
ter
ateandpoorpeopl
eescapi
ngpov
ert
yfr
om r
emot
e

r
uralar
[Link]
sst
ereot
ypei
sfarf
rom bei
ngt
ruei
nmosti
nst
ancesf
orbot
heconomi
c

and f
orced mi
grant
[Link]
grant
sin sear
ch ofa bet
terf
utur
e usual
l
yhav
e a mor
e

pr
onouncedi
nit
iat
ive,at
ti
tudeandbol
dnesst
hant
heav
erageper
son,wi
thsomeski
l
ls

andf
inanci
alr
esour
cesneededt
opl
anandf
undal
ong-
dist
ancej
our
neyasi
tist
hecase

f
ori
nter
nat
ionalmi
grat
ion.I
nmosti
nst
ances,t
heyar
emor
eeducat
edt
hant
hei
rpeer
s

l
eftbehi
ndi
nthei
ror
igi
ncount
[Link]
imest
heyar
eev
enmor
eeducat
edt
hant
hei
r

peer
sint
hedest
inat
ioncount
ry.I
naddi
ti
on,i
ndi
vi
dual
sfr
om f
ami
l
iesorcommuni
ti
es

t
hatal
readyposi
ti
vel
yexper
iencedmi
grat
ioni
npr
evi
ousy
ear
sar
emor
eincl
i
nedt
o

mi
grat
east
hei
rtr
avelabr
oadi
sregar
dedasofpossi
blebenef
itt
otheor
igi
nsoci
ety
.

35
Forsuchi
ndi
vi
dual
s,t
heexi
stenceofet
hni
corf
ami
l
yli
nksi
nthedest
inat
ioncount
ryi
s

af
urt
herdr
iverofmi
grat
[Link]
elat
ionshi
pbet
weeneducat
ionandmi
grat
ionar
e

t
wof
[Link]
om onesi
de,t
hemi
grat
ionsofeducat
edpeopl
efr
om l
ow-
middl
eincome

count
ri
est
oOECDcount
ri
esconst
it
uteanetl
ossofhumanqual
i
fiedr
esour
cesf
ort
he

or
igi
ncount
ri
esandagai
nfort
hehostcount
[Link]‘
brai
ndr
ain’
.

Fr
om t
heot
hersi
de,
thef
inanci
alandi
deat
ionalr
emi
tt
ancesf
rom dest
inat
ioncount
ri
es

mayal
sohav
eani
mpactont
heeducat
ionofnon-
migr
ati
onchi
l
drenandadol
escent
sin

t
hei
ror
igi
ncount
ri
es.

3.
1.4.9Per
sonalwi
l
li
ngnesst
omi
grat
e

Al
ltheabov
edr
iver
sofmi
grat
ionact
,wi
thdi
ff
erentst
rengt
hindi
ff
erentpl
aces,
tobui
l
d

t
hegener
alf
rameatt
hemacr
o-l
evelofeachspeci
fi
cgeogr
aphi
cal
,economi
cand

pol
i
ticalsi
tuat
[Link]
er,
themeso-orev
enmi
cro-
lev
elsar
eal
soi
mpor
tanti
ndr
ivi
ng

t
hef
inalchoi
ceoft
hei
ndi
vi
dualt
omi
grat
[Link]
nfl
uenceoft
heet
hni
cgr
oup,
thef
ami
l
y

suppor
t—bot
h economi
c and soci
etali
s oft
he upmosti
mpor
tance f
ora speci
fi
c

i
ndi
vi
dualt
omaket
hef
inalchoi
cet
omi
grat
eort
ost
[Link]
ionall
evelandaccesst
o

f
inanci
almeansper
mit
ti
ngt
oaf
for
dthemi
grat
iont
rav
elhav
eal
readybeendi
scussed

abov
e,butot
herf
act
orssuchaset
hni
candsoci
alcust
omsar
eal
soi
mpor
tant
.The

aspi
rat
ionanddesi
ret
omi
grat
eisacr
uci
alkeyf
act
ort
hati
nter
act
swi
thot
herex
ter
nal

dr
iver
sofmi
grat
iont
obui
l
dthef
inal
deci
siont
oact
ual
l
ymi
grat
e.

Summar
y

I
nconcl
usi
on,t
hemi
grat
ionf
low i
snow ast
ruct
uralphenomenont
hati
sli
kel
yto

cont
inuei
[Link]
l
emanymi
grant
sfr
om l
ow-
incomecount
ri
esai
mto

36
r
eachmor
eaf
fl
uentar
easoft
hewor
ld,i
tist
obeappr
eci
atedt
hatasi
mil
arorev
en

bi
gger
,massofpeopl
emi
grat
est
onei
ghbour
ingl
ow-
incomecount
ri
esi
nthesame

geogr
aphi
cal
area.

Mi
grat
ioni
sal
way
sther
esul
tofacompl
excombi
nat
ionofmacr
o-,meso-andmi
cro-

f
act
ors,t
hef
ormeract
ingatt
hesoci
etyl
evelandt
hel
att
eract
ingatt
hef
ami
l
yorev
en

i
ndi
vi
dual
lev
[Link]
eval
enceofaf
act
orov
ert
heot
heri
sunpr
edi
ctabl
e.

Amongt
he‘
macr
o-f
act
ors’
,thei
nadequat
ehumanandeconomi
cdev
elopmentoft
he

or
igi
ncount
ry,demogr
aphi
cincr
easeandur
bani
zat
ion,war
sanddi
ctat
orshi
ps,soci
al

f
act
orsandenv
ironment
alchangesar
ethemaj
orcont
ri
but
orst
omi
grat
[Link]
e

t
hemai
ndr
iver
soff
orcedmi
grat
ion,
bot
hint
ernat
ional
andi
nter
nal
.

Amongt
he‘
meso-
fact
ors’
,li
nki
ngt
hei
ndi
vi
dualt
ohi
s/heret
hni
cgr
ouporr
eli
gious

communi
ty,l
and gr
abbi
ng,communi
cat
ion t
echnol
ogyand di
aspor
icl
i
nks pl
ayan

i
mpor
tantr
[Link]
oleofcommuni
cat
iont
echnol
ogi
esandsoci
almedi
atoat
tr
act

peopl
eoutoft
hei
ror
igi
ncount
ri
esi
sindi
sput
abl
etoday
.Awar
enessofl
i
vingcondi
ti
ons

i
ntheaf
fl
uentwor
ld—al
bei
tof
tengr
ossl
yexagger
ated—cont
ri
but
est
onur
tur
ethemy
th

ofwest
erncount
ri
esasEl
dor
[Link]
cat
ionwi
tht
hedi
aspor
aand

f
ami
l
ymember
s who mi
grat
ed pr
evi
ousl
yrei
nfor
ces t
he desi
re ofescapi
ng f
rom

pov
ert
ytoachal
l
engi
ngnewl
i
feabr
oad.

Howev
er,‘
micr
o-f
act
ors’such as educat
ion,r
eli
gion,mar
it
alst
atus and per
sonal

at
ti
tudet
omi
grat
ional
sohav
eakeyr
olet
omaket
hef
inal
deci
siont
omi
grat
ethati
san

i
ndi
vi
dual
’
schoi
ce.

Hence,
themi
grat
ionpr
ocessbr
ingsaboutpushandpul
l
sfact
orsatwor
k.

37
  Pushf
act
ors

Pushf
act
orsar
ether
easonst
hatmakesomeonedeci
det
omov
[Link]
sist
hei
rown

exper
ienceofl
i
fei
nonepl
acewhi
chgi
vest
hem goodr
easonst
oleav
eit
.Of
tenpush

f
act
orsar
enegat
ivet
hingssuchasunempl
oyment
,cr
opf
ail
ure,
drought
s,f
loodi
ng,
war
,

pooreducat
ionoppor
tuni
ti
esorpoorser
vicesandameni
ti
es.

 Pul
lfact
ors

Pul
lfact
ors,ont
heot
herhand,ar
etheexpect
ati
onswhi
chat
tr
actpeopl
etot
henew

pl
[Link]
eusual
l
yposi
ti
vet
hingssuchasj
oboppor
tuni
ti
es,abet
terst
andar
dof

l
i
ving,bet
tereducat
ionorbet
terheal
thcar
[Link]
echooset
omi
grat
[Link]
e

v
olunt
arymi
grant
[Link]
eeconomi
cmi
grant
[Link]
herv
olunt
arymi
grant
sincl
ude

ol
derdependant
swhowantt
oli
vesomewher
ewar
m andsunnyi
nthei
rret
ir
ement
.

Howev
ermanyot
herpeopl
ehav
enochoi
ceandar
efor
cedt
oleav
ethei
[Link]

ar
einv
olunt
arymi
grant
[Link]
rli
vesandhomesmaybei
ndangerduet
owarora

nat
ural
disast
[Link]
ear
eal
socal
l
edr
efugees.

3.
1.5Mi
grat
ionGov
ernance

I
n cont
empor
aryt
imes,i
nter
nat
ionalmi
grat
ion and di
spl
acementar
etr
ansnat
ional

i
ssues concer
ning or
igi
n and dest
inat
ion st
ates,as wel
las st
ates t
hrough whi
ch

mi
grant
smayt
rav
el(
oft
enr
efer
redt
oas“
transi
t”st
ates)ori
nwhi
cht
heyar
ehost
ed

f
oll
owi
ngdi
spl
acementacr
ossnat
ionalbor
der
[Link]
et,somewhatpar
adoxi
cal
l
y,t
he

maj
ori
tyofmi
grat
iongov
ernancehashi
stor
ical
l
yremai
nedwi
thi
ndi
vi
dualSt
ates,t
hei
r

pol
i
ciesandr
egul
ati
onsonmi
grat
iont
ypi
cal
l
ymadeatt
henat
ionall
evel
.Fort
hemost

par
t,mi
grat
iongov
ernancehasbeencl
osel
yassoci
atedwi
thst
atesov
erei
gnt
[Link]
ates

38
r
etai
nthepowerofdeci
dingont
heent
ryandst
ayofnon-
nat
ional
sbecausemi
grat
ion

di
rect
lyaf
fect
ssomeoft
hedef
ini
ngel
ement
sofast
[Link]
l
ater
alandmul
ti
lat
eral

ar
rangement
s ar
efeat
ures ofmi
grat
ion gov
ernance,and t
her
e ar
e sev
eralgl
obal

ar
rangement
sint
he f
orm ofi
nter
nat
ionalt
reat
ies i
n whi
ch st
ates hav
ereached

agr
eementont
heappl
i
cat
ionofhumanr
ight
sandt
her
elat
edr
esponsi
bil
i
tiesofst
ates

i
nspeci
fi
car
eas.The1966I
nter
nat
ionalCov
enantonCi
vi
landPol
i
ticalRi
ght
sandt
he

1951Conv
ent
ionr
elat
ingt
otheSt
atusofRef
ugees(
Ref
ugeeConv
ent
ion)ar
etwo

si
gni
fi
cantexampl
es,not
abl
eforbei
ngwi
del
yrat
if
[Link]
hermi
grat
ionconv
ent
ions

hav
e notbeen so br
oadl
yaccept
ed,such ast
he I
nter
nat
ionalConv
ent
ion on t
he

Pr
otect
ionoft
heRi
ght
sofAl
lMi
grantWor
ker
sandMember
soft
hei
rfami
l
ies,whi
ch

st
il
lhasnot
radi
ti
onalcount
ri
esofdest
inat
ionamongi
tsSt
atespar
ti
[Link]
ondt
his,

t
her
ehav
ebeennumer
ousmul
ti
lat
eralandgl
obali
nit
iat
ives,di
aloguesandpr
ocesses

onmi
grat
ionov
ersev
[Link]
obalCompactf
orSaf
e,Or
der
lyandRegul
ar

Mi
grat
ion (
Global Compact f
or Mi
grat
ion) i
s anot
her mi
l
est
one,as t
he f
ir
st

i
nter
nat
ional
l
ynegot
iat
edst
atementofobj
ect
ivesf
ormi
grat
iongov
ernancest
ri
ki
nga

bal
ancebet
weenmi
grant
s’r
ight
sandt
hepr
inci
pleofSt
ates’sov
erei
gnt
yov
ert
hei
r

t
err
it
ory
.Al
thoughi
tisnotl
egal
l
ybi
ndi
ng,t
heGl
obalCompactf
orMi
grat
ionwas

adopt
edbyconsensusi
nDecember2018ataUni
tedNat
ionsconf
erencei
nwhi
chmor
e

t
han150Uni
tedNat
ionsMemberSt
atespar
ti
cipat
edand,
lat
ert
hatsamemont
h,i
nthe

Uni
tedNat
ionsGener
alAssembl
y(UNGA)
,byav
oteamongt
heMemberSt
atesof152

t
o5(
wit
h12abst
ent
ions)
.

3.
1.6I
mpl
i
cat
ionsofMi
grat
ion

Mi
grat
ioni
mpact
sonbot
hthepl
acel
eftbehi
nd,
andont
hepl
acewher
emi
grant
sset
tl
e.

39
Once i
nthe dest
inat
ion count
ry,mi
grant
s hav
eto under
go a di
ff
icul
tand of
ten

conf
li
cti
vei
ntegr
ati
onpr
ocessi
nthehost
ingcommuni
ty. Conv
ersel
y,t
her
ecei
vi
ng

count
rycoul
dal
sobeobl
i
gedt
oadapti
tssoci
alandheal
thsy
stemst
ofacet
heneeds

oft
hehost
edpopul
ati
on.I
nmanyi
nst
ances,
thi
spr
ocessi
snotwi
thoutconf
li
ctf
ort
he

cul
tur
alandeconomi
cadapt
ati
onst
hati
timpl
i
es.

Fr
om t
heheal
thst
andpoi
nt,newl
yar
ri
vedmi
grant
sar
emost
lyheal
thy(
heal
thymi
grant

ef
fect
),butt
heymayhar
bourl
atenti
nfect
ionst
hatneedappr
opr
iat
escr
eeni
ngpol
i
cies.

Cul
tur
albar
ri
ersmaysomet
imeshampert
her
elat
ionbet
weent
hemi
grantpat
ientand

t
heheal
thcar
epr
ovi
der
.Theacqui
sit
ionofwest
ernl
i
fest
ylesi
sleadi
ngt
oani
ncr
ease

of non-
communi
cabl
e chr
oni
c di
seases t
hat r
equi
re at
tent
[Link]
l
y,ev
en i
f

gener
ali
zat
ioni
sinappr
opr
iat
e,newl
yar
ri
vedmi
grant
sar
eingoodheal
th,despi
tea

hi
gherpr
eval
ence ofl
atentchr
oni
cinf
ect
ions (
‘heal
thymi
grant
’ef
fect
).Howev
er,

mar
ginal
i
zat
ioni
nthehostcount
rymayl
eadt
oadet
eri
orat
ionofsuchheal
thst
atus,a

phenomenonknownast
he‘
exhaustmi
grant
’ef
fect
.

Hostcount
ri
es,whi
chmayhav
eaneconomi
cbenef
itf
rom mi
grat
ioni
nthemedi
um

l
ong-
ter
m,hav
etobepr
epar
edt
orecei
vemi
grant
sfort
hebenef
itoft
hemi
grant
s

t
hemsel
vesandt
hei
rnat
ivepopul
ati
on.

I
nanycase,t
hest
ereot
ypeoft
hei
l
li
ter
atepoormi
grantcomi
ngf
rom t
hemostr
emot
e

r
uralar
easandr
eachi
ngt
hebor
der
sofaf
fl
uentcount
ri
esdoesnotst
[Link]
est

peopl
esi
mpl
ydonothav
ethemeanst
oescapewarandpov
ert
yandr
emai
ntr
appedi
n

hi
s/hercount
ry ori
nthe nei
ghbour
ing [Link] degr
ee ofent
repr
eneur
shi
p,

educat
ionall
evel
,soci
alandf
inanci
alsuppor
tisusual
l
yrequest
edf
ori
nter
nat
ional

sout
h–nor
theconomi
cmi
grat
ionandper
sonalchar
act
eri
sti
csandchoi
cesal
sopl
aya

40
r
[Link]
sphenomenonhasaposi
ti
veaspect
,ast
hepossi
bil
i
tyofsuccessofmi
grant
s

i
ncr
easesasdor
emi
tt
ances,butal
soanegat
iveone,ast
hemostact
ivepar
toft
he

or
igi
ncount
rymaybedr
ainedpr
event
ingl
ocal
dev
elopment
.

Dest
inat
ioncount
ri
eshav
etor
econsi
dert
heposi
ti
vemedi
um/
long-
ter
m pot
ent
ialof

mi
grat
ionandneedt
obepr
epar
edt
orecei
vemi
grant
sfort
hebenef
itoft
hemi
grant
s

t
hemsel
vesandt
hei
rnat
ivepopul
ati
[Link]
arge,mi
grat
ioncanhav
eposi
ti
veas

wel
lasnegat
ivei
mpact
sont
hel
i
feoft
hemi
grant
s.

Once r
eset
tl
ed i
nthe hostcount
ry,f
orei
gn-
bor
ne i
ndi
vi
dual
s mayf
ace i
nfect
ious

exposur
e when t
rav
ell
i
ng back—of
ten accompani
ed by chi
l
dren bor
nint
he host

count
ry—t
othei
rcount
ri
esofor
igi
[Link]
ethenr
efer
redasVFRs(
Visi
ti
ngFr
iends

andRel
ati
ves)
,andr
epr
esentasi
gni
fi
cantpr
opor
ti
onofi
mpor
teddi
seasesi
nwest
ern

count
ri
es,
asi
nthecasef
ori
mpor
tedmal
ari
[Link]
e-t
rav
eladv
icei
nsuchVFRpopul
ati
ons

poses si
gni
fi
cantchal
l
enges t
o opt
imal
l
yaddr
ess adequat
e pr
event
ive measur
es.

Howev
er,ev
en t
he non-
communi
cabl
e di
seases bur
den (
diabet
es,hy
per
tensi
on,

met
abol
i
cdi
sor
der
s,car
dio-
vascul
ardi
seases,et
c.)i
sincr
easi
ngamongmi
grant
s,asa

r
esul
tofchangi
ngal
i
ment
aryhabi
tsi
ndev
elopi
ngcount
ri
esandt
othepr
ogr
essi
ve

acqui
sit
ionofwest
ernl
i
fest
ylesaf
teraf
ewy
ear
sint
her
ecei
vi
ngcount
ry.

Fi
nal
l
y,t
hecul
tur
ali
nter
act
ionbet
weent
hemi
grantpat
ientandt
hecar
epr
ovi
deri
s

of
tennotwi
thoutconf
li
[Link]
sont
hepossi
bleexot
icnat
ureofot
her
wise

ubi
qui
tous i
l
lnesses or
,on t
he cont
rar
y,t
he under
est
imat
ion ofcul
tur
all
y bound

compl
aint
s(cul
tur
albar
ri
ers)i
s of
ten aggr
avat
ed byl
i
ngui
sti
c bar
ri
ersl
eadi
ng t
o

pot
ent
ialmedi
caler
ror
[Link]
edgeofcul
tur
all
ysensi
ti
vemedi
cali
ssues,suchas

geni
talmut
il
ati
ons,i
sgener
all
ypoori
nwest
ernphy
sici
ans,r
equi
ri
ngspeci
fi
ctr
aini
ng

41
andr
esear
ch.

Summar
y

Posi
ti
veI
mpact
s

1. Unempl
oymenti
sreducedandpeopl
egetbet
terj
oboppor
tuni
ti
es.

2. Mi
grat
ionhel
psi
nimpr
ovi
ngt
hequal
i
tyofl
i
feofpeopl
e.

3. I
thel
pst
oimpr
ovesoci
all
i
feofpeopl
east
heyl
ear
naboutnewcul
tur
e,cust
oms,

andl
anguageswhi
chhel
ptoi
mpr
ovebr
other
hoodamongpeopl
e.

4. Mi
grat
ionofski
l
ledwor
ker
sleadst
oagr
eat
ereconomi
cgr
owt
hoft
her
egi
on.

5. Chi
l
drengetbet
teroppor
tuni
ti
esf
orhi
ghereducat
ion.

6. Thepopul
ati
ondensi
tyi
sreducedandt
hebi
rt
hrat
edecr
eases.

Negat
iveI
mpact
s

1. The l
ossofa per
son f
rom r
uralar
eas,i
mpacton t
he l
evelofout
putand

dev
elopmentofr
ural
areas.

2. Thei
nfl
uxofwor
ker
sinur
banar
easi
ncr
easescompet
it
ionf
ort
hej
ob,houses,

school
faci
l
iti
eset
c.

3. Hav
ingl
argepopul
ati
onput
stoomuchpr
essur
eonnat
uralr
esour
ces,ameni
ti
es

andser
vices.

4. I
tisdi
ff
icul
tforav
il
lagert
osur
viv
einur
banar
easbecausei
nur
banar
east
her
e

i
snonat
ural
env
ironmentandpur
eai
[Link]
etopayf
oreachandev
ery
thi
ng.

42
5. Mi
grat
ionchangest
hepopul
ati
onofapl
ace;t
her
efor
e,t
hedi
str
ibut
ionoft
he

popul
ati
oni
sunev
en.

6. Manymi
grant
sar
ecompl
etel
yil
l
iter
ateanduneducat
ed;t
her
efor
e,t
heyar
enot

onl
yunf
itf
ormostj
obs,
butal
sol
ackbasi
cknowl
edgeandl
i
feski
l
ls.

7. Pov
ert
ymakest
hem unabl
etol
i
veanor
mal
andheal
thyl
i
fe.

8. Chi
l
drengr
owi
ngupi
npov
ert
yhav
enoaccesst
opr
opernut
ri
ti
on,educat
ionor

heal
th.

9. Mi
grat
ioni
ncr
easedt
hesl
um ar
easi
nci
ti
eswhi
chi
ncr
easemanypr
obl
emssuch

asunhy
gieni
ccondi
ti
ons,
cri
me,
pol
l
uti
onet
c.

10. Somet
imesmi
grant
sar
eexpl
oit
ed.

11. Mi
grat
ioni
soneoft
hemai
ncausesofi
ncr
easi
ngnucl
earf
ami
l
ywher
echi
l
dren

gr
owupwi
thoutawi
derf
ami
l
yci
rcl
e.

3.
2URBANI
SATI
ON

Ur
bani
sat
ionr
efer
stot
hepopul
ati
onshi
ftf
rom r
uralt
our
banar
eas,
thedecr
easei
nthe

popul
ati
onofpeopl
eli
vi
ngi
nrur
alar
eas,andt
heway
sinwhi
chsoci
eti
esadaptt
othi
s

change.I
tisani
ncr
easei
nthenumberofpeopl
eli
vi
ngi
ntownsandci
ti
[Link]
bani
sat
ion

occur
smai
nlybecausepeopl
emov
efr
om r
uralar
east
our
banar
easandr
esul
tsi
n

gr
owt
hinsi
zeoft
heur
banpopul
ati
onandt
heext
entofur
banar
[Link]
n

popul
ati
onl
eadt
oot
herchangesi
nlanduse,
economi
cact
ivi
tyandcul
tur
[Link]
stor
ical
l
y,

ur
bani
sat
ionhasbeenassoci
atedwi
thsi
gni
fi
canteconomi
candsoci
alt
ransf
ormat
ions.

Forexampl
e,ur
banl
i
vingi
sli
nkedwi
thhi
gherl
evel
sofl
i
ter
acyandeducat
ion,bet
ter

43
heal
th,
lowerf
ert
il
it
yandal
ongerl
i
feexpect
ancy
,gr
eat
eraccesst
osoci
alser
vicesand

enhancedoppor
tuni
ti
esf
orcul
tur
alandpol
i
tical
par
ti
cipat
ion(
UNDESA,
2014)
.Howev
er,

ur
bani
sat
ional
sohasdi
sadv
ant
agescausedbyr
api
dandunpl
annedur
bangr
owt
h

r
esul
ti
ngi
npoori
nfr
ast
ruct
uressuchasi
nadequat
ehousi
ng,wat
erandsani
tat
ion,

t
ranspor
tandheal
thcar
eser
vices.

Ur
bani
sat
ionasapr
ocessal
l
owst
hemov
ementofpopul
ati
onf
rom r
ural
tour
banar
eas,

enabl
i
ngci
ti
esandt
ownst
ogr
ow.I
tcanbet
ermedasapr
ogr
essi
vei
ncr
easei
nthe

numberofpeopl
eli
vi
ngi
ntownsandci
ti
es.I
tishi
ghl
yinf
luencedbyt
henot
iont
hat

ci
ti
es and t
owns hav
e achi
eved bet
tereconomi
c,pol
i
tical
,and soci
almi
l
eages

compar
edt
orur
alar
[Link]
ori
tyofpeopl
emov
etoci
ti
esandt
ownsbecauset
hey

v
iewr
ural
areasaspl
aceswi
thhar
dshi
pandbackwar
d/pr
imi
ti
vel
i
fest
yles.

3.
2.1Causesofur
bani
sat
ion

Ther
ear
eanumberofr
easonsofur
bani
sat
ionespeci
all
yindev
elopi
ngnat
[Link]

t
hecausesofur
bani
sat
ionar
e:

3.
2.1.
1Indust
ri
ali
sat
ion

Thi
sisat
rendr
epr
esent
ingashi
ftf
rom t
heol
dagr
icul
tur
aleconomi
cst
othenov
elnon-

agr
icul
tur
aleconomy
,whi
chcr
eat
esamoder
nizedsoci
ety
.Asar
esul
t,peopl
ear
e

at
tr
act
edt
omov
efr
om r
uralar
east
our
banar
easonaccountofi
mpr
ovedempl
oyment

oppor
tuni
ti
es.

3.
2.1.
2Commer
cial
i
sat
ion

Commer
ceandt
radepl
ayasi
gni
fi
cantr
olei
nur
bani
sat
ionasi
tcomewi
tht
hegener
al

44
per
cept
iont
hatt
ownsandci
ti
esof
ferbet
tercommer
cialoppor
tuni
ti
esandr
etur
ns

compar
edt
other
ural
areas.

3.
2.1.
3Soci
albenef
it
sandser
vices

Numer
oussoci
albenef
it
sat
tri
but
edt
oli
fei
nci
ti
esi
ncl
udebet
tereducat
ionalf
aci
l
iti
es,

bet
terl
i
vingst
andar
ds,bet
tersani
tat
ionandhousi
ng,bet
terheal
thcar
e,andbet
ter

r
ecr
eat
ionf
aci
l
iti
es.

3.
2.1.
4Empl
oymentoppor
tuni
ti
es

Townsof
ferampl
ejoboppor
tuni
ti
est
hatcont
inual
l
ydr
aw peopl
efr
om r
uralar
east
o

seekabet
terl
i
vel
i
hood.

3.
2.1.
5Moder
nizat
ion

Ur
ban ar
eas ar
e char
act
eri
sed by t
echnol
ogi
cal adv
ancement
, sophi
sti
cat
ed

communi
cat
ion, i
nfr
ast
ruct
ure dev
elopment
, medi
cal f
aci
l
iti
es dr
essi
ng code,

enl
i
ght
enmentandl
i
ber
ali
zat
ional
ltheseat
tri
but
esi
nfl
uencepeopl
e’
sbel
i
eft
hatci
ti
es

of
ferahappyl
i
fe.

I
nanut
shel
l
,peopl
emi
grat
etot
ownsandci
ti
esi
nhopeofgai
ningabet
terst
andar
dof

l
i
[Link]
einf
luencedbypul
lfact
orst
hatat
tr
actt
hem t
our
banl
i
fe,andpush

f
act
orst
hatmakedi
ssat
isf
iedwi
thr
urall
i
[Link]
banl
i
vingi
sassoci
atedwi
thbet
ter

empl
oymentandeducat
ionoppor
tuni
ti
es,bet
terheal
th,andgr
eat
eraccesst
osoci
al

ser
vicesandoppor
tuni
ti
esf
orsoci
alandcul
tur
alact
ivi
ti
es.

3.
2.2Ef
fect
sofur
bani
sat
iononourci
ti
es

Thoughpeopl
ear
epul
l
edt
owar
dst
headv
ant
agesofci
ti
es,
thei
mpact
sofur
bani
sat
ion

45
ar
emi
xed.

3.
2.2.
1Posi
ti
veef
fect
sofur
bani
sat
ion

 Thr
ivi
ngt
ownsandci
ti
esar
eanessent
ialel
ementofapr
osper
ousnat
ional

economy
.

 The gat
her
ing ofeconomi
c and human r
esour
ces i
n one pl
ace st
imul
ates

i
nnov
ati
onanddev
elopmenti
nbusi
ness,
sci
ence,
technol
ogyandi
ndust
ry.

 Accesst
oeducat
ion,
heal
th,
soci
alser
vicesandcul
tur
alact
ivi
ti
esi
smor
ereadi
l
y

av
ail
abl
etopeopl
einci
ti
est
hani
nvi
l
lages.I
nci
ti
es,chi
l
dsur
viv
alr
atesar
e

bet
tert
hani
nrur
alar
easbecauseofbet
teraccesst
oheal
thcar
e(Mul
hol
l
andet

al
,2008)
.

 Ci
ti
esal
sohav
eadv
ancedcommuni
cat
ionandt
ranspor
tnet
wor
ks.

 I
mpr
ovedst
andar
dofl
i
ving

3.
2.2.
2Negat
iveef
fect
sofur
bani
sat
ion

 Howev
er,t
hesebenef
it
sofur
ban l
i
fedo notappl
yto al
l
.Rapi
d popul
ati
on

i
ncr
easesandunpl
annedgr
owt
hcr
eat
eanur
banspr
awlwi
thnegat
iveeconomi
c,

soci
alandenv
ironment
alconsequences.

 The r
ate ofur
ban gr
owt
h of
ten st
rai
ns t
he capaci
tyofl
ocaland nat
ional

gov
ernmentt
opr
ovi
deur
banr
esi
dent
swi
thev
ent
hemostbasi
cser
vicesof

housi
ng,
wat
ersuppl
y,sewer
ageandsol
i
dwast
edi
sposal
(MWUD,
2008)
.

 Ur
bani
nhabi
tant
sli
vei
nimpov
eri
shedsl
umsandsquat
terset
tl
ement
sduet
oa

cont
inuedscar
cit
yofhouses.

46
  Ov
ercr
owdi
ngi
sanot
heref
fectofur
bani
sat
[Link]
eli
vei
na

smal
[Link]
edr
if
tfr
om r
uralar
east
our
banar
eas,i
tnor
mal
l
yleadst
o

congest
ionofpeopl
ewi
thi
nasmal
lar
ea.

 Pov
ert
yisacr
it
icali
ssuef
aci
ngur
banar
east
hatdegr
adesbot
hthephy
sicaland

soci
alenv
ironment
.

 Wat
ersuppl
yandsani
tat
ionpl
acesst
ressonal
readyst
ret
chedr
esour
ces.I
tis

common t
ofi
nd i
nadequat
esewer
agef
aci
l
iti
[Link]
swi
l
lev
ent
ual
l
ylead t
o

communi
cabl
edi
seasessuchast
yphoi
d,dy
sent
ery
,pl
agueanddi
arr
hoeawhi
ch

spr
eadv
eryf
astl
eadi
ngt
osuf
fer
ingandev
endeat
h

 Ur
bani
sat
ionaf
fect
sland,
wat
er,
airandwi
l
dli
febecauseoft
henumberofpeopl
e,

t
he amountofbui
l
dings and const
ruct
ion,and t
he i
ncr
eased demands on

r
esour
ces.

 Tr
aff
iccongest
ioni
soneoft
hemaj
orchal
l
engesposedi
nthet
ranspor
tsy
stem.

Mor
epeopl
eresul
tsi
nani
ncr
easednumberofv
ehi
cleswhi
chl
eadst
otr
aff
ic

congest
ionandv
ehi
cul
arpol
l
uti
on.

 Ur
bani
sat
ionputpr
essur
eonf
oodsuppl
i
esandf
ooddi
str
ibut
ion

 Cr
ime,pr
ost
it
uti
on,dr
ugabuseandst
reetchi
l
drenar
eal
lnegat
iveef
fect
sof

ur
bani
sat
ion.

3.
2.3Sol
uti
onst
our
bani
sat
ion

3.
2.3.
1Bui
l
dingsust
ainabl
eandenv
ironment
all
y-
fr
iendl
yci
ti
es.

Gov
ernment
sshoul
dpassl
awst
hatpl
anandpr
ovi
deenv
ironment
all
ysoundci
ti
esand

47
smar
tgr
owt
htechni
[Link]
ainabl
e use ofur
ban r
esour
ces and suppor
ti
ng an

economy based on t
he sust
ainabl
e env
ironment
s such as i
nvest
menti
n gr
een

i
nfr
ast
ruct
ure,sust
ainabl
eindust
ri
es,r
ecy
cli
ngandenv
ironment
alcampai
gns,pol
l
uti
on

managementr
enewabl
e ener
gy,gr
een publ
i
ctr
anspor
tand wat
err
ecy
cli
ng and

r
ecl
amat
ionshoul
dbeenf
orced.

3.
2.3.
2Pr
ovi
sionofessent
ialser
vices.

St
akehol
der
smustensur
ethatur
banar
eashav
eadequat
eessent
ialser
vicest
hat

i
ncl
udeeducat
ion,heal
th,sani
tat
ionandcl
eanwat
er,t
echnol
ogy
,el
ect
ri
cit
y,andf
ood

ar
eatt
hedi
sposal
oft
hepopul
ati
on.

3.
2.3.
3Cr
eat
ionofmor
ejobs.

I
nlesseni
ng t
he negat
ive ef
fect
s ofr
api
d ur
bani
sat
ion whi
l
e att
he same t
ime

conser
vingnat
uralecosy
stems,pr
ivat
einv
est
ment
sshoul
dbeencour
agedi
nor
dert
o

cr
eat
emor
ejoboppor
tuni
ti
es.

3.
2.3.
4Popul
ati
oncont
rol
.

Campai
gnsandcounsel
l
ingf
oref
fect
ivemedi
calheal
thcl
i
nicsandf
ami
l
ypl
anni
ngcan

hel
preducet
hehi
ghr
ateofpopul
ati
ongr
owt
h.

Act
ivi
ty

 Whatar
ethebenef
it
sofl
i
vingi
nthev
il
lages?

 Descr
ibet
het
rendsi
nur
bani
sat
ion

 Expl
aint
hemai
ncausesofur
bangr
owt
h

48
  Descr
ibet
hemai
nposi
ti
veandnegat
ivei
mpact
sofur
bani
sat
ion

Ref
erences

Cal
houn.JohnB1962‘
popul
ati
ondensi
tyandsoci
alpat
hol
ogy
’.Sci
ent
if
icAmer
icaVol
.

[Link].2(
Feb)pp.408-
417

Chi
tt
yDenni
s1955Adv
erseEf
fect
sofPopul
ati
onDensi
tyupont
heVi
abi
l
ityofwat
er

gener
ati
ons

Cor
eRober
ts.E.1970,
‘dependencyr
ati
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49
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