PART 66 CATEGORY B

MODULE 2 : PHYSICS
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PHYSICS : Matter

Nature of matter: chemical

elements, structure of atoms,
molecules

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PHYSICS : Matter

Objectives: -
 At the end of this lesson the students will be
able to describe matter and the particles of
matter.

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PHYSICS : Matter

Anything

Mass Occupy space

Its can be Solids, Gaseous or Liquids

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PHYSICS : Matter

 All matter

made up

tiny bits or discrete particles

atoms or molecules

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PHYSICS : Matter

A pure form of matter

Chemical Element

Many of the elements are metals, but a substance which cannot be

not all metals are elements. broken down into anything
Example: else. example:
copper and tin are elements but brass
is a mixture, of copper and tin. Hydrogen Oxygen
Note: All elements have atoms with nucleus except a normal hydrogen (H) atom which
only has one electron and one proton

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PHYSICS : Matter

 Elements are matter which particles are made from only

one kind of atom.
 The number of protons in an element’s nucleus gives that
element its own unique character.

Elements are the basic chemicals of the Universe.

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PHYSICS : Matter

Structure of an Atom

Objectives:-

 At the end of this lesson the students will be able to

describe the structure of an atom and the properties of its
particles. Explain the mass number A and atomic number Z,
and write and apply a relationship between them.

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PHYSICS : Matter

The smallest particle of In Greek means

matter Indivisible.

Can exist alone or

Consists of
ATOM in combinations
Protons, Neutrons
with other atoms
and Electrons

incredibly small - about

The lightest atom is 0.000 000 01 cm. in
Hydrogen, the heaviest diameter
naturally occurring is Osmium

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PHYSICS : Matter

ATOM

Composed of 3 basic particles :

Proton Electron Neutron

• Placed at center of atom • orbiting the nucleus • Placed at center of atom

• positive charge (+) • negative charge (-) • neutral charge

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PHYSICS : Matter

Atom

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PHYSICS : Matter

Structure of Atom
Empty space

Nucleus

Protons Neutrons

Electrons

Number of protons = number of electrons

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PHYSICS : Matter

 Atomic number is the number of protons available in an

atom.

Mass number A
[Symbol] = X
Atomic number z

A = Mass Number
• total number of protons and neutrons
Z = Atomic Number
• number of proton
N = number of neutrons
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PHYSICS : Matter

Mass number
(# of protons +
# of neutrons) 238
Symbol of
element:
Uranium
Atomic Number
( # of protons)
92

Note: Big number is a Mass number

A=Z+N

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PHYSICS : Matter

Orbits of Atom

 Electrons revolve about nucleus in path of concentric ‘shells’ or

orbits.
 Electrons are held in their orbits by electrical attraction.
 Depending on how much energy they have, electrons circle the
nucleus at difference orbits.
 Each of the electrons that revolve about the nucleus has
discrete energy level.
 Energy level increase as the distance from the nucleus increases

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PHYSICS : Matter

Note: Not all shells hold the same number of electrons.

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PHYSICS : Matter

Arrangement of Electrons

 Electrons will first occupy

the shell that is nearest to
the nucleus.
 When the quota of the shell
has been fulfilled, other
electrons will fill the
following shells.

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PHYSICS : Matter

Valence Electrons
 The electrons in the outermost
shell of an atom is called valence
electrons.

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Valency
 Valency is the combining capacity of an Element. It is the
number of electrons an atom of an element can gain, lose or
share. The valency of an atom is equal to the
valence electrons, if it is 4 or less. If it is more than 4,
the valency is equal to 8 minus the number of electrons in the
outer shell
 It is the number of electrons an atom of an element can gain,
lose or share. The valency of an atom is equal to the valence
electrons, if it is 4 or less. If it is more than 4, the valency is
equal to 8 minus the number of electrons in the outer
shell. Example: Magnesium has electronic configuration 2,8,2.

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PHYSICS : Matter

Elements

Objectives: -

 At the end of this lesson the students will be able to explain

what is element, isotope, and periodic table.

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PHYSICS : Matter

The Periodic Table

 a tabular method of displaying a complete list of the

chemical elements devised in 1869 by the Russian
chemist Dmitri Mendeleev.

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PHYSICS : Matter

Molecule

smallest particles of an element or compound which can exist

independently.
Example: Oxygen molecules (O2)

Breaks into
2 oxygen
atoms

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PHYSICS : Matter

 When two or more atoms bind together they form a molecule.

 two hydrogen (H) atoms and one oxygen (O) atom are joined together
 molecule of water (H2O),
 iron (Fe) and carbon (C) are joined together
 molecule of steel.

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PHYSICS : Matter

Molecule

 A molecule is two or more atoms

bonded together.

 The atoms in a molecule are held

together by chemical bonds.

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PHYSICS : Matter

 The smallest particles of an element or compound which can exist

independently.
 Oxygen atoms at room temperature do not exist independently. They join
in pairs to form oxygen molecules
 O2  composed of two oxygen atoms.

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PHYSICS : Matter

COMPOUND

• substances that are made when the atoms of two or more

different elements joined together chemically
• can be broken down into other substances

Example: Water (H2O)

Breaks into

2 Hydrogen atoms Oxygen atom

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PHYSICS : Matter

 Ions are atoms with either extra electrons or missing electrons.

 A normal atom is called a neutral atom. That term describes an atom

with a number of electrons equal to the atomic number.

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PHYSICS : Matter

Isotopes

 An atom which is missing a neutron or has an extra

neutron is called an isotope.
 An atom is still the same element even if it is
missing an electron.
 Isotopes  same element with different mass
number.
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PHYSICS : Matter

 2 main types of bonding

 Covalent (electron sharing)
 Electrovalent or Ionic (electron transfer)

 Ionic bonds are normally strong but very weak in

water. (Metal and non-metal)
 Covalent Bond are usually much stronger. (Non-
metal and non-metal)
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PHYSICS : Matter

 Most atoms want their outermost atomic shell to be full.

 Some atoms have too many electrons (one or two extra).
 These atoms like to give up their electrons. Some atoms are
really close to having a full shell.
 Those atoms go around looking for other atoms wanting to give
up electrons.

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PHYSICS : Matter

 2-8-8 rule elements with atomic numbers

between 1 and 18.
 The first shell is filled with 2 electrons, the second is
filled with 8 electrons, and the third is filled with 8.
Sodium (Na) and magnesium (Mg) have a couple of
extra electrons.
 They have two possibilities.
 They can try to get eight electrons to fill up their third
shell.
 they can give up a few electrons and have a filled second
shell. For them it's easier to give up a few electrons.

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PHYSICS : Matter

 examples : Oxygen (O) and fluorine (F) are two good.

 Each Each elements is lacking for a couple of electrons.
 1st
shell  They have one filled shell with two electrons
 2nd shell  wants to have eight electron.
 There are a couple of ways they can get the electrons.
(1) They can share electrons, making a covalent bond. Or
(2) they can just borrow them, and make an ionic bond (also
called electrovalent bond).
 Hydroxide, -OH

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PHYSICS : Matter

 Sodium (Na)  has an extra electron.

 Fluorine (Fl)  looking for one electron.
 They can give up or share electrons. The two
elements have created an electrovalent bond.
 Sodium fluoride, NaFl

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PHYSICS : Matter

Example of a Covalent Bond in Water (H2O)

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PHYSICS : Matter

Example of Sodium Chloride

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PHYSICS : Matter

 Most compounds  combinations of bonds.

 sodium chloride (NaCl)  ATOMS held together by one
ionic bond.
 Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) = One magnesium (Mg) atom
+ two chlorine (Cl) atoms  two ionic bonds.
 methane (CH4) = one carbon (C) + four hydrogen’s (H) 
four bonds and they are all covalent.
 most compounds are combinations of ionic and covalent
bonds.

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PHYSICS : Matter

 At left, the sodium (Na) part and the right has the
oxygen/hydrogen (-OH) part.

 The bond :
 hydrogen (H) to oxygen (O)  covalent.
 sodium (Na) to hydroxide  ionic bond.

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PHYSICS : Matter

 The three common states, or phases, of matter are

 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas

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PHYSICS : Matter

Particles
arrangement: Volume:
Close to each Fixed
other
Solid

Flow ability: Shape:

Energy
•Cannot flow content: Fixed

•Cannot be compressed Low

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PHYSICS : Matter

Particles
arrangement: Volume:
Loosely Fixed
arranged
Liquid

Flow ability: Shape:

Energy
•Can flow content: Follows
container
•Difficult to compress Average

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PHYSICS : Matter

Particles
arrangement: Volume:
Very Loosely Not Fixed
arranged
Gas

Shape:
Flow ability: Energy
content: Fill the
•Can flow
container
•Easy to compress High

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PHYSICS : Matter

 Substance  absorbs a given amount of heat,

 the speed of its molecules usually increases and its
temperature rises.
 Depending on the specific heat, the rise in tempera-
ture is proportional to the heat supplied.
 when a solid melts or when a liquid boils.
 In these cases, the temperature remains constant until all
the solid melts or until all the liquid boils.
 Water
 which at room temperature is liquid,
 becomes a solid (ice), when cooled (energy removed)
 become gas (steam) when heated (energy added).

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PHYSICS : Matter

speed of its
Substance
molecules
heated
increases

temperature rises

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PHYSICS : Matter

 As the heat is continuously supplied, the liquid then

transforms into gas.
 At this stage, the kinetic energy is very high and the
particles move randomly at a very high velocity.
 The transformation or changes between states
involves various processes:
 Solid to liquid : melting
 Liquid to gas : vaporization
 Solid to gas : sublimation
 Gas to liquid : condensation
 Liquid to solid : freezing
 Gas to solid : deposition

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PHYSICS : Matter

Changes between states

Sublimation

Melting Vaporizing

Freezing Condensation

Deposition
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PHYSICS : Matter

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PHYSICS : Matter

CAAM PART 66 CAT B 2.1

L1

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PHYSICS : Matter

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PHYSICS : Matter

Mechanics - Statics

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PHYSICS : Matter

Objectives: -
At the end of this lesson the students will be able
to :
 Understand Forces, Vectors
 Understand forces on materials
 Know the Properties of solid, fluid and gas
 Understand pressure and buoyancy in liquids

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2.2.1 Statics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.1) Level 1

• Forces, moments and couples, representation as

vectors
• Centre of gravity
• Elements of theory of stress, strain & elasticity:
tension, compression, shear & torsion
• Nature and properties of solid, fluid and gas;
• Pressure and buoyancy in liquids (barometers).

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2.2.1 Statics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.1) Level 1

• Forces, moments and couples, representation as

vectors

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Force

Objectives: -

At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to state the
relationship between force, mass and acceleration.

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Force
Definition product of mass and acceleration of the
moving object

Symbol F

Formula Force = mass X acceleration = m.a

Unit Newton (N) @ kg.m/s2

Newton’s Second Law of Motion.

The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force
acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass.

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Magnitude and Direction of force

A force can be represented by drawing a scale line to

show magnitude and arrowhead to show direction

tail head

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Giving Directions
• Along and Across
• At an Angle
• Parallel and Perpendicular
• Aft and Fore
• Starboard Port
• Through
• Clockwise and Counter Clockwise
• Around
• Into and Out of
• Towards and Away From

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Combining and Resolving of Forces

When forces act in the same direction along the same line of action,
the net effect is the addition of all forces acting to the same direction

Example :
5N 10 N

So, the Resultant Force is ;

FR = 5 N + 10 N = 15 N to the RIGHT
@
15 N

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Combining and Resolving of Forces

When forces act in opposite direction along the same line of action, the
net effect is the subtraction of all forces acting to the opposite direction

Example :
5N 10 N

So, the Resultant Force is ;

FR = 5 N + (-10 N) = 5 N to the LEFT
@
-5N

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Force as Vector

Force

Vector
quantity

Magnitude Direction

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Resolving Forces

hypotenuse vertical

If F = 300 N and θ = 30o then

Fhorizontal equals :

Cos 30o = Fhorizontal / 300N

•Sin θ = opposite / hypotenuse Fhorizontal = (300N)(Cos 30o)
•Cos θ = adjacent / hypotenuse = (300)(0.866)
•Tan θ = opposite / adjacent = 260N

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Moment and Couple

Objectives: -

At the end of this lesson the students will be able to define the
terms torque, moment, moment arm, resultant moment and
couple.

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Tangents and circular motion

• The circumference is
the outside of the circle
• The radius is a straight
line from the centre to
the circumference
•A tangent is a straight
line that touches the
circumference (90o)

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Turning Effect of a Force

 Every force acts in a straight line. When a body is acted on by a force at

a distance from it axis of rotation, the body may rotate.

This turning effect of a force about a point called the axis of rotation is
known as the moment of the force or torque.

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Torque

 Torque = Force x Radius of Rotation

 Moment = Force x Distance from Pivot

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Formula for Moment

The magnitude of a turning moment is calculated from:

a) force applied, and
b) the moment arm.
The product of these two quantities gives:

The S.I unit of moment is Newton-meter (Nm).

The English unit of moment is pound-foot (lb-ft).

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Moment Arm
The perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the line
of action of a force is called moment arm.

A
24 m

60º 100 N
O

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Effects of Moment Arm

The rotational effect of a force onto a body becomes increasingly effective as
the moment arm gets longer.

If the line of action of a force passes through the axis of rotation of a body,
the moment arm is zero and no rotational effect is observed.

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Positive/Negative Moment
Moment is a vector. Counter clockwise rotation about an axis is
called positive moment. Clockwise rotation is negative
moment.

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d = 0.8 m

F = 20 N

An ordinary situation such as the door (looking down from the

above) you will find that the moment is :
Moment = Force x moment arm
= 20 N x 0.8 m
= 16 Nm
so the moment produced on the door is 16 Nm.

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Resultant Moment

When a body is acted on by many forces which do not have a common line of
action, a resultant moment may produce and cause the body to rotate.

The resultant moment is the algebraic sum of the positive and negative
moments.

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Balancing Moments

 Occurs when there is more than one moment arm.

10N

Clockwise moment =Anti-clockwise moment

F2 x 1m = 10N x 0.5 m
F2 = (10 x 0.5) /1
F2 = 5 N
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Diff. between Torque and moment

Moment Torque
Moment” is a concept of engineering and torque is the tendency of a force to rotate an
physics that refers to the tendency of a force to object in a pivot.
move an object
Moment is the perpendicular distance between torque is a measure of the turning force of an
the point of rotation and the force’s line of object
action
moment is not Torque is used to measure coupling
moment is presented as Nm ;torque is presented as Nm/revolution
Moment is used when there is no rotation torque is used when there is rotation and a
pivot.

Moment has the symbol “M torque has the Greek letter “tau”
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Couple

A couple is made up of two forces, equal and opposite to each other,

but acting in parallel directions separated by a distance.

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Moment of a Couple

Moments can be taken at any point for a couple; but it must be

remembered the moment of a couple is constant irrespective of where
the moment is taken at.

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Balanced Couple

A couple can only be balanced by an equal and opposite couple.

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Equilibrium

Objectives: -
At the end of this lesson the students will be able to define the terms
equilibrium and the two conditions required for an object to be in
equilibrium.

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EQUILIBRIUM
Motion with constant
At rest speed

EQUILIBRIUM

Newton’s first law states:

If all external forces are balanced, an object will remain at rest or
moving with constant velocity.

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Conditions for Equilibrium

First condition:
The vector sum of all forces acting on a body is zero.
Second condition:
The algebraic sum of all the moments acting on the body at
any axis is also zero.

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Centre Of Gravity

Objectives: -

At the end of this lesson the students will be able to define

what is meant by the centre of gravity.

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Centre of Gravity (CG)

The centre of gravity of a body is that point at which the entire weight of a body
is considered as acting and producing the same resultant torque.

Examples:

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Centre of Gravity
The centre of gravity of a body is that point at which the entire weight of a body may
be considered as acting and producing the same resultant moment.

Centre of Gravity

It is recognised that any body which is suspended at its centre of gravity will be in
equilibrium.

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Where is the centre of gravity (C.G.) for the system?

30 in.
16 lb. 8 lb.

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C.G.

30 in.
8 lb.
16 lb.

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Summary
 When forces acting on a body, which do not have the same line of action or do not intersect at
a common point, rotation may occur.

 the concept of torque is one way to measure of the tendency to rotate.

 The moment arm of a force is the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to
the axis of rotation.

 The torque about a given axis is defined as the product of the Magnitude of a force and its
moment arm:

Torque = force x moment arm

 It is positive if it tends to produce counter clockwise (ccw) motion and negative if the motion
produced τ = Fr is clockwise (cw).
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•Elements of theory of stress, strain & elasticity:

tension, compression, shear & torsion

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Stress

When a force acts onto a solid body, the effect will be the body being
deformed or distorted.

The deforming force that misshapes a solid body is called stress.

Stress is a general term that applies to the deformation of all solid

bodies.

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Stress

Definition Force per unit area

Formula Stress = F/A

Where:
F = symbol for Force
A = symbol for area

Unit Pascal , Pa @ N/m2

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Stress

3 Types of Stress

Shearing Compression Tensile

Stress Stress Stress

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Compression

Tension

A beam sags, at least a little (but is exaggerated here), even under its own weight. The beam thus
changes shape so that the upper portion is compressed, and the lower portion is under tension
(elongated). Shearing stress also occurs within the beam.

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Tensile Stress

Refer to a tensile force that tends to cause an extension in length.

Tensile force acts in the longitudinal direction.
Equal and opposite forces are directed away from each other.

Slight change in volume

altered length

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Compressive Stress

Refer to compressive force that tends to cause a reduction in length

Compressive force acts in the longitudinal direction.

Equal and opposite forces are directed towards each other.

Slight change in volume

altered length

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Shearing Stress

Caused by a shear force that tends to shear

a surface.

Equal and opposite forces do not have the

same line of action.

Tends to shear a surface in lateral direction.

Alters shape

volume unchanged

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Torsion

Another type of shear stress.

Occurs when a twisting couple or a torque is applied on a

body resulting in an angular displacement about its
longitudinal axis.

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Effectiveness of Stress

The effectiveness of any force producing a stress is dependent

upon the area which the force is distributed.

Stress can be stated as the ratio of an applied force to the area over
which it acts:

Stress = Force
Area

S.I. unit of stress is N/m2 The English unit of stress is lb/in2

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Strain

Effect of a given stress

Change in length Change in shape

Tensile Compression
shearing stress
stress stress

For tensile or compression stress:

Strain = deformation/original length
= change in length/original length
= ΔL / L (no units)

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Hooke's law

Elongation is proportional to the weight or force exerted

on the object

F = kL
Where;
F = represents the force (or weight) pulling on the object,
L = the change in length, and
k = proportionality constant.

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Lo

L

F = mg

Hooke's Law: L  applied force

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Elastic Body

A solid body that has the ability to return to its original size and shape after
deforming force or stress is removed, is said to be elastic.

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Elastic Limit

• Point at which
permanent deformation
occurs
• Will NOT return to
original size

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Strain

Definition ratio of the change in length to the

original length

Formula strain = change in length = L

original length LO

Unit unitless

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Elastic Modulus @ Young’s Modulus, E

Definition ratio of stress to strain of the material

Formula E = F/A = stress

L/ Lo strain

Unit Pascal , Pa @ N/m2

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Shear Modulus, G

Definition Proportionality constant

Formula  L = 1 x F x Lo
G A

Unit Pascal , Pa @ N/m2

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Bulk Modulus, B

Definition ratio of change in pressure per

change in volume

Formula B = -P
V/ Vo

Unit Pascal , Pa @ N/m2

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Material Elastic Modulus, E Shear Modulus, G Bulk Modulus, B

(Solid) (N/m2) (N/m2) (N/m2)
Iron, cast 100 x 109 40 x 109 90 x 109
Steel 200 x 109 80 x 109 140 x 109
Brass 100 x 109 35 x 109 80 x 109
Aluminium 70 x 109 25 x 109 70 x 109
Concrete 20 x 109
Brick 14 x 109
Marble 50 x 109 70 x 109
Granite 45 x 109 45 x 109
Wood (pine)
(Parallel to grain) 10 x 109
(Perpendicular to grain) 1 x 109
Nylon 5 x 109
Bone (limb) 15 x 109 80 x 109

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Three types of stress

Lo

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Nature Of Matter

EXIST IN 3 PHYSICAL FORMS

Solid Liquid Gas

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Particles arrangement: Volume:

Close to each other Fixed

Shape:
Solid Fixed

Energy content:
Flow ability:
Low
Cannot flow
Cannot be compressed

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Particles arrangement: Volume:

Loosely arranged Fixed

Shape:
Liquid Follows container

Flow ability: Energy content:

•Can flow Average
•Difficult to compress

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Particles arrangement: Volume:

Very Loosely arranged Not Fixed

Shape:
Gas Follows container

Flow ability: Energy content:

•Can flow High
•Easy to compress

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What is Fluid?

Fluid

Substance that can flow and fill its container

Liquids and Gases

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Changes between states

Sublimation

Melting Vaporizing

Freezing Condensation

Deposition

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Substance VELOCITY of
heated molecules increases

temperature rises

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Mass

Definition the amount of matter in a

substance or object

Symbol m
Unit SI: kilogram (kg)
English system: slug

1 slug = 14.59 kg

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Volume

Definition the space occupy by matter having

measurements such as length, width
and height

Symbol V
Unit SI: metre cubic (m3)
1 L = 1000 cm3
1 US gal = 3.78 L

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Density

Definition ratio of mass and volume

CHARACTERISTICS PROPERTIES

Formula ρ = mass = m/V

Volume
Where:
ρ = symbol for density
V = symbol for volume
m= symbol for mass

Unit kilogram per cubic metre

(kg/m3).

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Density

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DENSITY

 Density of solids or liquids

 Vary slightly with the change of temperature and pressure.
 Density of gasses
 Vary enormously with the change of temperature and
pressure.
 Volume increase with the increase of temperature
 Volume decrease with the increase of pressure.

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Example:

1. A block with mass 3 kg have dimension 50 cm x 20 cm

and height is 30 cm.. Determine: -
a) The volume of the block?
Ans. V = l x w x h
= 0.5 m x 0.2 m x 0.3 m
= 0.03 m3
b) the density of the block in figure if it mass is 3 kg?
Ans.: ρ = m / V
= 3 kg / (0.5 m x 0.2 m x 0.3 m)
= 100 kg /m3

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SPECIFIC GRAVITY (S.G)

 The definition of SG
RATIO OF THE SUBSTANCE DENSITY TO THE DENSITY OF WATER AT 4 ˚ C.

In formula; SG = DENSITY OF SUBSTANCE

DENSITY OF WATER AT 4˚C

 SG have no unit (it’s a RATIO)

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EXAMPLE

 What is Specific Gravity (SG) for the gold? (Gold density = 19.3 x 103 kg/m3
and water density = 1.0 x 103 kg/m3)
Ans.: SG = DENSITY OF SUBSTANCE
DENSITY OF WATER AT 4 0C
= 19.3 x 103 kg/m3
1 x 103 kg/m3
= 19.3

  The Specific Gravity for gold is 19.3

 In other word
The gold mass is 19.3 times greater than the mass of water.

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conclusion

1. two object with

 Different material & same volume 4g 39 g
(size)
 different density (mass) steel
wood

2. two object with

 Same material & Different volume 1.6
(size) 4g kg

 Same density wood wood

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TASK

1. Calculate the volume (V) of a 5000 kg of water. (Water density = 1.0 x 103 kg/m³
2. Calculate the mass (m) of the air inside the room with dimension 12.0 m x 6.0 m
x 4.0 m. ( air density = 1.29 kg/m³)
3. What volume does 50 kg of alcohol if the density of alcohol is 790 kg/m3? What
is the weight of this volume?
4. What volume of water has the same weight, as 10 m3 of lead? (density of
water= 1000 kg/m3 and lead = 11 300 kg/m3 )
5. A rectangular block measures 10 cm x 8 cm x 15 cm, and has a mass of 9.37 kg.
a. Determine the weight of the block.
b. If the area of the block measures 10 cm x 8 cm, determine the
pressure the block to the floor.

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Pressure and buoyancy in

liquids (barometers).

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Fluid Statics

Objectives: -

At the end of this lesson the students will be able to define and apply
the concepts of fluid pressure, buoyant force and Archimedes’
principle.

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Fluid Density

Density of fluid is defined in three ways:

Mass Density: Weight Density

Ratio of its mass to its volume Ratio of its weight to its volume
Unit: kg/m3 Unit: N/m3

Particle Density:
Ratio of its moles of atoms to its volume
Unit: mol/m3

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Fluid Exerts Forces

A fluid can produce forces only at enclosed

surfaces or boundaries. If fluid is not
restrained, it will flow under shearing stress.

A fluid exert forces on the wall of its container.

The force exerted by a fluid on the wall of its
container always act perpendicular to the
walls.

Such forces acting on definite areas create a

condition of pressure

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Pressure
F
Definition Force per unit area
Formula P = F/A A

Unit Pascal , Pa @ N/m2

Where:
P = symbol for Pressure
F = symbol for Force
A = symbol for area
(contacting area)

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 Fluid exerts a pressure in all directions.

 At any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure is the same
in all directions.
 P is the same in every direction in a fluid at a given
depth; if not, the fluid would be in motion.

 Pressure in a liquid of uniform density varies with

depth.
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Pressure is the same in every direction in a fluid at a given

depth; if it weren’t, the fluid would be in motion

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Pressure In Fluid

 Calculating the pressure at

a depth, h in a fluid

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 Fluid pressure affected by the height, h.

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Pressure in fluid

Formula P= gh

Where;
 = density of fluid
g = gravitational force
h = height / depth

Unit Pascal , Pa @ N/m2

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Archimedes' principle
A body immersed
in a fluid is
buoyed up by a
force equal to the
weight of the
displaced fluid.

The buoyant
Applies to : force is equal to
•Floating the weight of the
•Submerged bodies
•and to all fluids (liquids and gases).
displaced fluid
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It explains;
 the buoyancy of ships and other vessels in water
 the rise of a balloon in the air
 the apparent loss of weight of objects underwater.

Relative density
 weight per unit of volume, of the body compared to the fluid
determines the buoyant force.

Density of substances compared to fluids density.

 If the body is less dense than the fluid, it will float.
 If the body is denser than the fluid, it will sink.
 in the case of a balloon, it will rise.

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Displacing in the process a volume of fluid whose weight is equal to the entire
weight of the body.
 Proportion of a floating
body that will be submerged
in a fluid.
 If the body is 2/3 as dense
as the fluid, then 2/3 of its
volume will be submerged

Mass of the wood with this size

=
The mass of 1/3 the size of water

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Barometer
A device used to measure atmospheric pressure.
two main types of barometers:

Mercury barometer Aneroid barometer

• A liquid- based barometer • A non-liquid barometer
• pressure is determined by the • widely used in portable instruments
height of mercury and in aircraft altimeters because of
its smaller size and convenience

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Barometer

(A) a differential manometer, (B) a Torricellian barometer, and (C) a siphon.

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 Normal atmospheric (1 atm) pressure is about

 = 14.7 psi
 = 30 inches of mercury
 = 760 millimeters
 = 1,013.2 millibars
 = 101,320 Pascal’s

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• Forces, moments and couples, representation as

vectors
• Centre of gravity
• Elements of theory of stress, strain & elasticity:
tension, compression, shear & torsion
• Nature and properties of solid, fluid and gas;
• Pressure and buoyancy in liquids (barometers).

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2.2 MECHANICS (CAAM Ref No : 2.2)

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MODULE 2 : PHYSICS (CAAM CAT A)

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PHYSICS : Matter

Mechanics - Kinetics

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MODULE 2 : PHYSICS (CAAM CAT A)

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2.2 MECHANICS (CAAM Ref No : 2.2)

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2.2 Mechanics

2.2.2 Kinetics

[Link] Linear movement

[Link] Rotational movement: uniform circular motion (centrifugal/ centripetal
forces)
[Link] Periodic motion: pendular movement
[Link] Simple theory of vibration, harmonics and resonance
[Link] Velocity ratio, mechanical advantage and efficiency
2.2 Mechanics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2)

2.2.2 Kinetics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.2)

[Link] Linear movement

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Linear Movement

Objective :

At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to: -

1. Define distance, displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration and give

formulas for average speed, velocity and acceleration.

2. Solve uniform linear motion problems.

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Newtons Law of Motion

1st Law = A body in Motion tends to stay in motion, A body at

rest tends to stay at rest (Inertia)
2nd Law = Net Force on object = Mass of the object times
acceleration or F=ma.
3rd Law = For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.

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Distance

S.I unit: meter(m) 1 in = 2.54 cm

1 ft = 12 in
1m = 3.281 ft
= 1.094 yd
1 mile = 1.61 km

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Displacement

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Speed

Unit: meter per second (m/s)

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Velocity

Unit: meter per second (m/s)

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Acceleration

Acceleration is the change in velocity over a

certain amount of time

Acceleration is positive if the

object’s velocity is increased, and
negative if its velocity decreased
Acceleration It is a vector quantity
It is a vector quantity

Average acceleration = Change of velocity

Negative acceleration =) Time taken
deceleration a = Δv
Δt

Unit: meter per second per second (m/s2)

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Other Useful Relations

 vf = vi + a t
s = vi t + ½ a t2
 vf2 = vi2 + 2 a s
Where: vi is the initial velocity, where s is the displacement
vf is the final velocity,
a is the acceleration,
t is the time

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 v =s
t
a = ∆v/t at = vf – vi
a = vf – vi
vf = at + vi
t
vi = vf - at

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Graph Representations of Velocity and Acceleration

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Equations of motion summary

 Velocity v = u + at
 Displacement s = ½ (v+u)t
 No v needed
s = ut + ½ at2
 No t needed
v2 = u2 + 2as

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Free Fall

Assuming air resistance is negligible, all objects irrespective of shape, weight or

size fall towards the Earth with the same acceleration.

This acceleration is due to the gravitational force of the Earth on the falling
object.
Symbol of the acceleration due to gravity: g
g = 9.81 m/s2 or 32 ft/s2
Motion under gravity: vf = vi + gt
h = vit + ½ gt2
vf 2 = vi2 + 2gh
where h is height above ground

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Problems

1. A car travels between 2 towns 120000 m apart in 2 hours. What is its

average speed in km/h?
2. A truck has a velocity of 72 km/h. How far does it travel in ½ minute?
3. A car's velocity changes from 2 m/s to 10 m/s in 4 seconds. What is its
acceleration?
4. A boy is dropping a coin from a bridge. How far will it fall after 2 seconds?
5. A body starts at rest and reaches 87m/s in 3s. What is its acceleration?
6. An aircraft flies 2,000 nautical miles in 2h 30mins. What is the average speed in
nautical mile per hour?
7. A freely falling body, falling from a height of 4.5km, and assuming g = 10 m/s2,
when will it strike the ground?
8. A body travelling at 24 m/s accelerates to 42 m/s in 6s. What is it acceleration?

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2.2 Mechanics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2)

2.2.2 Kinetics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.2)

[Link] Rotational movement: uniform circular motion

(centrifugal/ centripetal forces)
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Uniform Circular Motion

Objectives: -

At the end of this lesson the students will be able to explain uniform
circular motion and define centripetal force and centrifugal force.

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Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform circular motion exists when a body moves in a circle of radius R

with uniform speed v.

In a uniform circular motion, there is

only a change in direction.

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Alternate Meaning

Alternatively, uniform circular motion can be considered as the

rotation of a radius of a circle.

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Central Force

Newton’s first law tells us that all bodies moving in a straight line with constant
speed will maintain their velocity unaltered unless acted on by external force.
A moving body can change its path of motion if there is an external force acts in a
direction other than the original direction of motion of the body.
In a uniform circular motion, a force always exists and acts at right angles to the
path of the moving body. The force acts towards the centre of the circular path.

This central force changes the velocity of the

moving body by continually changing its
direction, leaving the speed constant.

The force produce an acceleration in the direction

of the force. The acceleration is called centripetal
acceleration

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Centripetal Acceleration

Centripetal acceleration, ac = v2
R
where ; v = speed
R = radius

ac always perpendicular to the

direction of v, and is directed
towards the centre of the circle.

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Centripetal Force. Centrifugal Force

Centripetal Force Centrifugal Force

The central force acting towards the Force that push the object in circular
centre of a circle on a body in circular motion away from the centre of its
motion. The force holds the body in rotation.
circular path.

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Centripetal Force

The centripetal force Fc is equal to the

product of the mass m, and the
centripetal acceleration ac

Fc = m ac

where ac = v²/R

Fc = m v2
R

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2.2 Mechanics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2)

2.2.2 Kinetics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.2)

[Link] Periodic motion: pendular movement

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Simple Harmonic Motion

Objective: -

 At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to define periodic motion,
simple harmonic motion and describe simple systems in harmonic motion.

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Periodic Motion

Any repetitive motion over a certain period of time is called a periodic motion.

A periodic motion where the system performs a repeated to-and-fro motion between two
positions is called an oscillation.

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Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

The motion of a body oscillating between two fixed positions over a period of
time without any loss of energy.

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Characteristics of SHM

Variable force produces a periodic motion.

The force is directly proportional to its displacement from a fixed point and always
directed towards that fixed point.

F = - kx

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Characteristics of SHM

Maximum velocity

Maximum
positive Maximum
acceleration negative
acceleration

Maximum compression Maximum stretch

unstretched
Symmetrical motion about unstretched position of the spring

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Variation of Displacement, x with Time’ t of SHM

The maximum displacement, the greatest One cycle refers to to the complete motion
distance from the equilibrium point is called from some initial point back to that same
the amplitude, A. point.

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Period, Frequency

Period, T, is defined as the time required for one complete cycle.

Frequency, f, is the number of complete cycles per second.

(Hertz)
f=1/T
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2.2 Mechanics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2)

2.2.2 Kinetics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.2)

[Link] Simple theory of vibration, harmonics and resonance

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Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum
consists of a small object
suspended from the end of
lightweight cord.

The motion of pendulum

moving back and forth is
periodic.

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Period of Oscillation of a Simple Pendulum

Period of the simple pendulum:

T = 2π√ L / g

where ; L = length of the cord

g = acceleration of gravity

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Loaded Spring

When a spring compresses or

stretches, it exerts a force on the
mass that acts in the direction of
returning the mass to the equilibrium
position. The force is called restoring
force F..

F = -K x

where ; K= spring constant

x = displacement from
the equilibrium

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Period of Oscillation of a Loaded Spring

The period of vibration for a mass where ; K = spring constant

at the end of a spring is given by m = mass of load

T = 2π√ m / K

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Resonance

If an oscillating force is applied to a system capable of vibrating, the system’s

amplitude of vibration can be very large if the resonant frequency of the
oscillator is same.

Resonance = frequency of the applied forces matches the natural frequency

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Effect of Resonance

The collapse of Tacoma Narrows Bridge

BEFORE AFTER

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2.2 Mechanics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2)

2.2.2 Kinetics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.2)

[Link] Velocity ratio, mechanical advantage and efficiency

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Velocity Ratio, Mechanical Advantage

and Efficiency

Objectives: -

At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to: -

1. define and calculate mechanical advantage (MA).
2. define and calculate velocity ratio (VR).
3. define and calculate efficiency (%).

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Simple Machine

A simple machine is any device that allows a small force to move against a larger
resisting force, or a force in one direction to move against a resisting force in another
direction. Many simple machines do both.

Examples of simple machine: Lever, inclined plane and pulley.

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Mechanical Advantage

A machine such as the lever shown, where small effort can move larger
load, is said to have mechanical advantage (MA).

Mechanical Advantage;

MA = Load
Effort

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Velocity Ratio

Velocity ratio (VR) is ratio of the distances moved by the effort and load.

VR = Distance moved by effort

Distance moved by load

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Efficiency

The efficiency of a machine is always less than

100% due to friction and other losses.

Efficiency (%) = MA x 100%

VR

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2.2 Mechanics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2)

2.2.2 Kinetics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.2)

[Link] Linear movement

[Link] Rotational movement: uniform circular motion
(centrifugal/ centripetal forces)
[Link] Periodic motion: pendular movement
[Link] Simple theory of vibration, harmonics and resonance
[Link] Velocity ratio, mechanical advantage and efficiency

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2.2 MECHANICS (CAAM Ref No : 2.2)

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PHYSICS : Matter

Mechanics - Dynamics

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2.2.3 Dynamics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.3)

 (a) (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.3(a)) Level 1

 Mass
 Force, inertia, work, power, energy (potential, kinetic and total
energy), heat, efficiency

 (b) (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.3(b)) Level 1

 Momentum, conservation of momentum
 Impulse
 Gyroscopic principles
 Friction: nature and effects, coefficient of friction (rolling
resistance)

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 (a) (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.3(a)) Level 1

 Mass
 Force, inertia, work,power, energy (potential,
kinetic and total energy), heat, efficiency

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MASS

Objectives: -

 At the end of this lesson, the students will be able

to define mass.

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MASS

measurement of the quantity of matter of

an object

Matter is anything that occupies space

The unit of mass is kilogram (kg).

@ USCS is Slug

Example:
The pumpkin mass is 1 kilogram (kg).

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MASS

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Standard 1 Kilogram

a solid platinum-iridium
cylinder kept at the Bureau
International des Poids et
Mesures (BIPM) in Paris,
which its MASS is, by
definition, exactly 1
kilogram.

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Inertia

Objectives: -

 At the end of this lesson, the students will be able

to relate mass and inertia.

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Inertia

• A body at rest tends to stay at rest, a body in motion tends to stay in motion
• The higher the mass the higher the force of inertia

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Sir Isaac Newton:

Inertia is a resistance to a change of velocity.
Large massive bodies contain;
more matter than bodies of similar composition but smaller volume.
Massive bodies resist a change in velocity more than light bodies and are
said to have greater inertia.

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Newton’s First Law states:

 The object will remain at rest or moving with constant

velocity unless there is an external force acting on it.

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Newton’s First Law

 This law is two fold:

1. Unless acted on by an outside force, an object at rest, stays at rest.
2. Unless acted on by an outside force, an object moving with uniform
velocity, continues to move at that velocity.

Newton called the property of an object that allows it to maintain a

constant state of motion or rest inertia.

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Inertia

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Inertia and mass.

All objects resist your attempt to change their velocity.

You have to exert a force to start a stationary body moving.
If the object is already moving you have to exert a force to increase the
velocity or change the object’s direction.
It is noticeable that it is harder to push a stationary car than a billiard ball.
This resistance exists even in free space where there are no friction or
drag forces.
this inertia is fundamental in understanding the motion of all things in our
universe, we can describe objects by their inertia or inertial mass or, more
simply, mass.

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FORCE

Objective:
 At the end of this lesson, the students will be able
to state the relationship between force, mass and
acceleration.

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Measurement of Force

 S.I unit of force is Newton (N).

 The English system of units for force is pound (lb).

 1 N = 1 kg m/s2
 1kg = 2.2 lbs
 1 Newton = 0.225 lb
 1 lb = 4.448 N

Example:
The downward force, F due to gravitational force
of the pumpkin is:

F = 1kg x 9.81 m/s2

= 9.81 kgm/s2 @ 9.81 N

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Newton’s Second Law

 ‘ Whenever an unbalanced force acts on a body, it produces in the direction of

the force an acceleration that is directly proportional to the force and inversely
proportional to the mass of the body.’

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Newton’s Second Law

 Whenever the mass of a body is

held constant, the acceleration
of a body is directly proportional
to the applied force.

If the force is unchanged, the

acceleration of a body is
inversely proportional to the
mass of the body.

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Force, Mass & Acceleration

Force, F = mass x acceleration

= ma

SI Unit of force = kg x m/s2 English unit of force = slug x ft/s2

= kg m/s2 = slug ft/s2

1 kg m/s2 = 1 Newton (N) 1 slug ft/s2 = 1 pound (lb)

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Newton’s Third Law

 ‘ To every action there must be an equal and opposite

reaction. ’
1. Whenever two bodies interact, the force exerted by the second body on the first
is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force exerted by the first
body on the second.
2. There must be an acting force and a reacting force. The two forces act on
different objects.

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Problems

1. What acceleration will a force of 40N impart to a 5 kg body?

2. What resultant force will give a 32kg body an acceleration of 8 m/s2 ?
3. What2mass has a body if a force of 63N will give it an acceleration of
9m/s ?

Issue : 2 Rev.: 0 FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY Session 1

Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 211
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Work

Objectives: -

At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to: -

1. Define the term ‘work’ and its SI unit.

2. State the equations used to calculate ‘work done’

Issue : 2 Rev.: 0 FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY Session 1

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Work

A work is done whenever a force acts onto an object and causes the
object to move through a distance.

 For work to be done, 3 things are necessary:

1. Applied force
2. Distance the object moved
3. The force acts along the direction of movement

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Formula for Work

Work = Force × Distance

F F
W=F×d

d
Force acts
along the
direction of Work is a scalar
movement quantity.
 S.I unit : joule (J) or
Nm
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Problems

1. A horizontal force of 30N drags a small sled across the

ground. If 15m is covered, what is the work done by the
force?

2. Suppose that an object having a mass of 9kg is lifted 4m.

Assuming that the Earth’s gravitational acceleration is
10m/s2, how much work is done?

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Power

Objectives: -

At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to

define power and its
SI unit.

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POWER

Power is defined as the rate of doing work

Power = Work Units :

Time taken watt (W)
P=W joule/second
t Power horsepower (hp)
1 W = 1 J/s
1hp = 746 W

Power = energy transferred

Since work equals to F × d
time taken
P=F×d
t
=F×v

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POWER

• Power is measured in Watts

• Power is calculated by how much Work
can be done in a certain amount of time
• Power = work/time
but Work = Force x Distance
Therefore : Power = Force x Distance/time
= Force x Velocity

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Problems

1. Compute the power output of a machine that lifts a

200kg crate through a height of 30m in a time of 60s.

2. While a boat is being towed at a speed of 30 m/s, the

tension in the towline is 8 kN. What is the power
supplied to the boat by the towline?

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Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 219
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Potential and Kinetic Energies

Objectives: -

 At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to: -

1. Discuss the relationship between work and the change in energy

(kinetic &/@ potential energy).

2. Define and write formulas for potential energy and kinetic energy.

Issue : 2 Rev.: 0 FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY Session 1

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Energy

Energy is the capability of an object to perform work.

Unit : joules or Nm

The law of conservation of energy says:

Energy cannot be made or destroyed, but it
can be changed from one form into another

Mechanical Energy is classified into two broad

types; potential and kinetic energies.

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Kinetic Energy

 Kinetic energy, Ek, is the energy

possesses by a moving object, for
example, the energy of a rushing
stream or a rotating wheel

KE = ½ m . v2

where ; m = mass
v = velocity

Issue : 2 Rev.: 0 FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY Session 1

Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 222
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Work – Energy Theorem

 Consider an object of mass m being subjected to a

steady force F acts through a distance s and increases its
velocity from vi m/s to vf m/s in t seconds.

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Potential Energy

 Potential energy PE is the energy a body possesses due to

its relative position or physical state.

PE = m . g . h PE = ½ F. x
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Gravitational Potential Energy

 When a force F lifts a mass m through a

height h, work done by the force is,
W = Fh
 The force F is required to counter the
weight due to gravitational force,
F = mg

Hence, work done in lifting Therefore a body that has been raised a
a mass m through a height height h gains potential energy of
h is Ep = mgh
W = Fh = mgh
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Elastic Potential Energy

 When a spring is stretched by a force F,

and the extension produced is x, the
work done in stretching the spring is,

The work done on the spring becomes

the spring’s elastic potential energy.

Hence the elastic potential energy of a stretched spring is PE = ½ Fx.

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Work – Energy Theorem

 W =  PE = m.g.  h

W =  PE =  KE
W=E

W =  KE = ½ m . v2

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Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 227
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Conservation of Energy

 ‘The total energy of a system is always constant, although energy changes from
one form to another may occur within the system.’

Motion under gravitational force:

In the absence of air resistance or other dissipative forces, the sum of the
potential and kinetic energies is a constant.

Potential Energy + Kinetic Energy = Total Energy

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Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 228
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Problems

1. A 5 kg mass falls through a distance of 10m. What is the loss in potential

energy?

2. Consider a hockey player skating down the ice at 20 m/s. His mass is 70
kg. What is his kinetic energy?

3. A 3 kg ball moving initially at 2 m/s is acted on by a constant force of 6N

for a distance of 15m. What is the final kinetic energy?

4. What average force F is necessary to stop a 8g bullet traveling at 100 m/s

as it penetrates into a wood a distance of 20 cm?

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Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 229
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Efficiency

Objectives:-

At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to

define efficiency.

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Efficiency

 A machine needs energy to do work. Some machines consume a lot of energy

but do very little work. Machines like these are not efficient.

 The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of the

useful work done to the energy input, i.e. the
ratio of output work to the input work.

Efficiency = [output work/input work] x 100%

= [output power/input power] x 100%

 The efficiency of most machines always less

than 100% because work needs to be done
to overcome friction which in turn is changed into heat.

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Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 231
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2.2.3 Dynamics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.3)

 (b) (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.3(b)) Level 1

 Momentum, conservation of momentum
 Impulse
 Gyroscopic principles
 Friction: nature and effects, coefficient of friction (rolling
resistance)

Issue : 2 Rev.: 0 FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY Session 1

Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 232
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Momentum

Objectives: -

 At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to

discuss and apply knowledge of momentum and the
principle of conservation of momentum

Issue : 2 Rev.: 0 FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY Session 1

Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 233
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Momentum

 A moving body has

momentum.
 The momentum of a moving
body is defined as the
product of its mass and its
velocity. THE collision transfer momentum
from the first ball to the second ball

p = mv

 S.I unit: kg.m/s

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Characteristics of Momentum

 Fast moving object has more momentum than slow moving object of the
same mass
 The more momentum an object has, the harder it is to stop, and the
greater effect it will have if it is brought to rest by impact or collision

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Momentum as a Vector

 To fully describe momentum, the direction as well as the

magnitude must be defined.
 This means that we must consider the speed of the
moving object in terms of its velocity and direction.

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Changes of Momentum

The momentum of a moving object can change in any of three different ways:
1. A change in the mass of the object
2. A change in the speed of the object
3. A change in the direction of the object’s motion

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conservation of momentum

The total momentum of a group or system of objects is

always the same unless the system is acted on by some
external force.

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Conservation of Momentum

A closed system is a system where there are no external forces acting on it.
If no external forces act on a system, the total linear momentum of the system
is conserved.
Total momentum before = Total momentum after

The total momentum in a closed system is constant with respect to time.

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Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 239
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Collisions

 The total momentum of colliding bodies is the same

after a collision as before.

Σ momentum = Σ momentum
before collision after collision

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Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 240
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Impulse

Objectives: -

At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to

discuss and apply knowledge of the impulse

Issue : 2 Rev.: 0 FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY Session 1

Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 241
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Concept of Impulse

 During collision, a sudden large force F acts onto an

object for a very short time interval Δt, and produces a
change in velocity of the object.

Impulse

F ∆t
m

before

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Concept of Impulse

 The product of the force F and the time interval Δt in which it acts
is called impulse I.
Impulse = Force × Time interval
I = FΔt

Impulse is a
vector quantity.

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Impulse and Momentum

 It is extremely difficult to measure either the force F or the time

interval Δt of a collision but their product F Δt can be determined.

When an object is subjected to an

impulse, the object’s velocity changes.
Hence, its momentum changes.

Impulse, I = FΔt
= maΔt
= mΔv
= mvf – mvi
= change in momentum
@ I =Δp

Impulse can be determined by calculating the change in momentum.

S.I unit: Ns or kg.m/s
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Momentum and Newton’s third law.

Cannon and cannon ball  considered as a system @ group of

objects.
Before exploding  the total momentum of the system is
zero.

This is because the velocities of cannon and cannon ball are

zero.

 The law of conservation of momentum tells us that the total

momentum remains constant:

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cannon and cannon ball

Total momentum before = Total momentum after

0 = m cannon v cannon + m ball v ball
V

V = 0 m/s -V

FIGURE 50 : Recoil is an example of conservation of momentum.

Refer MOD. 2.2.3(b) Pg. 51

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Gyroscopic Principle

Objective: -

 At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to

identify the gyroscopic principles.

Issue : 2 Rev.: 0 FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY Session 1

Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 247
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Gyroscope

 Any rotating mass or body tends to maintain its axis of spin in a

constant attitude. A gyroscope makes use of this effect.

A gyroscope is basically a mechanical device, the essential element of which is a

heavy metal wheel, or rotor, spinning at high angular velocity about a spin axis.

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Free Gyroscope

 Rotor is supported on two gimbals rings.

 Has 3 degrees of freedom: Spinning freedom, Veering freedom and Tilting
freedom.

The rotor shaft is pivoted The rings are known as the

in the inner gimbal ring. inner and outer gimbal ring.

The whole assembly comprises what is known as the gimbal system of a free or
space gyroscope in that the spin axis, remains fixed in space.

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Gyroscopic Principles

The gyroscope possesses two important fundamental properties:

1. Gyroscopic Inertia or Rigidity

2. Precession

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Gyroscopic Rigidity
 This property resists any force,
which tends to change the
plane of rotation of the rotor of
a gyroscope. (inertia)

It depends on 3 factors:

Mass of rotor
Speed of the rotor
Distance at which the
mass acts from the axis of
rotation, that is the radius
of gyration

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Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 251
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Gyroscopic Precession

 The angular rate of change in the direction of the plane of rotation (angular
momentum) under the influence of an applied force, and inversely proportional to the
moment of inertia of the rotor and the angular velocity of the rotor.

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The Rate Gyro and Displacement Gyro

Measures “amount of Measures “rate of

Movement” change of Movement”

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Friction

Objective: -

 At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to

define the term friction and coefficients of friction.

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Friction

 Friction is defined as a force which oppose the relative

motion between two surfaces in contact.

The frictional force exerted by each body on the other is parallel to the two surfaces.

Friction force exists not only when there is relative motion but even when one object
only tends to slide past another.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Friction

Advantages

Non-slip drive forces Provides braking forces

Disadvantages

Work must be done Friction causes heat

to overcome friction

Friction causes wear

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Methods of Reducing Friction

 Make the rubbing surfaces as

smooth as possible

 Insert ball bearings and roller

bearing between the surfaces in
contact, thus causing them to
roll rather than to slide

 Apply lubricant, such as oil or

grease, between the rubbing
surfaces. The lubricant forms a
film between the two surfaces
thus, preventing their
irregularities from impeding the
sliding motion.

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Static and Kinetic Frictions

 Suppose a force is exerted on a block which rests on a horizontal surface as shown.

 At first the block will not be moved because of the action of a force called the force
of static friction Ғs. Force of static friction exists when motion is impending.
 But as the applied force is increased, motion eventually occurs, and the frictional
force exerted by the horizontal surface while the block is moving is called the force
of kinetic friction Ғk .

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Static Friction

 The force of static friction depends on

i) The coefficient of static friction μs.
ii) The normal force N between two surfaces.

 The force of static friction Ғs = μsN.

 The object in the figure will just move

when the force F is equal to the force of
static friction Ғs.

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Kinetic Friction

It requires more force to start an object moving than it does to keep it moving.
 The force of kinetic friction is smaller than the force of static friction.

Force of kinetic friction Ғk = μkN

where μk is the coefficient of kinetic

friction, and μk < μs

μs and μk depend on the roughness

of the surfaces but not on the area
of contact between two surfaces.

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Rolling Friction

 Force of rolling friction opposes motion when one surface rolls on another.
 Force of rolling friction can be given as :
ҒR = μRN
 where μR is the coefficient of rolling friction.

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Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 261
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2.2.3 Dynamics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.3)

 (a) (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.3(a)) Level 1

Mass
Force, inertia, work, power, energy (potential, kinetic and
total energy), heat, efficiency

 (b) (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.3(b)) Level 1

Momentum, conservation of momentum
Impulse
Gyroscopic principles
Friction: nature and effects, coefficient of friction (rolling
resistance)

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Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 262
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mmap

2.2 MECHANICS (CAAM Ref No : 2.2)

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Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 263
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2.2.4 Fluid dynamics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.4)

 (a) (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.4(a)) Level 2

 Specific gravity and density
 (b) (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.4(b)) Level 1
 Viscosity, fluid resistance, effects of streamlining
 Effects of compressibility on fluids
 Static, dynamic and total pressure: Bernoulli's
Theorem, venturi

Issue : 2 Rev.: 0 FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY Session 1

Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 264
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PHYSICS : Matter

Mechanics – Fluid Dynamics

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Date : 28/06/2021 2 Physics Slide 265
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2.2 MECHANICS (CAAM Ref No : 2.2)

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2.2.4 Fluid Dynamics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.4(a))

[Link] Specific gravity and density

[Link] Viscosity, fluid resistance, effects of streamlining; effects of

compressibility on fluids

[Link] Static, dynamic and total pressure: Bernoulli's

Theorem, venturi

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Specific Gravity and Density

Specific gravity and density

REFER TO TOPIC:

2.2.1 Statics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.1) Level 1

•Pressure and buoyancy in liquids (barometers).

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Fluid Dynamics

Objective: -

 By the end of this lesson, the students must be able to

define viscosity, streamlining and turbulent flows,
compressible and incompressible fluids, ideal fluid, fluid
flow rate, dynamic pressure, total pressure: Bernoulli’s
theorem, and venturi.

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Viscosity
 When two fluid layers move
relative to each other, there
will be a friction force
developed between them with
the slower layer will try to slow
down the faster layer.
 Viscosity refers to friction
within a fluid that prevents the
fluid from flowing freely and is
essentially a frictional force
between adjacent layers of
fluid as they move past one
another.

Viscosity: internal resistance of the fluid to flow.

Temperature 1/Viscosity
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Fluid Flow
 Fluid flow is essentially characterized by many fluid
layers.
 Usually measured in cubic meter per second.

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Streamlines

All fluids in motion exhibit streamline flow.

Streamline flow is
the motion of a fluid in which every particle in the fluid follows the same
path (past a particular point) as that followed by previous particles.

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Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow

Fluid flow is characterized by its streamlines:

 as laminar flow, in which the layers of fluid move smoothly and

regularly along their paths (smooth streamlines),

 or as turbulent flow, in which

case the streamlines breakdown
and the flow is not smooth and
regular, but is characterized by
irregularly shaped whirlpools
(chaotic streamlines)

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Aerodynamics

 is the contouring of an object, such as an aircrafts body or an F1 Race Car

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airflow patterns

The mechanics of airflow patterns is lead

by two principles for subsonic
streamlining:
(1) the forward part of the object should
be well rounded, and
(2) the body should gradually curve back
from the midsection to a tapering rear
section.

An efficiently streamlined body thus

takes on the look of a horizontally
inclined teardrop shape.

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Purpose Streamlining

the contouring of an aircraft or

other body is to reduce:
 turbulent wake to a
minimum.
 drag, or resistance to motion
through a stream of air

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Flow Around a Sphere

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Compressible vs Incompressible

 A fluid is termed as compressible if its density varies during the flow.

 A fluid is termed as incompressible if its density remains constant

during the flow.

 Most liquids have their densities constant and, thus, the flow of
liquids is incompressible

 In general, a gas is a compressible fluid but it may be treated as

incompressible under certain situation such as when the density
change is under 5% during the flow.

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Ideal Fluid

Incompressible (density constant)

No viscosity

Laminar or steady flow

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(Mass flow rate) Rate of Flow

 The rate of flow is defined as

the volume of fluid that
passes a certain cross
section per unit of time.

 For an ideal fluid, the rate of

flow of the fluid through a
pipe or container is constant.

A1v1 = A2v2

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Dynamic Pressure

If you hold your hand up in a strong wind

or out of the window of a moving car, then
an extra wind pressure, or ‘moving
pressure’, is felt due to the air striking your
hand.

This extra pressure or ‘moving pressure’ is called dynamic pressure, or

pressure due to relative movement.

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Dynamic Pressure

Dynamic pressure depends on a number of

things, the two main ones being:
i) The speed v of the fluid relative to the
body.
ii) The density ρ of the fluid.

Dynamic Pressure = ½ x Density x Velocity2

= ½ρv2

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Bernoulli’s Theorem

In the flow of an ideal fluid the total pressure: the sum of static pressure, dynamic
pressure and hydrostatic pressure is constant at all points in the fluid.

p + ½ ρv2 + ρgh = constant

p1 + ½ ρv ½ + ρgh1 = p2 + ½ ρv22 + ρgh2

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Venturi Tube
 It is a convergent – divergent duct with a mouth, throat and tail.
 Static pressure is the lowest at the throat; fluid velocity is the highest at the throat.
Total pressure: Static pressure + Dynamic pressure = constant

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2.2.4 Fluid Dynamics (CAAM Ref No : 2.2.4(a))

 [Link] Specific gravity and density

 [Link] Viscosity, fluid resistance, effects of
streamlining; effects of compressibility on fluids
 [Link] Static, dynamic and total pressure: Bernoulli's
Theorem, venture

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2.2 MECHANICS (CAAM Ref No : 2.2)

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PHYSICS : Matter

Thermodynamics

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What is Thermodynamics?
thermodynamics studies the movement of
energy and how energy instills movement

Why would you need to know about

Thermodynamics?
Understand the importance of heat, cooling and
how it affects performance.

The role of thermodynamics in engine

development.
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Temperature

Objectives: -

At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to explain

temperature and thermometer, name the units of temperature; and
able to convert from specific temperatures on one scale to
corresponding temperatures on another.

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Temperature

A quantitative expression of
Defined as the degree of
the thermal energy of a
hotness or coldness of a
substance
substance

Temperature

The total molecular kinetic Two objects are said to be

energy of a substance – in thermal equilibrium if and
internal energy only if they are at the same
temperature.

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Measurement of Temperature

Temperature is usually determined by

measuring some mechanical, optical or
electrical quantity which varies with
temperature.

If a change in any dimension can be

shown to have a one-to-one
correspondence with changes in
temperature, the variation can be
calibrated to measure temperature. A
device calibrated this way is called
thermometer.

A thermometer is a device which, through

marked scales, can give an indication of
temperature.
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Thermometer

A thermometer is constructed by establishing

standard temperature that are easily duplicated.

This is usually done by selecting upper and

lower fixed points.

Two convenient temperatures are the boiling

point and freezing point of water.

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Temperature Scales

Thermometer

Calibrated to measure in

Celsius (°C) Rankine (°R)

Fahrenheit (°F) Kelvin (K)

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Upper Point

100°C

212°F

Boiling
point of
water
373.15K

671.67°R

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Lower Point

Celsius (°C)
0°C

Fahrenheit (°F)
Freezing
32°F
point of
water
Kelvin (K)
273.15K

Rankine (°R)
491.67°R

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The Measurement of Heat

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Celsius and Fahrenheit

Celsius scale: 100 equal divisions

between
boiling point and freezing point.

Fahrenheit scale: 180 equal divisions

between boiling point and freezing
point.

Temperature interval: 5C° =

9F°

To convert °F to °C and °C to
°F
i. T(°C) = 5/9 [ T (°F) - 32 ]
ii. T(°F) = [ 9/5 ×T (°C) ] + 32

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Kelvin

 An absolute temperature scale.

 Kelvin scale is constructed with its zero point (0K) established as

–273.15°C below the freezing point of water.

 Zero point (0K) refers to the lowest limit the temperature of a substance
can get. At zero point, the temperature is absolutely zero.

 At absolute zero (0K), the motion of molecules of a substance are

ceased entirely and there is no thermal energy.

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Celsius and Kelvin

The change in temperature or a

difference in temperature is the
same in Kelvin as it is in Celsius
degrees.

1K = 1C°

To convert °C to K and K to °C

i. T (K) = T(°C ) + 273.15

ii. T(°C ) = T (K) – 273.15

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Temperature Scales and

Conversions

K = oC + 273
5/9 (oF – 32) = oC

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Rankine

Another absolute scale which remains in use for some industrial

applications.

Assigns the value zero to the coldest possible temperature.

Rankine degree is exactly 5/9 as large as the Kelvin degree. Conversely,

the
Kelvin degree is 9/5 or 1.8 times, the size of the Rankine degree.

T(°R) = 1.8 x T(K )

The degrees on Rankine scale are identical in size with Fahrenheit

degrees.

T(°R) = T(°F ) + 460

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Summary

Temperature Scales

Celsius Convert to Fahrenheit

°F = (9/5 x °C) + 32.

Fahrenheit Convert to Celsius

°C = 5/9 (°F - 32)

Celsius Convert to Kelvin

K = ° C + 273

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Example 1
Convert 98.6° Fahrenheit (Normal Body Temperature!) to Celsius
First: 98.6° - 32 = 66.6
Then: 66.6× 5/9 = 333/9 = 37° C

Example 2
Convert 26° Celsius (A nice warm day!) to Kelvin
First: 26° + 273 = 299 K

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Examples :

1. What is the Celsius equivalent of a temperature of 113°F?

T(°C) = 5/9 [ T(°F) - 32 ]

°C = 5/9 ( 113 – 32 )
= 5/9 × 81
= 45°C

2. Convert 80°C to °F

T(F) = [ 9/5 ×T(°C) ] + 32

°F = (9/5 × 80) + 32
= 144 + 32
= 176°F

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3. What is the Kelvin equivalent of a temperature of 80°F?

Convert ° F to ° C, we get;
T(°C) = 5/9 [ T (°F) - 32 ]
°C = 5/9 ( 80 - 32 )
= 5/9 × 48
= 26.67°C
Then,
T (K) = T(°C ) + 273.15
= 26.67 + 273.15
= 299.82 K

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Problems

1. On a cold morning the temperature is reported as 23°F. What is the

corresponding Celsius temperature?

2. Convert -60°C to the corresponding Fahrenheit temperature.

3. What is the Kelvin and Rankine equivalent of a temperature of 560°F?

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Definition of Heat

Objectives: -

 At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to define

what is heat, and give the units of heat.

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What is Heat?

Energy that is transferred from one body to another.

Associated with motion of molecules.

Occurs when there are differences in temperature between two

objects.

Since heat is a type of energy…it cannot be destroyed.

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Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

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Heat: Another Form of Energy

Defined as the transfer of energy from one

Heat
body to another because of the difference
of temperature.

Heat is not the amount of

thermal energy a body has,
but the energy that the
body gives up or absorbs.

Heat involves with

changes of temperature.

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Units of Heat

Measured in Joule (J) or Calorie (cal) or British thermal

unit (Btu).
Joule is the S.I unit for
heat.
1 Btu 1 calorie

The amount of heat The amount of heat needed

needed to raise the to raise the
temperature of 1pound temperature of 1g of water
mass (1/32 slug) of water by 1°C
by 1°F 1 cal = 4.186 J
1 Btu = 1055 J = 252 cal 1kcal = 4186 J
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Heat And Temperature

Temperature is a
heat is one form of energy measure of the
amount of energy
present in a body
transferred from one body to another,
flows from the hotter body to the colder

increase in the temperature of the colder body

decrease in the temperature of the hotter body

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Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

 Heat Capacity = The rate of change of temperature as heat

is added
 Measured in Joules/Kelvin

Specific Heat = Amount of heat required to raise the

temperature of 1 kg of substance by 1 Degrees
Celcius
Measured in joule/kg x Kelvin
Q = mCΔT
Where Q = heat gained/loss (J)
m = mass (kg)
C = Specific heat of substance (J/kgoC)
ΔT = Temperature Change (K/oC)
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Heat Transfer

 OBJECTIVES:

 At the end of this lesson the student will be able to know:

1. Methods of Heat Transfer and its application

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Method in which heat is transferred from one location to

another

Always goes from hot to cold

• Conduction
3 methods of heat transfer • Radiation
• Convection

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Heat is transferred through a solid

body

Depending on how close the

molecules are held tightly together

Good Conductors : Metal,

Aluminium, copper.

Bad Conductors : Wood, Plastic,

glass

* Note : Bad Conductors are also called : INSULATORS

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Heat in the form of light-

waves

Can be transferred in vacuum

(does not need a medium)

Darker surfaces absorb more

radiation

Moves at 299 792 458 m / s

(speed of light)
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Moved through
liquids and gases

Flow of fluids
from hot to cold

Hotter fluids are

less dense and
tends to rise
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Applications of Heat in
Aviation
Cooling Systems

Visual Aid

Anti-Threat
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What is Heat?

What is The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics?

Name the different types of temperature scales?

Methods of Heat Transfers?

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Volumetric expansion
Expansion in solids
Differs in different materials
Linear Expansion and Volume Expansion
Depends on Length, Coefficient and Temperature

Linear Expansion = ΔL/L

Volume expansion = ΔV/V0

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Laws of Thermodynamics
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

First law of Thermodynamics states :

Total energy of the universe remains constant
Energy cannot be created or destroyed
Internal energy is equal amount of heat energy put in minus the work done

Second law of Thermodynamics states :

Total heat supplied must be greater than total work done
Impossible to achieve 100% efficiency
Heat cannot move from cold to hot

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Ideal Gas Laws

Boyle’s Law :
PV = k (constant) when Temperature (T) is fixed
P1V1 = P2V2

Charles’s Law :
V/T = k (constant) when Pressure (P) is fixed
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2

Combined Gas Law :

PV / T = k (constant)
P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2
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Ideal Gas Laws cont.

Avogadro’s Law :
Equal volumes of gases at the same temp and pressure contain the same
number of particles.
V / n = a (constant) where n = no. of moles in the gas

Ideal Gas Law :

PV = nRT where R is The gas Constant (air = 0.287kJ/kgK)

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Example 1 - A sample of gas collected in a 350 cm3 container exerts

a pressure of 103 kPa. What would be the volume of this gas at 150
kPa of pressure? (Assume that the temperature remains constant.)

2) V2 = P1V1
-------
P2
1)P1 = 103 kPa V2 = 103 kPa x 350 cm3
-------------------------
V1= 350 cm3 150 kPa

P2 = 150 kPa V2 = 240.333333 cm3

V2 = ? V2 = 240 cm3
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Example 2. A sample of oxygen gas has a volume of 2.73 cm3 at 21.0

oC. At what temperature would the gas have a volume of 4.00 cm3?

First change the Celsius temperature to Kelvin. T1 = 294 K

K = oC + 273 V1 = 2.73 cm3
K = 21.0 oC + 273 T2 = ?
K = 294 K V2 = 4.00 cm3

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What is Thermodynamics?
thermodynamics studies the
movement of energy and…
… how energy instills movement

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Recall that :
Work Done = Force X Distance Moved
= Force X length
= P X Area X length (since F = P X Area)
But Area X length = change in Volume (V2 - V1)

Therefore Work Done = P (V2 – V1)

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Isothermal

 Isothermal is a process in which the temperature of the

system remains constant during supply of heat.
First law -> ΔQ = dU + ΔW
 Isothermal Compression
dU = 0 and ΔW is negative (work done on system)
ΔQ = -ΔW

 Isothermal Expansion
dU = 0 and ΔW is positive (work done by system)
ΔQ = +ΔW

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Adiabatic

 Process carried out without heat being exchanged or lost.

When gas expands, it becomes cooler
 Adiabatic Expansion – gas pushes piston
 Adiabtic Compression – piston compresses gas
 Can occur quickly in small and fast moving systems or in very
large systems.

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THE FOUR-STROKE
ENGINE

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Constant Volume

 4-1 adiabatic compression, 1-2 constant volume Pressure rises

2-3 adiabatic expansion, 3-4 constant volume Pressure drops
 Work done ON gas = area under curve 4-1
 Work done BY gas = area under curve 2-3
Therefore Net work = BY - ON
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The gas turbine engine

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Constant Pressure Cycle

 1-2 work by turbine into compressor, 2-3 Heat in energy in (fuel)

3-4 work output by turbine, 4-1 Heat out

η = 1 – 1/rp γ-1/ γ where rp = p1/p2 (pressure ratio)

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Heat engines and heat pumps

Heat Engine Heat Pump

Qin – Qout = Work η = W/Qin

Qin = Qout +Work
(Qin > Work) or = 1- (Qout/Qin)

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Refrigeration cycle

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Refrigeration Cycle

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Ideal Properties of of refrigerant

 Non toxic, non corrosive

 Working Pressure > atm
 Enthalpy of vapourization should be high at low temperatures
 Specific volume should be small
 Should not react with lubricant from compressor

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Latent heat and heat of combustion

 LH Fusion LH Evaporation
 Amount of heat required to change a
Amount of heat required to change
state from solid to liquid with no
a state from liquid to vapour with
change in temperature
no change in temperature

 Q = Lf x mass (joules)
Q = Lv x mass (joules)

Heat of Combustion
Energy released as heat when a substance burns in complete combustion with O2

Referred to as “calorific values” nit is Joules/Kilograms

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Home work

Draw a P-V diagram for a gas

turbine engine.

•Label your diagram

•Describe the engine cycle in
relation to your PV diagram

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References

1. Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics General Handbook, U.S. Department of

Transportation, (Federal Aviation Administration, 1970, Revision: 1976).

2. A&P Technician General Textbook, (JEPPESEN Sanderson Training

Products, 1996).

3. Alvin Halpern, Schaum’s 3000 Solved Problems in Physics, (McGraw – Hill

Book Co., 1988).

4. Paul E. Tippens, Basic Technical Physics (Mc Graw – Hill)

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PHYSICS : Matter

Optics (light)

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Nature of light

 Light consists of electromagnetic waves

 Light travels in a straight line
 Light can travel through vacuum and some liquids but not
through solid opaque objects
 Light can be reflected
 Light can be refracted
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Think?

 When it rains, how come your satellite tv broadcast is interrupted? But

you still can watch your normal free TV channels?

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Electromagnetic Spectrum

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Speed of Light

 Travels in vacuum at 3x108m/s

 Obeys the equation c = fλ where λ is wavelength
 Carries energy from one place to another
 Causes rise in temperature on absorption
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Reflection of Light

 Angle of incidence = angle of reflection

 Reflected ray lies in the same plane as the incident
ray
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Concave Mirror

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Concave Mirror

 Object > Centre then Image = small between C and F (1,2)

 Object = Centre then Image = Equal size but Inverted (3)
 Object is between C and F then Image = Large beyond C (4,5)
 Object located at F then NO IMAGE is formed

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Convex Mirror

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Convex Mirror

 Located behind the mirror

 A virtual image
 An upright image
 Image is reduced in size

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Refraction of Light

 Light changes direction when moving

from one medium to another
 The speed of light in vacuum differs
from the speed of light in a medium

Index of refraction n is given as :

n = Speed of light in vacuum

Speed of light in medium

* N for air is very close to 1

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Snell’s Law

n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2

or sinθ1/ sinθ2 = V1/V2

When Light goes from lower index to

higher index, the light bends towards
the normal and vice versa

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Total Internal Reflection

 From snells law

putting in 90o as the
refracted angle we
can obtain the critical
angle :

Sin θc = n1 / n2 (n1>n2)

 For n2>n1 The light will

be totally reflected
(blue line)

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Converging Lenses

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Diverging Lenses

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Lens Equation

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Fiber Optics

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Advantages of Fibre optics

 Immune to
electromagnetic
interference
 High frequency data
transmission
 Better safety (no sparks)
 Lighter than copper
cables
 Galvanic isolation

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Optical Fibre Light Transmission

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Losses in Fibre Optics

 Attenuation
 Atomic Absorption
 Scatter
 Radiation Losses
 Optical Wavelength Losses
 Reflective Loss
 Un-intercepted Loss
 Non-confinement Loss
 Micro-bending Loss

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PHYSICS : Matter

WAVE MOTION AND SOUND

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Mechanical Waves

Lambda

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Mechanical waves

 Sound waves are regions of high and low pressure waves, respectively known
as compression and rarefaction.
 Crest is the maximum vertical displacement above the horizontal line and
trough is the maximum displacement below the horizontal line.
 Amplitude is the distance from the horizontal line to the crest
 Speed is the distance moved by a crest in one second (v=fλ)
 Phase is the section of the wave with the same speed and direction
 Mechanical waves require a medium to transfer energy (Sound, Tsunami)
 Unlike electromagnetic/light waves, mechanical waves CANNOT travel through
vacuum
 Damping occurs when the amplitude of a wave gradually decreases

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Sinusoidal wave motion

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Interference : Constructive and Destructive

Constructive interference Destructive interference

 By adding the amplitudes in the same timeframe (phase) you can get the
new wave output.

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Standing Waves

 Interference with reflected waves causing some point to be still.

 Created with a medium at specific frequencies of vibration
 These specific frequencies are also known as “Harmonic Frequencies”
 Nodes = zero displacement, Antinodes = Maximum displacement
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Sound : Speed and production

 Sound is an energy travelling

through mediums via particle
vibration
 Speed of sound is greater in
solids than liquids
 Speed of sound in air is roughly
343m/s (Sea Level)
 Speed increases when air
temperature rises (Sea level)
The human ear can hear
frequencies between 20
and 20,000 Hertz
Higher frequencies -
Ultrasound
Lower frequencies -
Infrasound
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Sound : Intensity Pitch and Quality

Sound Intensity is the amount

of energy transported through
a medium per unit of time

Or Intensity =
Energy/Time x Area or
Power/Area

High Power indicates high

Amplitudes

A high pitch indicates high

Frequencies

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Sound Doppler Effect

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Doppler Radar

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