Introduction & Power Cables

Ahmed Younis
 CV
Academic and Professional Attainment:

 [Link]. Degree in Electrical Engineering, Mansoura University, Egypt. 1985

 Member in ADDC Commissioning Team

 Member in ADDC Risk Management Committee

 Member in ADDC Technical Evaluation Committee

 Member in ADDC Standards & Specifications Committee

 Technical institutes Instructor

 Many years’ experience in Managing ,Supervising and Commissioning of
mega-projects in power distribution field with scope of works covering
installation, modification, reinforcement, rehabilitation etc.

 I have witnessed many Factory Acceptance Tests (FAT) and Type Test for
Transformers, Switchgears, Cables, Feeder Pillars, and Service Turrets. In
both UAE and abroad.

 I have vast hands on experience in Preventive and corrective maintenance,

condition based maintenance (CBM) of key power system components like
Power Transformers, Distribution Transformers, AIS Switchgear, GIS
Switchgear, DC systems, MV & LV Power Cable (including fault location,
fault analysis, Cable diagnostics (PD Measurements) cable identification,
cable tracing, testing), and LV equipment (feeder pillar, service turret).
 I have hands on experience in design, installation, testing and
commissioning of power supply system for buildings.

 Excellent interpersonal skills, Good organizational and administrative

abilities. Successful project management experience, including negotiating
with suppliers and contractors, direct procurement and budgetary
responsibilities. Team management

 I am well versed with the standard technical specifications followed in the

region and familiar with various international standards related to power
sector.
 Contents
Introduction

 Electricity – Sources, Generation, Transmission

 Apparent, Active & Reactive Power

 RMS, Average and Peak Values, Peak and Form Factors in AC

 Difference Between Single Phase and Three Phase Power Supply

 Difference between Star and Delta Connections – Comparison of Y/Δ

 Types of Electric Power Distribution Systems

Types of Electrical Power
The electrical power can be categorized into two types (DC) & (AC).
 The DC power is supplied by a DC source ‫توفي طاقة التيا رر المستم رر من‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ يتم‬
such as a battery & photovoltaic cell. ‫البطارية‬
‫ر‬ ‫مصد رر تيا رر مستم رر مثل‬
 DC is unidirectional & constant. It is equal to ‫والخلية الكهروضوئية‬
the product of voltage & current. .‫ تيا رر المستم رر أحادي االتجاه وثابت‬
‫ر‬
P=VI ‫وه رو يساوي حاصل رضب الجه رد ر‬
‫ف‬
P = V I .‫التيار‬
‫ر‬‫ر‬ ‫ا‬
‫ر‬ ‫باستم‬ ‫متغي‬
‫ر‬ ‫ر‬
‫ر‬ ‫تيا‬ ‫و‬
‫ر‬ ‫ه‬ ‫د‬
‫ر‬ ‫د‬ ‫ التيا رر ر‬
‫المي‬
 The AC is a continuously changing current
.‫بي قيم الذروة القصوى والدنيا‬ ‫رر‬
between is max & mini peak values.
‫يتغي اتجاه التيا رر بشكل د روري ممرا‬ ‫ر‬ 
 The Current changes its direction periodically ‫ر‬ ‫يقدم فكرة ر‬
‫ف شكل‬ ‫اليد رد والطو رر ر‬
which introduces the idea of frequency & .‫موجة التيا رر والجهد‬
phase in the current & voltage waveform.

 Therefore, the AC Power is further ‫ يتم تصنيف طاقة التيا رر‬،‫لذلك‬ 

‫ر‬
.‫الميد رد إىل ثالثة أنواع من الطاقة‬
categorized in three types of powers.
7
Electricity – Sources, Generation, Transmission, Measurement& Parameters

Therefore, the AC Power is further categorized in three types of powers.

8
Electricity – Sources, Generation, Transmission, Measurement& Parameters
Apparent Power ‫القدرة الظاهرية‬

 this
The is
apparent
the totalPower
powerissupplied
the combination
by the of Active
‫رهار‬Power ‫ & ر‬Reactive‫هذهره‬
‫رالقدرةرالكليةرالتريوف‬ Power 
which is why it is measure in Volt-Ampere or VA. ‫ر‬
source to the circuit, this is the power that ‫ر‬
‫رالقدرةرالت‬ ‫روه‬،‫المصدررللدائرة‬
appears to be dissipated inside the circuit. .‫يبدورأنهارتتبددرداخلرالدائرة‬

 It is denoted by S, & it is given by; ‫ ويتمرإعطاؤهار‬،S‫ويرمزرلهاربـر‬ 

S = Vrms Irms ‫بواسطة؛‬
Where
Vrms = RMS(Root Mean Square Voltage =
Vpeak/√2
Irms = RMS (Root Mean Square) Current =
Ipeak/√2
 The apparent Power is the combination of ‫ القدرةرالظاهريةرهرمزي ــجرمنرالقدرةر‬
Active Power & Reactive Power .‫الفعالةروالقدرةرالغيرفعالة‬
 it is measure in Volt-Ampere or VA. VA.‫يتمرقياسهاربالفولترأمبيرأور‬
9 
Electricity – Sources, Generation, Transmission, Measurement& Parameters
Active or Real Power ‫القدرة الفعالة أو الحقيقية‬
 Is the amount of power dissipated inside ‫ هركميةرالقدرةرالمبددةرداخلر‬
the total resistance of the circuit. .‫المقاومةرالكليةرللدائرة‬

‫ويعي عنهارب‬
‫ر‬ ،P‫ويرمزرلهاربـر‬ 
 It is denoted by P & it is given by;

P = Vrms Irms cosϕ ( Watt)

Where
Vrms = RMS (Root Mean Square) voltage = Vpeak/√2

Irms = RMS (Root Mean Square) Current = Ipeak/√2

ϕ = the phase angle or the phase difference between voltage & current

 It is measured in Watt .
10
Electricity – Sources, Generation, Transmission, Measurement& Parameters

Reactive Power ‫الغي فعالة‬

‫القدرة ر‬
 Is the power that is dissipated in ‫ر‬ ‫ر‬
.‫رالقدرةرالترتتبددرفرمفاعلرالدائرة‬ ‫ ه‬
reactance of the circuit.

 It is wasted inside the wiring of the ‫ر‬

‫ وهرتهدررداخلرأسالكرالدوائررفرشكلر‬
circuits in the form of heat.
.‫حرارة‬
 It is denoted by Q & it is given by; ‫ وتعىطربالمعادلةرالتالية؛‬Q ‫ ويرمزرلهاربـر‬
Q = Vrms Irms sinϕ (VAR)
Where
Vrms = RMS (Root Mean Square) voltage = Vpeak/√2

Irms = RMS (Root Mean Square) Current = Ipeak/√2

ϕ = the phase angle or the phase difference between voltage &

11
 It is measured in Volts-Ampere-Reactive or shortly known as VAR.
Relation between Apparent, Active & Reactive Power
Since the apparent power is the combination of active & reactive power, they
are related to each other. The relation can be explained using the following
equation;
S2 = P 2 + Q 2

Where
S = Apparent Power
P = Real or Active Power
Q = Reactive Power
If the phase angel or the phase difference between Current & Voltage ϕ is
given, then we can also calculated active & reactive power using;

P = S cos ϕ

Q = S sin ϕ
12
RMS, Average and Peak Values, Peak and Form Factors in AC
 In AC, it’s not possible to represent the magnitudes as its amplitude of AC
sine wave continuously changes with time.
 This way, we have multiple options to expressed the magnitude and
different values related to an AC sine wave such as:

o RMS Value

o Average Value

o Instantaneous Value

o Maximum or Peak Value

o Peak to Peak Value

o Peak Factor

o Form Factor
13
RMS, Average and Peak Values, Peak and Form Factors in AC
What is RMS (Root Mean Square) Value? ‫اليبيعر المتوسط‬ ‫مرا هر قيمة الجذ رر ر‬
The RMS (Root Mean Square) value (also (RMS) ‫اليبيعر المتوسط‬ ‫قيمة الجذ رر ر‬
‫أيضرا بالقيمة الفعالة للتيا رر ر‬ ً
known as effective value of an (AC) is the ‫الميد رد‬ ‫المعروفة‬
value of (DC) when flowing through a circuit ‫ي دائرة‬‫هر قيمة التيا رر المستم رر عن رد تدفقه ع ر‬
or resistor for the specific time period and ‫لفية زمنية محددة وتنتج نفس‬ ‫أ رو مقاومة ر‬
produces same amount of heat which ‫الت ينتجهرا التيا رر ر ر‬
‫الميد رد عن رد‬ ‫كمية الحرارة ر ر‬
produced by the (AC) when flowing through ‫عي نفس الدائرة أ رو المقاومة لنفس‬ ‫تدفقه ر‬
the same circuit or resistor for a specific time. ‫ر‬
.‫الفية الزمنية‬

14
Keep in mind that the multi-meters always showing the RMS values (of current and voltage).
RMS, Average and Peak Values, Peak and Form Factors in AC
What is Average Value ‫ه القيمة المتوسطة‬
‫ما ي‬
 If we convert the (AC) sine wave into ‫ إذارقمناربتحويلرالموجةرالجيبيةر(التيارر‬
direct current (DC) sine wave through ‫الميدد) إىلرموجةرجيبيةرتياررمستمرر‬ ‫ر‬
rectifiers, then the converted value to ‫رفإنرالقيمةر‬،‫منرخاللرمقومات‬DC) (
ُ
the DC is known as the average value of ‫عرفر‬‫المحولةرإىلرالتياررالمستمررت ر‬
that AC sine wave. ‫بالقيمةرالمتوسطةرلموجةرالجيبيةر‬
‫ر‬
.‫الميددة‬
 If the maximum value of alternating ‫ إذا كانت القيمة القصوى للتيار المتناوب‬
current is “IMAX“, then the value of ‫ فإن قيمة التيار المستمر‬،“IMAX“, ‫هي‬
converted DC current through rectifier “0.637 ‫المحول عبر المقوم ستكون‬
‫والتي تعرف بالقيمة المتوسطة‬IM”
would be “0.637 IM” which is known
IAV ‫للموجة الجيبية للتيار المتناوب‬
as average value of the AC Sine wave (IAV).

Average Value of Current = IAV = 0.637 IM

Average Value of Voltage = EAV = 0.637 EM 15

RMS, Average and Peak Values, Peak and Form Factors in AC
What is Peak / Maximum Voltage Value? ‫ما هو قيمة الجهد األقىص؟‬
 is the maximum value of alternating ‫ القيمة القصوى للتيار المتناوب أو‬
current or voltage from the “0” position ‫" بغض النظر‬0" ‫الجهد من موضع‬
no matter positive or negative half cycle in ‫عن نصف الدورة الموجبة أو السالبة‬
a sinusoidal wave .‫في الموجة الجيبية‬
 Its expressed as ‫ يتم التعبير عنها بـ‬
IM and EM or VP and IM. IM and EM or VP and IM

16
Difference Between Single Phase and Three Phase Power Supply
Three Phase Power Supply

 Three phase power supply ‫ يحتويرمصدررالطاقةرثالثرالطوررعىل ثالثةر‬

contains three voltages that are ‫فولتاترمنفصلةرعنربعضهارالبعضربمقدارر‬
120° apart individual sinusoidal ‫درجةرمنرأشكالرالموجةرالجيبيةر‬17120
waveforms. .‫الفردية‬
Difference Between Single Phase and Three Phase Power Supply
Key Advantages of 3 Phases System ‫ مقارنة بنظام‬Φ -3 ‫المزايا الرئيسية لنظام‬
over a 1-Φ System Φ-1
 To transmit a specific power over a ‫ لنقل طاقة محددة على مسافة محددة‬
specific distance at a given rated ‫ يحتاج النظام‬،‫عند جهد مقنن معين‬
voltage, a three phase system needs less ‫ثالثي الطور إلى مادة موصلة أقل‬
conductor material as compared to the .‫مقارنة بالنظام أحادي الطور‬
single phase system.

 The size of a three phase system ‫ حجم اآللة التي تعمل بنظام ثالثي‬
operated machine is less than the ‫الطور أقل من اآللة التي تعمل بجهد‬
machine operated at single phase .‫طور واحد لها نفس القدرة‬
voltage having the same output rating.

 less voltage drop ‫ أقل انخفاض في الجهد‬

 The efficiency of three phase operated ‫ كفاءة األجهزة التي تعمل بثالث‬
devices is higher ‫مراحل أعلى‬
18
Difference Between Single Phase and Three Phase Power Supply
 Three phase machines are less costly ‫ تعتيراآلالترثالثيةرالطوررأقلرتكلفة‬

 A single phase supply can be obtained ‫ يمكن الحصول على مصدر طاقة أحادي‬
from three phase supply ‫الطور من مصدر طاقة ثالثي الطور‬
.‫لتشغيل اآلالت أحادية الطور‬

 can transmit more power as ‫ يمكن أن ينقل المزيد من الطاقة مقارنة‬

compared to a single phase system. .‫بنظام أحادي الطور‬

 If a fault occurs on a single phase line, ‫ في حالة حدوث عطل في خط أحادي‬

the whole system will have to shut .‫ يجب إيقاف تشغيل النظام بأكمله‬،‫الطور‬
down. In case of three phase single ‫في حالة حدوث عطل في خط أحادي‬
line fault, the other two lines provide ‫ يوفر الخطان‬،‫الطور ثالثي الطور‬
the power supply to other single ‫اآلخران إمداد الطاقة لنقاط التحميل أحادية‬
phase load points connected to them. .‫الطور األخرى المتصلة بهما‬
19
Difference between Star and Delta Connections – Comparison of Y/Δ

What is Delta Connection (Δ)? ‫(؟‬Δ) ‫ما هو توصيل دلتا‬

 Delta or Mesh Connection )Δ( System is Δ( ( ‫ ُيعرف نظام دلترا أ رو نظام الشبكة‬
ً
also known as Three Phase Three Wire ‫أيضرا باسم نظام ثالثر الطو رر روثالثر‬
System and it is the most preferred ‫األسالك وه رو النظام المفضل لنقل‬
system for AC power transmission while ‫الطاقة ر‬
،‫ أمرا بالنسبة للتوزي ــع‬،‫الميددة‬
for distribution, Star connection is used. .‫فيتم استخدام نظام النجمة‬
20
Difference between Star and Delta Connections – Comparison of Y/Δ

Voltage, Current and Power Values in Delta Connection (Δ)

Voltage
VRY = VYB = VBR = VL …………… )Line Voltage(
VL = VPH
I.e. in Delta connection, the Line Voltage is equal to the Phase Voltage.
21
Difference between Star and Delta Connections – Comparison of Y/Δ

Current
IR = IY = IB = IPH …. The phase currents
IL= √3 IPH
i.e. In Delta Connection, The Line current is √3 times of Phase Current.

Power
Total Power = P = 3 x VPH x IPH x CosФ
P = √3 x VLx IL x CosФ

Remember:
In both Star and Delta Connections, the total power on balanced load is same.
I.e. total power in a Three Phase System = P = √3 x VL x IL x CosФ

22
Difference between Star and Delta Connections – Comparison of Y/Δ

What is Star Connection (Y)? ‫(؟‬Y) ‫ما هو توصيل النجمة‬

ً
 Star Connection (Y) System is also known as ‫(أيضارباسم‬Y) ‫ ُيعرفرنظامرالنجمة‬
Three Phase Four Wire .it is the most .‫نظامرثالثرالطورربأربعةرأسالك‬
preferred system for AC power distribution ‫وهورالنظامرالمفضلرلتوزي ــعر‬
while for transmission, Delta connection is ‫ر‬
‫الطاقةرالميددة‬
23
generally used.
Difference between Star and Delta Connections – Comparison of Y/Δ

Voltage
VR = VY = VB = VPH
VRY = VYB = VBR is line voltages (VL( = √3 VPH

Current
IR = IY = IB = IPH …. The phase current
Line Current = Phase Current
IL = IPH

Power
P = 3 x VPH x IPH x CosФ or
P = √3 x VL x IL x CosФ

24
 ‫ر‬
 In most cases, power plants are placed ‫ريتمروضعرمحطات‬،‫ فرأغلبراألحوال‬
ً
far from the load centers. Hence, the .‫توليدرالطاقةربعيدارعنرمراكزرا رألحمال‬
transmission line is used to transmit ‫ريتمراستخدامرخطوطرالنقلر‬،‫وبالتاىل‬
power over a long distance. .‫لنقلرالطاقةرلمسافاترطويلة‬
 To reduce the transmission losses, high ‫ريتمراستخدام الجهدر‬،‫لتقليلرخسائررالنقل‬
‫ر‬
voltage is used in a transmission line. ‫رويتمرخفضرمستوىر‬،‫العاىلرفرخطرالنقل‬
‫ر‬
And voltage level is reduced at the load .‫الجهدرفرمركزرالحمل‬
25
center.
Electric Power System – Generation, Transmission & Distribution

power system from generation to load point is done in five detailed stages
namely

1. Generating Station

2. Primary Transmission

3. Secondary Transmission

4. Primary Distribution

5. Secondary Distribution
26
Electric Power System – Generation, Transmission & Distribution

27
Types of Electric Power Distribution Systems

The distribution system is classified as below;

1) According to the nature of the supply

- AC Distribution system
- DC Distribution system

2) According to a type of connection

- Radial system
- Ring system

3) According to a type of construction

- Overhead system
- Underground system

28
Why Does AC Voltage Require More Insulation than DC Voltage for the Same
Working Voltage Level?
For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the insulation is lower in
a DC system than in an AC system. Therefore, a DC line requires less
insulation.

the maximum value (peak value) of 230 voltage DC is 230V

the peak value of 230V AC = 325V AC peak (calculated as 230V ÷ 0.707 or
230V × 1.414, which equals 325V AC peak.

This means that 230V DC is equivalent to 325V AC peak. This is why AC

voltage needs more insulation than DC voltage for the same rating of voltage
and power. 30
Why are Overhead Conductor Positions Exchanged in a Transposition Tower?
 Electrical energy is transmitted in high-voltage three-phase lines without a
neutral (3 conductors).
 Over long distances, these lines develop reactance, both inductive and
capacitive, between each other and between the conductors and the
ground. To counteract the effects of these reactance, transpositions are
made, which involve reversing the positions of the phases.
 Transposition towers are typically used for this purpose.

31
Why is the Ground Wire Above the Phase Lines in the Overhead Line?
The ground wire (also known as earth wire or OPGW) above the phase lines in
overhead transmission lines primarily serves as a protective and safety
measure, providing lightning protection, ground fault protection, and helping
to prevent disruptions to the electrical system.

 Lightning Protection
 Ground Fault Protection
 Protecting Against Wildlife Contact
 Visual Marker
Remember: Ground wire above
the overhead power lines
serves as a communication cable
known as Optical Ground Wire
(OPGW). The optical fiber composite overhead grounding wire is used for
both communications and grounding purposes.
32
What is an Isolation Transformer?
 is a transformer that is used to transfer isolated AC electrical power to a
device or equipment for safety, protection or to reduce the harmonics and
transient voltage surges.
 It provides isolation between the powered device and power source
based on the Galvanic isolation where there is no conductive path
between the power source and powered device Hence, it protects devices
from electric shock and reduces electrical noise in sensitive devices.
 Generally, an isolation transformer does not use to change the value of
electrical quantities. Therefore, in most cases, the turn ratio of an isolation
transformer is one.
 The isolation transformer is used to protect
sensitive devices such as; computers,
laboratory instruments, and medical devices.

33
Why 3-Phase Power? Why Not 6, 12 or More for Power Transmission?

34
Why 3-Phase Power? Why Not 6, 12 or More for Power Transmission?
 The reason is simple. The least number among all of them is 3 which
means we will be needing the least number conductor (3 in three phase as
compared to 12 wires in a 12-phase system) while the overcome is almost
the same.
 Also, the configuration of phase angle of 120 degrees between all phases in
three phase system cancel out and eliminate the third-harmonic and its
multiples, if we opt out for 6, 9, 12 or more phases will only lead to extra
cost of the materials, complex design and additional maintenances’ of the
transmission & distribution lines as well as related switchgears and
protective equipment.
 Not only the conductors, in polyphase systems (like, 6, 9 or 12) we will
redesign the overall systems (which leads to more complex systems) like
each of 12 conductors, bus bars, circuit breakers, power & distribution
T/F, current (CT) and potential transformers etc. and increase in height of
transmission towers, the space occupied by power and substation.
 That’s why we are restricting it to the three phase system instead of any
other phase system. 35
Why are Stones and Gravel used in Switchyard?

 The main reason to lay gravel in the substation yard is to reduce Step
Voltage and Touch Voltage

 No grass as and tiny plants grow which makes troubles in case of rain and
humidity. In addition, the dry grass may catch fire

 Provides protection against the entry of wildlife animals and snakes,

lizards, rats etc.

36
Electrical Cables

Voltage Levels in Cables

A three-level network is required in order to transmit the energy from

power stations to the consumers :

 Transmission system (Power stations to load centers Ex: 110 kV)

 Main distribution system (Medium voltage networks Ex: 11-33 kV)

 Sub-distribution system (Low voltage)

38
Classification of Electrical Cables

As per rated voltage

1. Low-tension (L.T.) cables — up to 1000 V

2. High-tension (H.T.) cables — up to 11,000 V

3. Super-tension (S.T.) cables — from 22 kV to 33 kV

4. Extra high-tension (E.H.T.) cables — from 33 kV to 66 kV

5. Extra super voltage cables — beyond 132 kV

Types of insulation materials

The insulating materials which are commonly used in cables are:

 Oil-impregnated paper

 Vulcanized India rubber (V.I.R)

 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

 Ethylene Propylene Rubber (EPR )

 Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE)

 Polyethylene (PE) For outer sheath

40
Conductor
• Carries the load current.

Conductor screen
• Ensures smooth and void free interface with insulation

Insulation

• Prevents the flow of electricity from the energized conductors to the

ground or an adjacent conductor

• Withstands the electrical stresses produced by the alternating voltage

• Withstands superimposed transient voltage stress on the conductor

without dielectric failure causing a short circuit
43
Insulation screen

• Ensures that the electrical field is confined within the insulation

• Strippable type and bonded type.

Copper Screen

• Keeps the insulation screen at Earth potential.

• Carries the charging current.

• Carries the part of short circuit current

Filler

• Fills gaps between cores

44
• Rounds up the cable
Binder Tape

• Binds the cores & filler together and separates the cores from the next
layer
Lead Sheath

• Protects the cable against water & hydrocarbons

• Serves as a path for earth fault currents.

Bedding

• Serves as a cushion for the armour

• Extruded bedding protects ingress of water

45
Armour

• Protects against mechanical stresses

• Carries the part of Earth Fault current

- Steel Tape Armour (STA)
- Galvanized Steel Wire (GSW)
- (SWA) Steel Wire Armour
Over sheath
• Protects against external impact or pressure
• Protects against corrosion
• Protects from water ingress
- PVC
- PE
46
Conducting Coating on the outer sheath
• Enables to check sheath integrity
- Graphite coating
- Extruded semi-conducting layer (For HV cables)

47
Conductor materials

 Copper is the material of choice internationally,

 Whereas Aluminum is also widely used.
 Copper clearly scores over aluminum for various reason.
 Copper’s specific resistance is approximately 60% of that of Aluminum’s.
 Copper also has about three times the tensile strength of aluminum.

Property Copper Aluminum

Density in g/cm3 8.89 2.70

Specific Resistance in Ω mm2/m 17.24 ∙ 10-3 28.26 ∙ 10-3

Tensile strength in N/mm2 200…300 70…90

50
Cable Installation & Ampacity

De-Rating Factors of Power Cable

 Soil thermal resistivity

 Grouping factor (Spacing between cables )

 Depth of cable

 Soil temperature

51
Cable Installation & Ampacity

Soil Thermal Resistivity

Soil thermal resistivity in °C m/W

Size of cables mm2 0.8 0.9 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Up to 150 1.16 1.12 1.07 0.91 0.81 0.73 0.66

Single core cables

From 185 to 300 1.17 1.12 1.07 0.91 0.8 0.73 0.66

From 400 to 1000 1.17 1.12 1.07 0.91 0.8 0.73 0.66

Up to 16 1.12 1.08 1.05 0.93 0.84 0.77 0.72

Multi core cables

From 25 to 150 1.14 1.1 1.06 0.92 0.82 0.75 0.69

From 185 to 500 1.15 1.1 1.07 0.92 0.81 0.74 0.67
52
Cable Installation & Ampacity

Grouping Factor

Touching (0.00)
No of cables 0.15 m 0.30 m 0.45 m 0.60 m
m

2 0.81 0.87 0.91 0.93 0.95

3 0.7 0.78 0.84 0.88 0.9

600/1000 volt cables 4 0.63 0.74 0.81 0.86 0.89

5 0.59 0.7 0.78 0.84 0.87

6 0.55 0.68 0.77 0.83 0.87

53
Cable Installation & Ampacity
Depth of Cable
600/1000 Volt

Depth of laying (M) Up to 50mm2 70mm2 to 300mm2 Above 300mm2

0.5 1 1 1

0.6 0.99 0.98 0.97

0.8 0.97 0.96 0.94

1 0.95 0.93 0.92

1.25 0.94 0.92 0.89

1.5 0.93 0.9 0.87

1.75 0.92 0.89 0.86

2 0.91 0.88 0.85

2.5 0.9 0.87 0.84

54
3.00 or more 0.89 0.85 0.82
Cable Installation & Ampacity
Soil Temperature

Rating factor for ground temperature

Ground temperature °C 15 °C 20 °C 25 °C 30 °C 35 °C 40 °C 45 °C

Rating factor 1.0 0.97 0.93 0.89 0.86 0.82 0.76

Final = Temperature X Soil thermal X Depth X grouping

factor factor resistivity factor factor factor

55
Cable Installation & Ampacity
The following are the current carrying capacities after de-rating for a ground
temperature of 40 deg. C ,soil thermal resistivity of 300 °C/cm/W , 4 cables &
60 cm depth .
Number of cables in group
4
(DUCAB cables) 0.15 m 0.3 m
Size current
capacity
Capacity/Amps Capacity/Amps
without
derating/Amps Final Factor Final Factor
16 115 0.433 50 0.473 54
25 150 0.415 62 0.454 68
35 180 0.415 75 0.454 82
50 215 0.415 89 0.454 98
70 265 0.410 109 0.449 119
95 315 0.410 129 0.449 141
120 360 0.410 148 0.449 162
150 405 0.410 166 0.449 182
185 460 0.398 183 0.436 201
240 530 0.398 211 0.436 231
56
300 590 0.398 235 0.436 257
Cable Installation & Ampacity
Cable Laying

57
Cable Installation & Ampacity

58
Cable Installation & Ampacity

59
Cable Installation & Ampacity

60
Cable Installation & Ampacity

61
Cable Installation & Ampacity

Cable bending radii are recommended as follows:

Single core unarmoured 20D

Single core armoured 15D
Three core unarmoured 15D
Three core armoured 12D
D is overall cable

Cable pulling forces

A x 50 Newton's for copper
A x 30 Newton's for aluminum.

A is conductor cross section area in mm2 62

MV Cable Testing

63
MV Cable Testing

International/National Standards

 Type Test

 Routine Test

 Factory Acceptance Test ( FAT )

 After installation Tests ( Site Acceptance Test )

64
MV Cable Testing

Routine Test

Routine tests are carried out on each length Routine tests are :

 Measurement of the electrical resistance of the conductor

 Partial discharge test

 High voltage test (3.5 Uo for 5 Min)

65
MV Cable Testing

Factory Acceptance Test (FAT)

 Conductor examination

 Check of dimensions

 Voltage test for 4 h(4 u0 )

 Partial discharge test

 hot set test

66
MV Cable Testing
Site Acceptance Test (SAT)

 Phase identification check & Continuity test

 DC conductor resistance test

 Insulation resistance measurement before and after HV test

 VLF AC high voltage test 3 Uo /30 min. or 15 min

 DC sheath test (10 kV/1 minute) between metallic sheath/

screen/armouring
67
MV Cable Testing

 Insulation resistance measurement before and after HV test

 The phasing of the circuit shall be confirmed before measurement of

insulation resistance.

 Before and after the High Voltage Test the insulation resistance of the
whole cable circuit per phase shall be measured.

 Before starting the measurement make sure that the test circuit is
prepared correctly as shown below:

 Before switching on, make sure that no one can get within reach of parts
of the cable system where the high voltage is applied. Put up warning
tapes and/or signs, which state the situation. Also station someone at the
other cable end.
68
MV Cable Testing

69
MV Cable Testing
 VLF AC high voltage test

 An AC over-voltage VLF equal to 3xU0 shall be applied between the

conductor and the metallic screen/sheath for 30 min.

 Phases other than the one to be tested shall be grounded at both sides.

 Test is conducted by a competent person

 No personnel shall be permitted to work in the vicinity of the cable during

test.

70
 After testing the cable shall be completely discharged and earthed
MV Cable Testing

Test Circuit

71
MV Cable Testing

 DC sheath test

 The DC cable sheath test shall be carried out at various times during
installation and jointing works.

 A final witnessed test shall be performed at the time of commissioning. A

10 kV DC voltage shall be applied for 1 min to the metallic cable sheath and
any current leakage shall be recorded.

72
MV Cable Testing

73
 ‫‪.‬‬

‫توقف عن اختبار التيار المستمر‬

‫‪QUIT DC test‬‬

‫‪74‬‬
IEC 60502

75
Assessment 1

76
 Q1

State De-rating factors of underground cable

77
 Ans. 1

 Soil thermal resistivity

 Grouping factor (Spacing between cables )

 Depth of cable

 Soil temperature
78
 Q2
Power Cable is

A. Thermal element

B. Capacitance

C. Both A & B

D. Not A nor B

79
 Ans. 2

Both A & B

80
 Q3
Which of the following is not an Insulation material?

A. XLBE
B. PVC
C. PE
D. VIR

81
Ans. 3

PE

82
 Q4

The insulation thickness of Power cables depends upon

A. Reactive Power

B. Voltage

C. Power Factor

D. Current carrying capacity

83
 Ans. 4

Voltage

84
 Q. 5

In a cable, the maximum stress under operating conditions is at

A. Insulation layer

B. Sheath

C. Armour

D. Conductor surface

85
 Ans. 5

Conductor surface

86
 Q. 7

Copper Screen

A. Keeps the insulation screen at Earth potential.

B. Carries the charging current.

C. Carries the part of short circuit current

D. All the above

87
 Ans. 7

All the above

88
 Q. 8

Sample Test/( FAT)

A. carried out on each length

B. used as basis for a new development for cable manufacturers

C. carried out on 10 % from ordered QTY

D. None of the above

89
 Ans. 8

Carried out on 10 % from ordered QTY

90
 Q. 9

The applied voltage during VLF HV test is

A. 1.73 U0

B. 2 U0

C. 3 U0

D. 4 U0

91
Ans. 9

3 U0

92
Joints & Terminations Theory

93
Jointing & Termination Systems

94
Jointing & Termination Systems

 Cast Resin system

 Taped system

 Heat shrinkable system

 Premoulded system

 Cold shrinkable system

95
Type of Joints

 Straight-through joints 3- to 3-core

 Straight-through joints 3- to 1-core

 Transition joint 3- to 3-core for

 Transition joints 3- to 1-core cable

 TEE Straight-through joints

 TEE Transition joint

96
Terminations

 Designed to ease the installation of cables.

 Classified into three categories

o Indoor Termination

o Outdoor Termination

 GIS Terminations /Plug-In Terminations

97
Cable fault location

98
Methods of Fault Location

Method Fault Characteristics

Impulse Reflection Method TDR Low resistance faults , cable cuts

Multiple Impulse Method SIM/MIM High resistance faults, intermitten faults

(~ 80-90% of all faults)

Impulse Current Method ICM High resistance faults, intermittent faults

(long cables)

Decay Method
(Breakdown voltage higher than 32 kV) Intermittent faults

Burn Down Techniques High faults, intermittent faults

Modification of fault characteristic
(e.g. influence of water in joints)

99
 Types of faults

L1
L2
L3

Sheath
Ground

Resistive Faults

 core – core

 core – Earth

 Breaks in core 100

Steps of Fault Locating

no
fault Objective:
You identify cable defects
and types of faults
TESTING (e.g. damage of insulation or
faulty joints
fault
identified

Objective:
You determine
PRELOCATION the distance to the fault

101
 Objective:
You determine the cable path
TRACE LOCATION and depth.

Objective:
You pinpoint the location
PINPOINTING of the cable fault.

CABLE
IDENTIFICATION
Objective:
You select the
target cable.
?

102
Methods and Instruments

Task Methods Instruments

Insulation resistance Megger
Voltage Testing VLF-system
DC-voltage tester
TESTING AC-voltage tester
Reflection measurement Reflectometer (TDR) also with
PC-database
Arc Reflection Measure- Surge generator
PRELOCATION ment (ARM ) Power seperation filter

Arc burning Burn instrument

Power separation filter
Decay-method HV DC-test instrument
capacitive voltage coupler
Impulse current method Surge generator
inductive current coupler

103
 Task Methods Instruments
Null (Minimum)-method Cable and line locator
Peak (Maximum)-methode
SuperMax, SignalSelect
CABLE TRACING

Accoustic method Surge generator

Distance method Mains surge switch
Digiphone

PINPOINTING

Audio frequency method Cable locator

Minimum turbidity method

Intensity test Cable identification set

Polarity test

CABLE IDENTIFICATION

104
Basics of reflection technology
Principles of the reflection technology

L1
L2
L3

Schirm
RF = 0 Ohm

 The reflectometer works on the same principle as a radar unit. The

pulse travels down the cable.
 The pulse is reflected on each changing of the Impedance and
travels back to the reflectometer.
 The reflectometer then converts this time to distance.
Propagation Time and Distance

L1
L2
L3

v v Propagation velocity of
l = · tx the electric impulse
x 2 tx Propagation time of the impulse
to the end of the conductor and back
v half of lx Length of conductor
propagation velocity
2
propagation velocity v/2 for different types of cables

108
Propagation Time and Distance

distance

m m

m/µs
m/µs

v/2
Prelocation – Reflection measurement

Short Zx = 0
Prelocation – Reflection measurement

Open Circuit /end Zx = 

Typical Reflection Images (idealised and measured)

Cable without fault

RF Parallel resistance

RF Short circuit

RF Series resistance

Break / Interruption

Joint / Splice
Typical Reflection Images (measured)

m m m/µs
Prelocation
Low-Voltage TDR

 A low-voltage TDR is an appropriate method to localize faults and

other impedance changes on electrical cable.

 Low voltage, high-frequency output pulses are transmitted into and

travel between two conductors of the cable. When the cable
impedance changes, some or all of transmitted energy is reflected
back to the TDR where it is displayed.

 Impedance changes are caused by a variety of disturbances on the

cable including low resistance faults and landmarks such as the
114
cable end, splices.
Low-Voltage TDR

TDR used to measure length of cable with far end open 115
TDR used to measure length of cable with far end shorted 116
TDR measuring distance to a low-resistance fault to ground
117
TDR used to measure distance to open in conductor
118
TDR used to localize distance to a splice
119
Arc Reflection Method
 This method is often referred to as a high
voltage radar technique that overcomes
the 200 Ω limitation of low-voltage radar.

 In addition to the TDR, an arc reflection

filter and surge generator is required.
The surge generator is used to create an
arc across the shunt fault which creates a
momentary short circuit that the TDR can
display as a downward-going reflection.
Arc reflection method
 The filter protects the TDR from the high of high-voltage radar
voltage pulse generated by the surge
generator and routes the low voltage
pulses down the cable.

120
121
Arc Reflection Measurement

Without arc

With arc

TDR

Faulty cable
SWG

Filter
Reflectometer Figure Active ARM Measurement
Multiple Impulse Method SIM/MIM
 The Multiple Impulse Method is the most advanced cable fault
prelocation method available.

 Every cable fault that is either a high resistive or intermittent fault can not
be indicated by means of the TDR method.

 The low voltage impulse sent out by TDR is not reflected at the faulty
position, as the fault impedance is not significantly lower.

 Based on this fact, the Multiple Impulse Method is supported by a single

high voltage impulse that is generated by the coupled surge generator.

 Like this it is possible to change the high resistive fault temporarily into a
short circuit (flash over, temporary low resistive fault condition) and
therefore can be detected by a second TDR impulse (SIM) or multiple
secondary Impulses (MIM).
124
Multiple Impulse Method SIM/MIM

 The low voltage TDR impulse is coupled to the high voltage output of the
surge generator via the coupling unit SA32.

 For many years, the Secondary Impulse Method was considered to be the
most advanced method.

 Problems were figured out, as faults with difficult characteristic had to be

located. Those influences like water in a joint

125
Multiple Impulse Method SIM/MIM

126
Impulse Current Method (ICM)
Used for Distant cable

 The previously methods based on a TDR impulse are in general affected by

either damping of the signal in very long cables or by part reflections at
joints along the cable. therefore can not be applied successfully.

 To cover the application of cable fault prelocation under such conditions,

the Impulse Current Method (ICM) can be applied. Basically a surge
generator releases a HV impulse that is flashing over at the faulty location.
This discharge causes a transient current wave travelling along the cable
sheath between the surge generator and the flashover point.

 The repetition interval of this pulse is determined as the faulty distance.

 As a coupling unit, an inductive coupler is connected to the sheath of the

SSG output cable. The TDR are operated with automatic adjustment of all
settings and lead to proper recordings. As the pulse width of the transient
current pulse is very wide, 127
 Impulse Current Method (ICM)

 The accuracy of the ICM method is very high in long cables. In short cables
the transient pulses are influencing each other.

 The Impulse Current Method is detecting the current impulse traveling

along the cable sheath during flash over.

 The sequence of the current impulse is measured via the inductive

coupling unit .

 Every impulse is reflected at the end or fault with the reflection factor
depending on the resistance at this point related to earth.

 Every change in current direction of the reflected impulse is detected via

the inductive coupling unit.

 As shown below, the first impulse reflection is influenced by the ignition

delay time of the flashing fault 128
Impulse Current Method (ICM)

 For distance determination, the distances between the 2nd to 3rd or 3rd
to 4th impulse shall be considered.

 By means of the known impulse velocity v/2 of the individual testing

cable and the periodical time of the reflected wave, the faulty distance is
calculated by the IRG.

 The distance to the faulty point can be measured by setting the cursers
according to the regularity of the positive wave peaks in the picture. In
practical measurements the voltage is increased so that a breakdown is
created.

 The discharging impulse is then traveling between the arcing spot and the
surge generator until it is discharged to ground

129
Impulse Current Method (ICM)

130
Pinpointing
Pinpointing In Power Cables - Overview

Cable Location

R < 100 R > 100

Audio Frequency no Acoustic

twist, minimal turbidity acoustical field, distance

Repair

Cable test
Acoustic Detection
The most commonly used prelocation methods such as arc reflection or
current impulse will get reasonably close to the fault, but are not
accurate enough to define the exact fault location. Before digging, in
order to repair the faulted cable, some type of pinpointing technique
must be used.

‫إن طرق التحديد المسبق األكثر استخدا ًما مثل انعكاس القوس أو النبض الحالي سوف تقترب بشكل‬
‫ ومن أجل إصالح‬،‫ قبل الحفر‬.‫ ولكنها ليست دقيقة بما يكفي لتحديد موقع الخطأ الدقيق‬،‫معقول من الخطأ‬
.‫ يجب استخدام نوع ما من تقنيات التحديد‬،‫الكابل المعطل‬

The classical methods is sound produced by discharge of energy at

the fault created by a surge generator. A simple and well-used method
is the fault-locator-ear-on-the-ground-butt-in-the-air technique.

.‫الطرق الكالسيكية هي الصوت الناتج عن تفريغ الطاقة عند الصدع الناتج عن مولد التيار المفاجئ‬
‫ عن طريق األذن على‬،‫إحدى الطرق البسيطة والمستخدمة بشكل جيد هي تقنية تحديد موقع الخطأ‬
‫في الهواء‬133،‫األرض‬
Under some conditions such as after a rain or fault resistance is very
low and no discharge at fault point ,Slightly more sophisticated
equipment uses an acoustic pickup or microphone placed on the
ground, an electronic amplifier, and a set of headphones. This setup
amplifies the sound and helps on the source the fault.
‫ مثل بعد هطول أمطار أو مقاومة األعطال منخفضة جدًا وعدم وجود تفريغ عند‬،‫في بعض الظروف‬
،‫عا على األرض‬ ً ‫قليال الق‬
ً ‫طا صوتيًا أو ميكروفونًا موضو‬ ً ‫تطورا‬
ً ‫ تستخدم المعدات األكثر‬،‫نقطة الخطأ‬
‫ يعمل هذا اإلعداد على تضخيم الصوت ويساعد‬.‫ ومجموعة من سماعات الرأس‬،‫ومضخ ًما إلكترونيًا‬
.‫على تحديد مصدر الخطأ‬

134
Acoustic surge detection
Electromagnetic Surge Detection
An alternate technique is the use of an electromagnetic impulse
detector. The discharge from a surge generator creates a current
impulse that travels down the cable through the fault and back to the
capacitor of the surge generator. Using the proper antenna or surface
coil and an amplifier, the magnetic field created by this current impulse
can be detected and measured while walking above the cable.
‫ يؤدي التفريغ من مولد التيار المفاجئ‬.‫األسلوب البديل هو استخدام كاشف النبضات الكهرومغناطيسية‬
‫ باستخدام‬.‫إلى إنشاء دفعة تيار تنتقل عبر الكابل عبر الخطأ وتعود إلى مكثف مولد التيار المفاجئ‬
‫ يمكن اكتشاف وقياس المجال المغناطيسي الناتج‬،‫الهوائي المناسب أو الملف السطحي ومكبر الصوت‬
.‫عن هذا الدافع الحالي أثناء المشي فوق الكابل‬
As the fault location is approached, the intensity of the magnetic field
will generally increase and after passing the fault the magnitude falls
off fairly rapidly. This increase and then rapid decrease can sometimes
be used to pinpoint an underground fault accurately enough to dig.
‫ وبعد تجاوز الصدع ينخفض‬،‫ تزداد شدة المجال المغناطيسي بشكل عام‬،‫ومع اقتراب موقع الصدع‬
‫ يمكن أحيانًا استخدام هذه الزيادة ومن ثم النقصان السريع لتحديد الصدع‬.‫حجمه بسرعة إلى حد ما‬
135
.‫تحت األرض بدقة كافية للحفر‬
‫‪This method may be the only hope if the fault is very low resistance and‬‬
‫‪the surge generator is producing little or no sound at the fault.‬‬
‫قد تكون هذه الطريقة هي األمل الوحيد إذا كان العيب ذو مقاومة منخفضة للغاية وكان مولد التيار‬
‫المتدفق يصدر صوتًا ً‬
‫قليال أو ال يصدر صوتًا على اإلطالق عند العطل‪.‬‬

‫‪136‬‬
Acoustic/electromagnetic pinpointing
The Surge Detector usually combines both electromagnetic and
acoustic ‫يجمع جهاز واحد عادة ً بين الكهرومغناطيسية والصوتي‬
the receiver detects the magnetic field produced by the current impulse
and displays its magnitude on a bar graph display every time the
thumper discharges.
‫يكتشف جهاز االستقبال المجال المغناطيسي الناتج عن النبض ويعرض قيمته على الرسم البياني في كل‬
.‫مرة يتم فيها التتفريغ‬

The indicated magnitude of the impulse will decrease if the fault has
been passed or if the receiver is no longer over the cable route. After
detecting an impulse, an acoustic pickup placed on the ground listens
for a thump as a result of the discharge.

‫سينخفض حجم النبضة المشار إليه إذا تم تجاوز مكان الخطأ أو إذا لم يعد جهاز االستقبال موجودًا فوق‬
‫ يتم وضع جهاز التقاط صوتي على األرض لالستماع إلى صوت‬،‫ بعد اكتشاف النبض‬.‫مسار الكابل‬
.‫ارتطام نتيجة التفريغ‬
137
Acoustic/electromagnetic pinpointing

138
Surge Wave Generator Set-Up

Connect to cable with metal sheath

AF

CS
EF

CS .... Surge Capacitor

AF .... Operating Spark Gap
EF .... Earthing Spark Gap
Location by Loudness of the Breakdown Noise

SWG
Principle: Time Measurement (magnetic / acoustic)

to ... activated by an
electromagn. wave
tx ... accoustic signal closes
time window
tx minimum above the fault !
SWG
 The Five Safety Rules
 Disconnect the test object

 Protect it against reclosure

 Check the absence of voltage

 Connect it to earth and short-circuit it

 Cover all neighbouring parts carrying voltage or seal them off by a barrier

Every Time You have to be cool !!!

Cable Tracing
Cable Tracing with the Audio Frequency Method

Principle:

transmitter carrier receiver

AF cable search
cable
generator coil

Aktiv ?
Passiv
Peak-Method (maximum method)
(horizontal search coil ! )

signal and/or
sound Intensity

frequency dependant
cross-induction !
Use low frequencies !

magnetic field of
audio frequency current
Null-Method (minimum method)
(vertical search coil ! )

signal and/or
sound Intensity

frequency dependant
cross-induction !
Use low frequencies !

magnetic field of
audio frequency current
Coupling of AF-Generator Direct – to system ground

AF-generator

system ground system ground

Coupling AF - Generator Direct – to ground rod

AF -
generator

aux. ground aux. ground

(ground rod) (ground rod)
Locating of Cable Inductive with transmitter clamp

search coil
(vertical position for
transmitter clamp null-method)

AF -
generator
Inductive Coupling on Metal-Sheath-Cables

AF - wrong
generator

AF -
generator
correct

Consider additional grounding of metal sheath !

Coupling AF - Generator Inductive – with frame antenna

frame antenna search coil

(vertical position for
(vertical, along
null-method)
cable path)

AF -
generator

minimum distance 10 m
Cable Identification
Current pulse method - criteria

Polarity Measurement

Signal polarity is
tested at the -Comparison of the target signal
target location with the transmission signal
+ at the target location;

Intensity Measurement - evaluation of both measurements

Signal intensity is
tested at the
target location
Current Pulse Method - Calibration

Current Pulse
Generator

3A 1A

1A

1A
Current Pulse Method - Identification

Current Pulse
Generator

3A 1A

1A

1A
Phase Identification Instruments
Marker Locating
Types of Markers

Marker 2500 Omnimarker

Marker Frequencies and Application

Marking Significant Locations in:

Communication
Fiberoptics  Cable Path Indication
Networks
101,4 kHz Metallic Cable  Splice and Load Coil
orange Locations
Power Cables
 Splices, Conduit
red/blue 134,0 kHz
red 169,0 kHz no Europe

Potable Water Networks  Plastic Pipes,

blue 145,7 kHz House Connections,
Fixture Location
Sewer Systems  Pipe Path Indication
green 121,6 kHz

Gas Lines  Pipe Path

yellow 83,0 kHz Indication,
Fixture Location
Advantages of using Markers

• Long Life – Markers can be precisely located even after many years in the
ground

• No Danger of Interruption or Break of Conductor

• Easy and quick Location of joint to assists in Cable Fault Location

• Cost Effective, low Investment in Locating Equipment

• Positive Identification of different Network Types by means of different

Frequencies
Marker Locator
Marker Locator

Digitale depth in feet and meter

 LV Cable Selection

163
3 Phase Power Equation

P = √3 × pf × I × V

Where
P​ : is the power.
pf​: is the power factor,
I​ : is the current, ​
V​ : is the voltage and

Converting kW to Amps

I = P / (√3 × pf × V)

If you use P in KW use V in KV

If you use P in W use V in V

 Cable Current > CB Current > Load Current

CB 100 KW
Load

Example 140 Meter 4C, cu XLPE Cable

Load = 100 KW
V = 415 V
power factor = 0.8
L = 140 Meter

I = P / (√3 × pf × V)
I = 100,000 W / √3 × 0.8 × 415 (V) =174 A
Load Current = 174 A
CB Current = Load Current x 25 % ( Safety Factor) = 217.5 A ≈ 225 A
Cable Current = CB Current x 25 % ( Safety Factor) = 281 A
Voltage Drop Formula
Vd = mV x I x L /1000
where
Vd = maximum acceptable volt drop (in volts)
I = current per phase (in amps)
mV = appropriate volt drop (in mV/amp/metre) From manufacurer Cataloge
L = route length (in metres)

Maximum voltage drop to be 2.5 per cent.

2.5 per cent of 415 V = 10.4 V

4C , 95 mm2
Vd = mV x I x L/1000
mV = 0.5 mV/A/m
V.D = 0.5 x 174 x 140 / 1000 = 12.2 V ( Not Acceptable )

4C , 120 mm2
mV = 0.4 mV/A/m
V.D = 0.4 x 174 x 140 / 1000 = 9.7 V (Acceptable )