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CAIE IGCSE

Environmental Management Rocks and Minerals and their Exploitation

0680
Formation of Rocks
The Rock Cycle represents the changes between the three rock types and the processes causing them.
⚡ Quiz this chapter Rock cycle showing the five materials (such as igneous rocks and sediment) and the processes by which one changes into another (such as weathering):

Theory

Rocks and Minerals and their

Exploitation

Energy and the Environment

Agriculture and the Environment

Water and its Management

Oceans and Fisheries

Managing Natural Hazards

The Atmosphere and Human Activities

Human Population

Natural Ecosystems and Human Activities

Types of Rocks
Igneous rocks:

Made when liquid magma cools to form solid rock.

When volcanic activity occurs, the magma/lava (molten rock) is released form the mantle and reaches the surface.. As this magma cools and solidifies, it
forms igneous rocks.

Igneous rocks can be characterized by their crystalline structure.

They are harder to break than sedimentary rocks and less susceptible to erosion

They can be classified into two types based on depending where they cool off:

1. Intrusive/Plutonic - If the magma/lava cools slowly and beneath the surface. They are large and visible. eg. granite, diorite, gabbro.

2. Extrusive/Volcanic - If the magma/lava cools rapidly on the surface. They are usually small. eg. basalt, obsidian, rhyolite

Sedimentary rocks:

Formed by the weathering of existing rocks at the Earth’s surface.

Fossils may be present.

Sediments (small particles of rocks) accumulate into layers and get pressurized due to the newer deposits above them.

The sediments are transported by water and wind (erosion).

Particles like clays, silts, sands, gravels, and small boulders are found in sediments.

Examples: limestone, sandstone, flint and shale.

Metamorphic rocks:

Rocks that undergo transformation (heat, pressure and/or chemical reactions) within the Earth's crust.

The changes alter the mineral composition, texture, overall shape without melting it.

They are called metamorphic rocks because of the process of metamorphosis (change) that preexisting rocks undergo.

Preexisting rocks (Igneous, Sedimentary and even some Metamorphic rocks) metamorphose and give rise to a newer rock.

The changes can be physical, chemical, or both.

Examples: marble, slate, schist, gneiss, quartzite, anthracite.

Extraction of Rocks and Minerals from the Earth

Minerals are the building blocks of rocks, but rocks are not made of minerals. Mining often involves extracting rocks to get to the valuable minerals within

them. For example, iron ore is a rock containing iron minerals, and we extract the iron from the ore.

Extraction of Minerals
Prospecting: a process of searching for minerals by examining the surface of the rocks

Ore: A rock with enough important minerals to make it worth mining

Methods of Exploration
Remote Sensing: a process in which information is gathered about the Earth’s surface from above.

Photographs of the area are taken from the air.

The images are carefully analyzed for mineral presence.

Aerial photography can cover more ground than a person on the surface.

Satellite Signals:

Some satellites send signals to the Earth’s surface and collect the reflected signals, indicating the presence of minerals.

The unique radiation pattern is processed and analyzed by computers

The system works in all weather conditions.

The GPS gives the exact location.

Large area covered in low-cost

Most efficient method

Geochemical Analysis and Field Surveys

Geochemical analysis: analyzing the chemical properties of rocks (by taking samples).

The samples can be taken from stream sediments, soil or rocks (using shallow drilling).

The location of the sample points can be accurately found using the Global Positioning System (GPS).

Geophysics: method to identify mineral ores in rocks using their physical properties.

A series of vibrations (seismic waves) are sent through the Earth’s surface.

Several sensors are placed at different distances from the source of vibrations on the surface.

The vibrations create shock waves that travel down into the rock layers.

They are reflected to the sensors on the surface.

The shock waves record different patterns depending on the minerals present in the rock layers.

Methods of Extraction
There are two methods of extraction

Surface mining

Sub-surface mining

Surface Mining
Surface mining is the broad term encompassing the removal of vegetation/terrain surface to gain access to minerals. It is carried out when a valuable

deposit is located near to the surface. It is most widely employed method in mining projects.

Process of Surface Mining:

The vegetation is cleared, and the topsoil is removed.

The rocks/mineral layers are broken up and loosened with explosives.

Loosened rock is then removed using diggers.

The rock or mineral is tipped into trucks or railway wagons for transporting.

There are many types of Surface mining. The key difference lies in how the mined-out areas are handled:

Open-cast - It involves backfilling with waste as mining is done.

Open-pit - excavation is much deeper and mining done on a larger scale.. It leaves large open pits after mineral deposit has been
depleted/taken/exhausted.

Strip mining - removal of of soil and rock layers in 'strips' to expose mineral deposits. It is mainly used to mine coal and lignite

Quarrying - specific extraction of stone, sand and gravel and other construction materials. Quarries are a type of open-pit surface mine but not all surface

mines are quarries.

Deep and Shaft Mining

Deep and Shaft mining also known as Sub-surface mining is when mineral deposits cannot be reached by using Surface mining. It is also referred to as
underground mining.

Process of Deep and Shaft mining:

A vertical shaft is sunk into the rock layer containing minerals.

A horizontal gallery/tunnel is then made to gain access to the ore body/mineral layer. Sometimes a horizontal adit is rather made to enter the mine.

The minerals are extracted by digging (by machines and miners).

Loose rock is bought out of the mine and collected as waste heaps.

The minerals are brought to the surface and transported in trucks or trains

Resources: Gold, Lead, and Silver.

Advantages of Deep and Shaft Mining:

Produces fewer wastage

Disturbs less land

Disadvantages of Deep and Shaft Mining:

Ground deformation and water pollution/flooding are potential risks.

More expensive form of mining

Dangerous to work in. Exit routes may be blocked upon collapse/when disaster occurs

Can still harm the environment

Factors that affect the decision to extract rocks and minerals:

A mineral resource must be viable. It means that a mineral/rock/resource must be worthy for a company to invest in mining. It should be large and have

sufficient value for it to be deemed economically viable.

Geology:

High-grade ores yield more of the required chemical elements than low-grade ores.

Small deposits of high-grade ore are worth mining.

Small deposits of low-grade ore that cannot be mined at a profit are left as reserves.

Climate:

Temperature extremes affect equipment, can be a risk to worker safety and operational schedules

Nature of extraction in arid climates vs cold regions can have their own limitations. Mining processes require large water quantities which may be hard to
obtain in torrid zones. In polar regions frozen ground complicates excavation and transportation.

Natural disaster can cause damage to infrastructure, halt operations and increase costs.

Accessibility:

Transporting the ore from the mine to processing plants can be difficult and expensive.

The cost of building road or rail links to the processing plant or the nearest export port must be considered.

Carrying out some processing at the mine reduces transport costs.

The mining company must be given a license before extracting a deposit.

A long-term agreement between the government and mining companies must be reached to avoid rapid rises in the tax, which makes mining unprofitable.

Environmental Impact Assessment:

Certain countries might have stricter environmental laws that could impact project feasibility.

For the license application to be approved, the company must have a plan to keep the loss of habitat minimal, followed by the restoration of land and the
completion of mining.

The choice of site for mine waste should also be considered.

Supply and demand:

The relation between how much of a commodity is available and how much is needed or wanted by the consumers.

Demand for minerals fluctuates. It rises in times of industrial growth and falls during an economic recession.

An increase in world demand for any mineral ore will elevate the prices.

High prices encourage more production.

The profit from a working mine depends on changes in supply and demand.

If the demand is too high, mines that were not profitable before becomes worth mining, even small mines in remote areas can be profitable.

If the demand falls, working mines may lose due to the transport and extraction expenses. Also, low demand could rationally lower the price of the output.
This also reduces the production of the output. Production is then confined to only large, well-located mines where costs of production are low.

High demand low supply (or) demand low and supply high

Impact of Rock and Mineral Extraction

Environmental Impacts
Ecological impacts:

Loss of habitat as the vegetation is cleared ∴ plants do not have a place to grow, so the animals depending on them for food and shelter are affected.

Pollution:

Noise pollution: due to machinery and explosives ∴ disturbs the behaviour of animal species and causes hearing problems for people.

Water pollution: water supplies may also be polluted, making it unsafe for people to drink.

The water may become acidic and dissolve toxic metal ions- this combination kills many aquatic organisms.

Bioaccumulation: refers to the buildup/accumulation of a substance (ions, toxins etc) within a single organism over time. Organisms may absorb or

retain these substances in their body, gradually having a higher concentration. Bio- accumulation may occur via direct absorption/ingestion from the
environment or when organisms consume food that has already traces of the substance. As a result, the concentration of the substance within the
organism increases over time, compared to its concentration in the surrounding environment

Biomagnification: The increasing concentration of a substance as it moves up a food chain/trophic level ultimately leading to the death of the top
consumer.

Land pollution: The toxic nature of the waste doesn’t allow plant growth even years after the mining is stopped.

Air pollution: dust particles settle on the vegetation, not allowing sunlight to reach the leaves and thus reducing the rate of photosynthesis.

Breathing in dust that remains in the lungs can cause serious lung diseases.

Visual pollution: the landscape is damaged.

Economic Impacts
Jobs are created in the extraction and transporting of minerals

Increase in the Country’s economy

Exporting minerals is an important source of foreign exchange income for countries that are developing and developed.

The income earned can be used for buying goods and services and investing in infrastructure projects.

Improvements to transport

Social Impacts
Positive:

Better standard of life due to economic gain

Improvements to services, like healthcare and education

Investing in infrastructure projects can help the country in building more well-designed communities.

Negative:

It affects the health of the labour workers

Affects the health of civilians due to pollution

Lack of safety

Managing the Impact of Rock and Mineral Extraction

Safe Disposal of Mining Waste
Mine waste must be stored to prevent collapse.

The mine site must prevent the chances of water pollution.

The waste must be monitored to detect any movement or further pollution.

Land Restoration
Landscaping/Restoration:

Bulldozers can be used to level and smooth out the surface. Land is made to look like a natural landscape so that it looks like it hasn't been disturbed by
mining. Treed, grasses can be planted.

Soil improvement:

After (sanitary) landfilling, mine waste can be covered by a layer of soil that can be enriched with fertilizer. This process is called as Reclamation. The land is
reclaimed from mining to be used for farming. Farmers are able to start using the land again.

Landfilling: the waste is tipped into a hole; from time to time, it is levelled off and compacted.

Sanitary landfilling: As in landfilling, the waste is used to fill the hole, but alternating layers of waste and sand are used.

Tree planting:

Trees bind soil together. Shelter ground surface from heavy rains. Act as shelter belts from winds.

After improving soil fertility, plants and trees can be grown in that area, helping an ecosystem to be reborn.

Bioremediation:

It is a process of removing pollutants from waste using living organisms.

In situ treatment: treatment of contaminated waste where it’s left.

Ex-situ treatment: removal of contaminated waste from a site to a treatment plant.

Often happens slowly (can be sped up by providing oxygen and nitrogen).

Microorganisms, like bacteria, can absorb pollutants and metabolize them into less harmful substances.

Some plants can bioaccumulate toxic metals.

After these plants grow for a while, the parts of the plants aboveground are removed so the waste in the ground becomes less toxic.

Making Lakes and Natural Reserves

Several tree and herb species are introduced. This will help maintain the biodiversity

As their populations grow, they create habitats for many species.

These nature reserves become valuable green spaces for human recreation and help maintain biodiversity.

If the rock lining the hole (created by the extraction) is non-toxic and impervious to water, it can be filled with water to form a reservoir or lake.

It is used to irrigate farmland or process and provide clean, safe drinking water for humans.

Sustainable Use of Rocks and Minerals

Sustainable resource: a resource useful to humans which can last for ever or which can be replaced or continuously replenished. eg. agriculture, forestry
etc.

Sustainable development: development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.

Strategies for the sustainable use of rocks and minerals:

Increasing the efficiency of the extraction of rocks and minerals:

Mine wastes must be processed for the second time.

This allows the valuable minerals to be recovered and reduces the risk of pollution due to mine waste.

Chemical treatment of the waste and biological treatment (using microorganisms) still extract much of the valuable minerals within it.

Improvements in the performance of the machines used in mining and processing.

Greater use of data analysis by computers (to predict geological conditions).

Increasing the efficiency of the use of rocks and minerals:

Engineering solutions e.g. design of steel beams with the same strength but using less steel.

The Need to Recycle Rocks and Minerals:

Recycling uses less energy than processing the ores.

Recycling also produces less waste and, thus, reduces the risk of pollution.

Legislation:
Governments pass laws that require manufacturers to become responsible for recycling and reusing.

For example, the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive of the European Union, was passed in 2002 aiming for minimizing the

environmental impact of electronic equipment at the end of its life. It mandated the separate collection, treatment and recycling of WEE, placing the
responsibility on producers to manage their products' end-of-life.

Interactive 3D Diagram: Rock Cycle

Energy and the Environment

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