The Laws of Motion

Your cousin prepares to catch a raw egg thrown to her at a birthday party. (Sue McDonald/
[Link])

Storyline. You have returned home from your trip to Catalina 5.1 The Concept of Force
Island in the previous two chapters. Your family is having a picnic to celebrate a 5.2 Newton’s First Law and
birthday, so there are many people in your backyard on a beautiful day. Someone Inertial Frames
suggests an egg toss contest. You decide to offer some advice to your cousin and 5.3 Mass
instruct her to move her hands backward just as she catches the egg. Your cousin
5.4 Newton’s Second Law
looks you in the eye and says, “Why?” You are tempted to say, “Because that’s
5.5 The Gravitational Force
just how you do it,” but then consider the deeper implications of your cousin’s
and Weight
question. Why is it that you move your hands backward? What happens if you hold
5.6 Newton’s Third Law
your hands in a fixed position and catch the egg? Should you have your cousin try
this? You take your cousin to the computer and have her search for YouTube videos 5.7 Analysis Models Using
Newton’s Second Law
involving catching an egg, and then you notice some videos showing the results of
throwing an egg into a vertical sheet. As you and your cousin watch these videos, 5.8 Forces of Friction
both of you begin to understand the physics of throwing and catching eggs.

Connections In the previous chapters, we learned how to describe the

motion of particles and objects that can be modeled as particles. We saw motion
changing in various ways. The acceleration of a car is a change in its velocity. The
direction of the velocity of a thrown baseball changes as it flies through the air.
We can describe these changes with the material in the previous chapters, but
what causes these changes? Such a question represents a transition from kine-
matics, the description of motion, to dynamics, the study of causes of changes in
motion. We will see that force is the cause of changes in motion, and will study
the effects of force through the laws of motion as handed down to us by Isaac
Newton. The notion of force will be used again and again in future chapters: grav-
itational forces in Chapter 13, electric forces in Chapter 22, magnetic forces in
Chapter 28, nuclear forces in Chapter 43, and more. 95
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96 Chapter 5 The Laws of Motion

   5.1    The Concept of Force

Everyone has a basic understanding of the concept of force from everyday experi-
ence. When you push your empty dinner plate away, you exert a force on it. Simi-
larly, you exert a force on a ball when you throw or kick it. In these examples, the
word force refers to an interaction with an object by means of muscular activity and
some change in the object’s velocity. Forces do not always cause motion, however.

Christie’s Images Ltd./Superstock

For example, when you are sitting, a gravitational force acts on your body and yet
you remain stationary. As a second example, you can push (in other words, exert a
force) on a large boulder and not be able to move it.
What force (if any) causes the Moon to orbit the Earth? Newton answered this
and related questions by stating that forces are what cause any change in the velocity
of an object. The Moon’s velocity changes in direction as it moves in a nearly circular
orbit around the Earth. This change in velocity is caused by the gravitational force
Isaac Newton
English physicist and mathematician exerted by the Earth on the Moon.
(1642–1727) When a coiled spring is pulled, as in Figure 5.1a, the spring stretches. When a
Isaac Newton was one of the most bril- stationary cart is pulled, as in Figure 5.1b, the cart moves. When a football is kicked,
liant scientists in history. Before the age as in Figure 5.1c, it is both deformed and set in motion. These situations are all
of 30, he formulated the basic concepts
examples of a class of forces called contact forces. That is, they involve physical contact
and laws of mechanics, discovered
the law of universal gravitation, and between two objects. Other examples of contact forces are the force exerted by gas
invented the mathematical methods molecules on the walls of a container and the force exerted by your feet on the floor.
of calculus. As a consequence of his Another class of forces, known as field forces, does not involve physical contact
theories, Newton was able to explain between two objects. These forces act through empty space. The gravitational force
the motions of the planets, the ebb
of attraction between two objects with mass, illustrated in Figure 5.1d, is an exam-
and flow of the tides, and many special
features of the motions of the Moon ple of this class of force. The gravitational force keeps objects bound to the Earth
and the Earth. He also interpreted many and the planets in orbit around the Sun. Another common field force is the electric
fundamental observations concerning force that one electric charge exerts on another (Fig. 5.1e), such as the attractive
the nature of light. His contributions to electric force between an electron and a proton that form a hydrogen atom. A third
physical theories dominated scientific
example of a field force is the force a bar magnet exerts on a piece of iron (Fig. 5.1f).
thought for two centuries and remain
important today. The distinction between contact forces and field forces is not as sharp as you
may have been led to believe by the previous discussion. When examined at the
atomic level, all the forces we classify as contact forces turn out to be caused by
electric (field) forces of the type illustrated in Figure 5.1e. Nevertheless, in devel-
oping models for macroscopic phenomena, it is convenient to use both classifica-
tions of forces. The only known fundamental forces in nature are all field forces:
(1) gravitational forces between objects, (2) electromagnetic forces between electric
charges, (3) strong forces between subatomic particles, and (4) weak forces that arise in
certain radioactive decay processes. In classical physics, we are concerned only with
gravitational and electromagnetic forces. We will discuss strong and weak forces in
Chapter 44.

Contact forces

a b c

Figure 5.1 Some examples of Field forces

applied forces. In each case, a
force is exerted on the object m q Iron N S
M Q
within the boxed area. Some
agent in the environment exter-
nal to the boxed area exerts a
force on the object. d e f

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    5.2 Newton’s First Law and Inertial Frames 97

S S
When F1 and F2
are applied
together in the S S
A downward A downward same direction, When F1 is downward and F2
S S
force F1 force F2 the spring is horizontal, the combination
elongates the elongates the elongates by of the two forces elongates the
spring 1.00 cm. spring 2.00 cm. 3.00 cm. spring by 2.24 cm.

0
1
0 0 0

2
3
1 1 1

4
S
F2
2 2 2
3 3 3 u
S
4 4 4 F1
S
F

S
F1
S
S
F1
F2
S Figure 5.2 The vector nature
F2 of a force is tested with a spring
a b c d scale.

The Vector Nature of Force

It is possible to use the deformation of a spring to measure force. Suppose a vertical
force is applied to a spring scale that has a fixed upper end as shown in Figure 5.2a.
The spring elongates when the force is applied, and a pointer on the scale reads
the extension of the spring. We can calibrate the spring by defining a reference
S
force F 1 as the force that produces a pointer reading of 1.00 cm. If we now apply a
S
different downward force F 2
whose magnitude is twice that of the reference force
S
F 1 as seen in Figure 5.2b, the pointer moves to 2.00 cm. Figure 5.2c shows that the
combined effect of the two collinear forces is the sum of the effects of the individ-
ual forces. S
Now suppose the two forces are applied simultaneously with F 1 downward and
S
F 2 horizontal as S illustrated in Figure 5.2d. In this case, the pointer reads 2.24 cm.
The S single force F that would produce this same reading is the sum of the two vec
S S
tors F 1 and F 2 as described in Figure 5.2d. That is, u F 1u 5 ÏF12 1 F2 2 5 2.24 units,
and its direction is u 5 tan21 (20.500) 5 226.6°. Because forces have been experi-
mentally verified to behave as vectors, you must use the rules of vector addition to
obtain the net force on an object.

   5.2    Newton’s First Law and Inertial Frames

We begin our study of forces by imagining some physical situations involving a puck Airflow
on a perfectly level air hockey table (Fig. 5.3). You expect that the puck will remain
stationary when it is placed gently at rest on the table. Now imagine your air hockey Electric blower
table is located on a train moving with constant velocity along a perfectly smooth
track. If the puck is placed on the table, the puck again remains where it is placed. Figure 5.3 On an air hockey
If the train were to accelerate, however, the puck would start moving along the table, air blown through holes in
table opposite the direction of the train’s acceleration, just as a set of papers on the surface supports the puck and
your dashboard falls onto the floor of your car when you step on the accelerator. allows it to move almost without
friction across the table. If the
As we saw in Section 4.6, a moving object can be observed from any number of table is not accelerating, a puck
reference frames. Newton’s first law of motion, sometimes called the law of inertia, placed on the table will remain
defines a special set of reference frames called inertial frames. This law can be stated at rest.

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98 Chapter 5 The Laws of Motion

in a theoretical manner as follows:

A theoretical statement If an object does not interact with other objects, it is possible to identify a ref-
of Newton’s first law erence frame in which the object has zero acceleration.

Inertial frame of reference Such a reference frame is called an inertial frame of reference. When the puck is
on the air hockey table located on the ground, you are observing it from an inertial
reference frame; there are no horizontal interactions of the puck with any other
objects, and you observe it to have zero acceleration in that direction. When you
are on the train moving at constant velocity, you are also observing the puck from
an inertial reference frame. Any reference frame that moves with constant velocity
relative to an inertial frame is itself an inertial frame. When you and the train accel-
erate, however, you are observing the puck from a noninertial reference frame
because you and the train are accelerating relative to the inertial reference frame
of the Earth’s surface. While the puck appears to be accelerating according to your
observations, a reference frame can be identified in which the puck has zero accel-
eration. For example, an observer standing outside the train on the ground sees
the puck sliding relative to the table but always moving with the same velocity with
respect to the ground as the train had before it started to accelerate (because there
is almost no friction to “tie” the puck and the train together). Therefore, Newton’s
first law is still satisfied even though your observations as a rider on the train show
an apparent acceleration relative to you.
A reference frame that moves with constant velocity relative to the distant stars is
the best approximation of an inertial frame, and for our purposes we can consider
the Earth as being such a frame. The Earth is not really an inertial frame because
of its orbital motion around the Sun and its rotational motion about its own axis,
both of which involve centripetal accelerations. These accelerations are small com-
pared with g, however, and can often be neglected. For this reason, we model the
Earth as an inertial frame, along with any other frame attached to it.
Let us assume we are observing an object from an inertial reference frame. (We
will return to observations made in noninertial reference frames in Section 6.3.)
Pitfall Prevention 5.1 Before about 1600, scientists believed that the natural state of matter was the state of
Newton’s First Law Newton’s first rest. Observations showed that moving objects eventually stopped moving. Galileo
law does not say what happens for was the first to take a different approach to motion and the natural state of matter.
an object with zero net force, that He devised thought experiments and concluded that it is not the nature of an object
is, multiple forces that cancel; it
to stop once set in motion: rather, it is its nature to resist changes in its motion. In his
says what happens in the absence
of external forces. This subtle but words, “Any velocity once imparted to a moving body will be rigidly maintained as
important difference allows us to long as the external causes of retardation are removed.” For example, a spacecraft
define force as that which causes drifting through empty space with its engine turned off will keep moving forever. It
a change in the motion. The would not seek a “natural state” of rest.
description of an object under the
Given our discussion of observations made from inertial reference frames, we
effect of forces that balance is cov-
ered by Newton’s second law. can pose a more practical statement of Newton’s first law of motion than that in the
previous screened statement:

A more practical statement In the absence of external forces and when viewed from an inertial refer-
of Newton’s first law ence frame, an object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion con-
tinues in motion with a constant velocity (that is, with a constant speed in a
straight line).

In other words, when no force acts on an object, the acceleration of the object is
zero. From the first law, we conclude that any isolated object (one that does not inter-
act with its environment) is either at rest and stays at rest, or is moving with con-
stant velocity. The tendency of an object to resist any attempt to change its velocity
is called inertia. Given the statement of the first law above, we can conclude that an
object that is accelerating must be experiencing a force. In turn, from the first law,
Definition of force we can define force as that which causes a change in motion of an object.

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    5.4 Newton’s Second Law 99

Q uick Quiz 5.1 Which of the following statements is correct? (a) It is possible for
an object to have motion in the absence of forces on the object. (b) It is possible to
have forces on an object in the absence of motion of the object. (c) Neither state-
ment (a) nor statement (b) is correct. (d) Both statements (a) and (b) are correct.

   5.3    Mass
Imagine playing catch with either a basketball or a bowling ball. Which ball is more
likely to keep moving when you try to catch it? Which ball requires more effort to
throw it? The bowling ball requires more effort. In the language of physics, we say
that the bowling ball is more resistant to changes in its velocity than the basketball.
How can we quantify this concept?
Mass is that property of an object that specifies how much resistance an object Definition of mass
exhibits to changes in its velocity, and as we learned in Section 1.1, the SI unit of
mass is the kilogram. Experiments show that the greater the mass of an object, the
less that object accelerates under the action of a given applied force.
To describe mass quantitatively, we conduct experiments in which we compare
the accelerations a given force produces on different objects. Suppose a force act-
ing on an object of mass m1 produces a change in motion of the object that we can
quantify with the object’s acceleration S a 1, and the same force acting on an object of
mass m 2 produces an acceleration S a 2. The ratio of the two masses is defined as the
inverse ratio of the magnitudes of the accelerations produced by the force:
m1 a2
; (5.1)
m2 a1

For example, if a given force acting on a 3-kg object produces an acceleration of

4 m/s2, the same force applied to an object with twice the mass, 6 kg, produces an accel-
eration with half the magnitude, 2 m/s2. According to a huge number of similar obser-
vations, we conclude that the magnitude of the acceleration of an object is inversely
proportional to its mass when acted on by a given force. If one object has a known mass,
the mass of the other object can be obtained from acceleration measurements.
As mentioned in Chapter 1, mass is an inherent property of an object and is
independent of the object’s surroundings and of the method used to measure it.
Also, mass is a scalar quantity and thus obeys the rules of ordinary arithmetic. For
example, if you combine a 3-kg mass with a 5-kg mass, the total mass is 8 kg. This
result can be verified experimentally by comparing the acceleration that a known
force gives to several objects separately with the acceleration that the same force
gives to the same objects combined as one unit.
Mass should not be confused with weight. Mass and weight are two different  Mass and weight are
quantities. The weight of an object is equal to the magnitude of the gravitational different quantities
force exerted on the object and varies with location (see Section 5.5). For example,
a person weighing 180 lb on the Earth weighs only about 30 lb on the Moon. On the
other hand, the mass of an object is the same everywhere: an object having a mass
of 2 kg on the Earth also has a mass of 2 kg on the Moon.

   5.4    Newton’s Second Law

Newton’s first law explains what happens to an object when no forces act on it: it Pitfall Prevention 5.2
maintains its original motion; it either remains at rest or moves in a straight line Force Is the Cause of Changes
with constant speed. Newton’s second law answers the question of what happens to in Motion An object can have
an object when one or more forces act on it. motion in the absence of forces
Imagine performing an experiment in which you push a block of massSm across as described in Newton’s first law.
Therefore, don’t interpret force
a frictionless, horizontal surface. When you exert some horizontal force F on the
as the cause of motion. Force is the
block, it moves with some acceleration Sa . If you apply a force twice as great on the cause of changes in motion.
same block, experimental results show that the acceleration of the block doubles;

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100 Chapter 5 The Laws of Motion

S
if you increase the applied force to 3F, the acceleration triples; and so on. From
such observations, we concludeSthat the acceleration of an object is directly propor-
tional to the force acting on it: F ~ S
a . This idea was first introduced in Section 2.4
when we discussed the direction of the acceleration of an object. We also know
Pitfall Prevention 5.3 from Equation 5.1 that the magnitude of the acceleration of an object is inversely
S
m a Is Not a Force Equation 5.2
proportional to its mass: uS
a u ~ 1ym.
does not say that the product mS a These experimental observations are summarized in Newton’s second law:
is a force. All forces on an object
are added vectorially to generate When viewed from an inertial reference frame, the acceleration of an object
the net force on the left side of the is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional
equation. This net force is then to its mass:
equated to the product of the mass S
of the object and the acceleration
that results from the net force. Do
S
a ~
oF
not include an “mS a force” in your m
analysis of the forces on an object.
If we choose a proportionality constant of 1, we can relate mass, acceleration,
and force through the following mathematical statement of Newton’s second law:1
S
o F 5 ma
S
Newton’s second law (5.2)

In both the textual and mathematical statements of Newton’sS

second law, we have
indicated that the acceleration is due to the net force o F acting on an object. The
net force on an object is the vector sum of all forces acting on the object. (Other
names used for the net force include the total force, the resultant force, and the unbal-
anced force.) In solving a problem using Newton’s second law, it is imperative to
determine the correct net force on an object. Many forces may be acting on an
object, but there is only one acceleration of the object.
Equation 5.2 is a vector expression and hence is equivalent to three component
equations:
Newton’s second law:
component form
oF x
5 max    o F 5 ma    o F 5 ma
y y z z
(5.3)

Q uick Quiz 5.2 An object experiences no acceleration. Which of the follow-

ing cannot be true for the object? (a) A single force acts on the object. (b) No
forces act on the object. (c) Forces act on the object, but the forces cancel.

Q uick Quiz 5.3 You push an object, initially at rest, across a frictionless
floor with a constant force for a time interval Dt, resulting in a final speed of
v for the object. You then repeat the experiment, but with a force that is twice
as large. What time interval is now required to reach the same final speed v?
(a) 4 Dt (b) 2 Dt (c) Dt (d) Dt/2 (e) Dt/4

The SI unit of force is the newton (N). A force of 1 N is the force that, when act-
ing on an object of mass 1 kg, produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2. From this defini-
tion and Newton’s second law, we see that the newton can be expressed in terms of
the following fundamental units of mass, length, and time:
Definition of the newton 1 N ; 1 kg ? m/s2 (5.4)
In the U.S. customary system, the unit of force is the pound (lb). A force of 1 lb
is the force that, when acting on a 1-slug mass, 2 produces an acceleration of 1 ft/s2:
1 lb ; 1 slug ? ft/s2
A convenient approximation is 1 N < 14 lb.

1
Equation 5.2 is valid only when the speed of the object is much less than the speed of light. We treat the relativistic
situation in Chapter 38.
2
The slug is the unit of mass in the U.S. customary system and is that system’s counterpart of the SI unit the kilogram.
Because most of the calculations in our study of classical mechanics are in SI units, the slug is seldom used in this text.

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    5.4 Newton’s Second Law 101

Why do you move your hands backward when you catch the egg in the opening
storyline? Imagine holding your hands stiffly and not moving them as you catch
the egg. Then the egg will hit your hand and be brought to rest in a very short
time interval. As a result, the magnitude of the acceleration of the egg will be
large. According to Equation 5.2, this will require a large force from your hands.
This large force is sufficient to break the shell of the egg. If you move your hands
backward, however, and slowly bring the egg to rest, the acceleration is of a much
smaller magnitude. This, in turn, requires a much smaller force, which can keep
the shell of the egg intact.
Throwing the egg into the sheet is similar: when the egg strikes the sheet, the
sheet moves in the same direction in response, bringing the egg to a lower velocity
over a relatively long distance.

Example 5.1    An Accelerating Hockey Puck

A hockey puck having a mass of 0.30 kg slides on the frictionless, hori-

zontal surface of an ice rink. Two hockey sticks strike the puck simulta- y
neously, exerting the forces on the puck shown in Figure 5.4. The force S
F2
S
F 1 has a magnitude S
of 5.0 N, and is directed at u 5 20° below the
x axis. The force F 2 has a magnitude of 8.0 N and its direction is
F1 = 5.0 N
f 5 60° above the x axis. Determine both the magnitude and the direc- F2 = 8.0 N
tion of the puck’s acceleration.
60
SOLUTION Figure 5.4 (Exam-
ple 5.1) A hockey x
Conceptualize Study Figure 5.4. Using your expertise in vector addi- puck moving on a 20
tion from Chapter 3, predict the approximate direction of the net force frictionless surface
vector on the puck. The acceleration of the puck will be in the same is subject to two S
S S F1
direction. forces F 1 and F 2.
Categorize Because we can determine a net force and we want an acceleration, this problem is categorized as one that may
be solved using Newton’s second law. In Section 5.7, we will formally introduce the particle under a net force analysis model to
describe a situation such as this one.

Analyze Find the component of the net force acting on

the puck in the x direction:
oF x
5 F1x 1 F2x 5 F1 cos u 1 F2 cos f

Find the component of the net force acting on the

puck in the y direction:
o Fy 5 F1y 1 F2y 5 F1 sin u 1 F2 sin f

Use Newton’s second law in component form (Eq. 5.3) ax 5

oF x
5
F1 cos u 1 F2 cos f
m m
to find the x and y components of the puck’s
acceleration:
ay 5
o Fy
5
F1 sin u 1 F2 sin f
m m
s5.0 Nd cos s2208d 1 s8.0 Nd cos s608d
Substitute numerical values: ax 5 5 29 mys2
0.30 kg
s5.0 Nd sin s2208d 1 s8.0 Nd sin s608d
ay 5 5 17 mys2
0.30 kg

Find the magnitude of the acceleration: a 5 Ïs29 mys2d2 1 s17 mys2d2 5 34 mys2

ay
Find the direction of the acceleration relative to the
positive x axis:
u 5 tan21 1a 2 5 tan 117292 5 318
x
21

Finalize The vectors in Figure 5.4 can be added graphically to check the reasonableness of our answer. Because the accel-
eration vector is along the direction of the resultant force, a drawing showing the resultant force vector helps us check the
validity of the answer. (Try it!)
continued

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102 Chapter 5 The Laws of Motion

5.1 c o n t i n u e d
W H A T I F ? Suppose three hockey sticks strike the puck simultaneously, with two of them exerting the forces shown in
Figure 5.4. The result of the three forces is that the hockey puck shows no acceleration. What must be the components of the
third force?
Answer If there is zero acceleration, the net force acting on the puck must be zero. Therefore, the three forces must cancel.
The components of the third force must be of equal magnitude and opposite sign compared to the components of the net
force applied by the first two forces so that all the components add to zero. Therefore, F 3x 5 2 Fx 5 2s0.30 kgds29 mys 2d 5 o
o
28.7 N and F 3y 5 2 Fy 5 2s0.30 kgds17 mys 2d 5 25.2 N.

   5.5    The Gravitational Force and Weight

All objects are attracted to the Earth. The attractive force exerted by the Earth
S
Pitfall Prevention 5.4 on an object is called the gravitational force F g . This force is directed toward the
“Weight of an Object” We are center of the Earth,3 and its magnitude is called the weight of the object.
familiar with the everyday phrase, We saw in Section 2.6 that a freely falling object experiences an acceleration S g
S
the “weight of an object.” Weight, acting toward the center of the Earth. Applying Newton’s
S S
second law o F 5 m S
a to
however, is not an inherent prop- a freely falling object of mass m, with S
a 5Sg and o F 5 F g , gives
erty of an object; rather, it is a
measure of the gravitational force S
between the object and the Earth F g 5 mS
g (5.5)
(or other planet). Therefore,
S
weight is a property of a system of Therefore, the weight of an object, being defined as the magnitude of F g , is given by
items: the object and the Earth.
Fg = mg (5.6)
Pitfall Prevention 5.5
Kilogram Is Not a Unit of Weight Because it depends on g, weight varies with geographic location. Because g
You may have seen the “con- decreases with increasing distance from the center of the Earth, objects weigh less
version” 1 kg 5 2.2 lb. Despite at higher altitudes than at sea level. For example, a 1 000-kg pallet of bricks used
popular statements of weights in the construction of the Empire State Building in New York City weighed 9 800 N
expressed in kilograms, the kilo-
gram is not a unit of weight, it is
at street level, but weighed about 1 N less by the time it was lifted from sidewalk
a unit of mass. The conversion level to the top of the building. As another example, suppose a student has a mass
statement is not an equality; it is of 70.0 kg. The student’s weight in a location where g 5 9.80 m/s2 is 686 N (about
an equivalence that is valid only 150 lb). At the top of a mountain, however, where g 5 9.77 m/s2, the student’s weight
on the Earth’s surface. We first is only 684 N. Therefore, if you want to lose weight without going on a diet, climb a
raised this issue in the Chapter 1
storyline.
mountain or weigh yourself at 30 000 ft during an airplane flight!
Equation 5.6 indicates that there is a clear difference between mass and weight.
The life-support unit strapped to the back of astronaut Harrison Schmitt in Fig-
ure 5.5 weighed 300 lb on the Earth and had a mass of 136 kg. During his training,
a 50-lb mockup with a mass of 23 kg was used. Although this strategy effectively
simulated the reduced weight the unit would have on the Moon, it did not correctly
mimic the unchanging mass. It was more difficult to accelerate the 136-kg unit
(perhaps by jumping or twisting suddenly) on the Moon than it was to accelerate
the 23-kg unit on the Earth.
Equation 5.6 quantifies the gravitational force on the object, but notice that this
equation does not require the object to be moving. Even for a stationary object or
for an object on which several forces act, Equation 5.6 can be used to calculate the
magnitude of the gravitational force. The result is a subtle shift in the interpreta-
tion of m in the equation. The mass m in Equation 5.6 determines the strength of
the gravitational attraction between the object and the Earth. This role is com-
NASA/Eugene Cernan

pletely different from that previously described for mass, that of measuring the
resistance to changes in motion in response to an external force. In that role, mass
is also called inertial mass. We call m in Equation 5.6 the gravitational mass. Even
though this quantity is different in behavior from inertial mass, it is one of the
Figure 5.5 Astronaut Harrison
Schmitt carries a backpack on
the Moon. 3
This statement ignores that the mass distribution of the Earth is not perfectly spherical.

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    5.6 Newton’s Third Law 103

experimental conclusions in Newtonian dynamics that gravitational mass and iner-

tial mass have the same value.
Although this discussion has focused on the gravitational force on an object
due to the Earth, the concept is generally valid on any planet. The value of g will
vary from one planet to the next, but the magnitude of the gravitational force will
always be given by the value of mg.

Q uick Quiz 5.4 Suppose you are talking by interplanetary telephone to a

friend who lives on the Moon. He tells you that he has just won a newton of gold
in a contest. Excitedly, you tell him that you entered the Earth version of the
same contest and also won a newton of gold! Who is richer? (a) You are. (b) Your
friend is. (c) You are equally rich.

Conceptual Example 5.2    How Much Do You Weigh in an Elevator?

You have most likely been in an elevator that accelerates upward as it moves toward a higher floor. In this case, you feel
heavier. In fact, if you are standing on a bathroom scale at the time, the scale measures a force having a magnitude that is
greater than your weight. Therefore, you have tactile and measured evidence that leads you to believe you are heavier in
this situation. Are you heavier?

SOLUTION
No; your weight is unchanged. Your experiences are due to your being in a noninertial reference frame. To provide the accel-
eration upward, the floor or scale must exert on your feet an upward force that is greater in magnitude than your weight. It is
this greater force you feel, which you interpret as feeling heavier. The scale reads the force with which it pushes up on you, not
your weight (unless you are at rest), and so its reading increases. We will examine the effect of the acceleration of an elevator
on apparent weight in Example 5.8.

   5.6    Newton’s Third Law

If you press against a corner of this textbook with your fingertip, the book pushes
back and makes a small dent in your skin. If you push harder, the book does the same
and the dent in your skin is a little larger. This simple activity illustrates that forces
are interactions between two objects: when your finger pushes on the book, the book
pushes back on your finger. This important principle is known as Newton’s third law:
S
If two objects interact, the force F 12 exerted by objectS1 on object 2 is equal Newton’s third law
in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force F 21 exerted by object 2
on object 1:
S S
F 12 5 2 F 21 (5.7)

When it is important to designate forces as interactions between two objects, we

S
will use this subscript notation, where F ab means “the force exerted by a on b.” The S
F12  F21
S

third law is illustrated in Figure 5.6. The force that object 1 exerts on object 2 is 2
popularly called the action force, and the force of object 2 on object 1 is called the S
F12 S
F21
reaction force. These italicized terms are not scientific terms; furthermore, either
force can be labeled the action or reaction force. We will use these terms for con-
venience. In all cases, the action and reaction forces act on different objects and 1
must be of the same type (gravitational, electrical, etc.). For example, the force
acting on a freely falling projectile is the gravitational force exerted by the Figure 5.6S Newton’s third law.
S S
Earth on the projectile F g 5 F Ep (E 5 Earth, p 5 projectile), and the magnitude of The force F 12 exerted by object 1
on object 2 is equal in magnitude
this force is mg. The reaction to this force is the gravitational force exerted by the pro- and opposite in direction to
S S S
jectile on the Earth F pE 5 2 F Ep. The reactionSforce F pE must accelerate the Earth S
the force F 21 exerted by object 2
toward the projectile just as the action force F Ep accelerates the projectile toward on object 1.

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104 Chapter 5 The Laws of Motion

Figure 5.7 (a) When a computer S

n  Ftm
S S
n  Ftm
S

monitor is at rest on a table, the S S

n  Ftm
forces acting on the monitor are
the normal force S n and the gravi-
S
tational force F g . The reaction to
S S
n is the force F mt exerted by the
monitor on the table. The reaction
S S
to F g is the force F mE exerted by S S
the monitor on the Earth. (b) A Fg  FEm
S S
force diagram shows the forces on Fg  FEm
S
the monitor. (c) A free-body diagram Fmt S S
Fg  FEm
shows the monitor as a black dot S
FmE
with the forces acting on it.

a b c
Pitfall Prevention 5.6
n Does Not Always Equal mg In
the situation shown in Figure 5.7
the Earth. Because the Earth has such a large mass, however, its acceleration due to
and in many others, we find that this reaction force is negligibly small.
n 5 mg (the normal force has the Consider a computer monitor at rest on a table as in Figure 5.7a. The gravita-
S S
same magnitude as the gravita- tional force on the monitor is F g 5 F Em. The reaction to this force is the force
S S
tional force). This result, however, F mE 5 2 F Em exerted by the monitor on the Earth. The monitor does not acceler-
is not generally true. If an object is
on an incline, if there are applied
ate because it is held up by the table. The table exerts on the monitor an upward
S
forces with vertical components, force S n 5 F tm, called the normal force. (Normal in this context means perpendicu-
or if there is a vertical acceleration lar.) In general, whenever an object is in contact with a surface, the surface exerts
of the system, then n ? mg. Always a normal force on the object. The normal force on the monitor can have any value
apply Newton’s second law to find needed, up to the point of breaking the table. Because the monitor has zero accel-
the relationship between n and mg. S
eration, Newton’s second law applied to the monitor gives us o F 5 S n 1 mSg 5 0,
⁄ ⁄
Pitfall Prevention 5.7
so n j 2 mg j 5 0, or n 5 mg. The normal force balances the gravitational force on
Newton’s Third Law Remember
the monitor, so the net force on the monitor is zero. The reaction force to S
n is the
S S S
that Newton’s third-law action force exerted by the monitor downward on the table, F mt
5 2 F tm
5 2n .
S
and reaction forces act on different Notice that the forces acting on the monitor are F g and S n as shown in Figure 5.7b.
S S
objects. For example, in Figure 5.7,
S S S S
The two forces F mE and F mt are exerted on objects other than the monitor.
n 5 F tm 5 2mg 5 2 F Em. The Figure 5.7 illustrates an extremely important step in solving problems involving
S S
forces n and mg are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direc-
forces. Figure 5.7a shows many of the forces in the situation: those acting on the
tion, but they do not represent an monitor, one acting on the table, and one acting on the Earth. Figure 5.7b, by con-
action–reaction pair because both trast, shows only the forces acting on one object, the monitor, and is called a force
forces act on the same object, the diagram or a diagram showing the forces on the object. The important pictorial repre-
monitor. sentation in Figure 5.7c is called a free-body diagram. In a free-body diagram, the
particle model is used by representing the object as a dot and showing the forces
Pitfall Prevention 5.8
that act on the object as being applied to the dot. When analyzing an object sub-
Free-Body Diagrams The most
important step in solving a problem
ject to forces, we are interested in the net force acting on one object, which we
using Newton’s laws is to draw a will model as a particle. Therefore, a free-body diagram helps us isolate only those
proper sketch, the free-body dia- forces on the object and eliminate the other forces from our analysis.
gram. Be sure to draw only those
forces that act on the object you Q uick Quiz 5.5 (i) If a fly collides with the windshield of a fast-moving bus,
are isolating. Be sure to draw all which experiences an impact force with a larger magnitude? (a) The fly. (b) The
forces acting on the object, includ-
bus. (c) The same force is experienced by both. (ii) Which experiences the
ing any field forces, such as the
gravitational force. greater acceleration? (a) The fly. (b) The bus. (c) The same acceleration is expe-
rienced by both.

Conceptual Example 5.3    You Push Me and I’ll Push You

A large man and a small boy stand facing each other on frictionless ice. They put their hands together and push against
each other so that they move apart.

(A) Who moves away with the higher speed?

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    5.7 Analysis Models Using Newton’s Second Law 105

5.3 c o n t i n u e d
SOLUTION
This situation is similar to what we saw in Quick Quiz 5.5. According to Newton’s third law, the force exerted by the man
on the boy and the force exerted by the boy on the man are a third-law pair of forces, so they must be equal in magnitude.
(A bathroom scale placed between their hands would read the same, regardless of which way it faced.) Therefore, the boy,
having the smaller mass, experiences the greater acceleration. Both individuals accelerate for the same amount of time,
but the greater acceleration of the boy over this time interval results in his moving away from the interaction with the
higher speed.

(B) Who moves farther while their hands are in contact?

SOLUTION
Because the boy has the greater acceleration and therefore the greater average velocity, he moves farther than the man during
the time interval during which their hands are in contact.

   5.7    Analysis Models Using Newton’s Second Law

In this section, we discuss two analysis models for solving problems in which
objects are either in equilibrium sS a 5 0d or accelerating under the action of con-
stant external forces. Remember that when Newton’s laws are applied to an object,
we are interested only in external forces that act on the object. If the objects are
modeled as particles, we need not worry about rotational motion such as spinning.
For now, we also neglect the effects of friction in those problems involving motion,
which is equivalent to stating that the surfaces are frictionless. (The friction force is
discussed in Section 5.8.)
We usually neglect the mass of any ropes, strings, or cables involved. In this
approximation, the magnitude of the force exerted by any element of the rope on
the adjacent element is the same for all elements along the rope. In problem state-
ments, the synonymous terms light and of negligible mass are used to indicate that
a mass is to be ignored when you work the problems. When a rope attached to an
object is pulling on the object, the rope exerts a force on the object in a direction
away from the object, parallel to the rope. The magnitude T of that force is called
the tension in the rope. Because it is the magnitude of a vector quantity, tension is
a scalar quantity.

Analysis Model: The Particle in Equilibrium

If the acceleration of an object modeled as a particle is zero, the object is treated with
the particle in equilibrium model. In this model, the net force on the object is zero:
S
o F 50 (5.8) S
T

Consider a lamp suspended from a light chain fastened to the ceiling as in Figure
5.8a. The force diagram for the lamp (Fig. 5.8b) shows that the forces acting on the
S S
lamp are the downward gravitational force F g and the upward force T exerted by
the chain. Because there are no forces in the x direction, S Fx 5 0 provides no help- S
Fg
ful information. The condition S F y 5 0 gives
a b
SF y
5 T 2 Fg 5 0 or T 5 Fg
Figure 5.8 (a) A lamp suspended
S S from a ceiling by a chain of negli-
Again, notice that T and F g are not an action–reaction pair because they act on the
S gible mass. (b) The forces acting
same object, the lamp. The reaction force to T is a downward force exerted by the on the lamp are the gravitational
lamp on the chain. S S
force F g and the force T exerted
Example 5.4 (page 107) shows an application of the particle in equilibrium model. by the chain.

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106 Chapter 5 The Laws of Motion

Analysis Model: The Particle Under a Net Force

If an object experiences an acceleration, its motion can be analyzed with the parti-
cle under a net force model. The appropriate equation for this model is Newton’s
second law, Equation 5.2:
S
o F 5 ma
S
(5.2)
a

S
Consider a crate being pulled to the right on a frictionless, horizontal floor as in
n Figure 5.9a. Of course, the floor directly under the boy must have friction; other-
y
wise, his feet would simply slip when he tries to pull on the crate! Suppose you wish
S to find the acceleration of the crate and the force the floor exerts on it. The forces
T x
acting on the crate are illustrated in the free-body diagram in Figure 5.9b. Notice
S
that the horizontal force T being applied to the crate acts through the rope. The
S S
magnitude of T is equal to the tension in the rope. In addition to the force T, the
S S
Fg free-body diagram for the crate includes the gravitational force F g and the normal
S
b
force n exerted by the floor on the crate.
We can now apply Newton’s second law in component form to the crate. The only
S
Figure 5.9 (a) A crate being force acting in the x direction is T. Applying S Fx 5 max to the horizontal motion gives
pulled to the right on a friction-
T
less floor. (b) The free-body dia-
gram representing the external oF x
5 T 5 max or ax 5
m
forces acting on the crate.
No acceleration occurs in the y direction because the crate moves only horizon-
tally. Therefore, we use the particle in equilibrium model in the y direction. Apply-
ing the y component of Equation 5.8 yields

SF y
5 n 2 Fg 5 0 or n 5 Fg

That is, the normal force has the same magnitude as the gravitational force but acts
in theSopposite direction.
If T is a constant force, the acceleration ax 5 T/m also is constant. Hence, the
crate is also modeled as a particle under constant acceleration in the x direction,
and the equations of kinematics from Chapter 2 can be used to obtain the crate’s
position x and velocity vx as functions of time.
Notice from this discussion two concepts that will be important in future problem
S
F solving: (1) In a given problem, it is possible to have different analysis models applied in different
directions. The crate in Figure 5.9 is a particle in equilibrium in the vertical direction
and a particle under a net force in the horizontal direction. (2) It is possible to describe an
Physics object by multiple analysis models. The crate is a particle under a net force in the horizon-
tal direction and is also a particle under constant acceleration in the same direction.
S In the situation just described, the magnitude of the normal force S n is equal to the
Fg S S
n magnitude of F g , but that is not always the case, as noted in Pitfall Prevention 5.6. For
example, suppose a book is lying on a table and you push down on the book with a force
S
S
F as in Figure 5.10. Because the book is at rest and therefore not accelerating, S Fy 5 0,
Figure 5.10 When a force F which gives n 2 Fg 2 F 5 0, or n 5 Fg 1 F 5 mg 1 F. In this situation, the normal force is
pushes vertically downward on
greater than the gravitational force. Other examples in which n ? Fg are presented later.
another object, the normal force
S
n on the object is greater than the Several examples below demonstrate the use of the particle in equilibrium
gravitational force: n 5 Fg 1 F. model and the particle under a net force model.

Analysis Model Particle in Equilibrium

Imagine an object that can be modeled as a particle. If it has several forces acting on it so that the forces all cancel, giving a net
force of zero, the object will have an acceleration of zero. This condition is mathematically described as

o F 50
S
(5.8)
S
a0
m
S
F  0

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    5.7 Analysis Models Using Newton’s Second Law 107

Analysis Model Particle in Equilibrium continued

Examples
●● a chandelier hanging over a dining room table
●● an object moving at terminal speed through a viscous medium (Chapter 6)
●● a steel beam in the frame of a building (Chapter 12)
●● a boat floating on a body of water (Chapter 14)

Analysis Model Particle Under a Net Force

Imagine an object that can be modeled as a particle. If it has Examples:

one or more forces acting on it so that there is a net force on ●● a crate pushed across a factory floor
the object, it will accelerate in the direction of the net force. ●● a falling object acted upon by a gravitational force
The relationship between the net force and the acceleration is ●● a piston in an automobile engine pushed by hot gases
o F 5ma
S S
(5.2) (Chapter 21)
S
●● a charged particle in an electric field (Chapter 22)
m a
S
F

Example 5.4    A Traffic Light at Rest

S S
A traffic light weighing 122 N hangs from a cable tied to T3 y T2
two other cables fastened to a support as in Figure 5.11a. u1 u2 S
T1
The upper cables make angles of u1 5 37.0° and u2 5 53.0°
with the horizontal. These upper cables are not as strong T1 T2
as the vertical cable and will break if the tension in them u1 u2
x
exceeds 100 N. Does the traffic light remain hanging in T3
this situation, or will one of the cables break?

SOLUTION
S S
Conceptualize Inspect the drawing in Figure 5.11a. Let us Fg T3
assume the cables do not break and nothing is moving.
a b c
Categorize If nothing is moving, no part of the system is accel-
erating. We can now model the light as a particle in equilibrium on Figure 5.11 (Example 5.4) (a) A traffic light suspended by
which the net force is zero. Similarly, the net force on the knot cables. (b) The forces acting on the traffic light. (c) The free-body
diagram for the knot where the three cables are joined.
(Fig. 5.11c) is zero, so it is also modeled as a particle in equilibrium.

Analyze We construct a diagram of the forces acting on the traffic light, shown in Figure 5.11b, and a free-body diagram for
the knot that holds the three cables together, shown in Figure 5.11c. This knot is a convenient object to choose because all the
forces of interest act along lines passing through the knot.

From the particle in equilibrium model, apply

Equation 5.8 for the traffic light in the y direction:
SF y
5 0 S T3 2 Fg 5 0
T3 5 Fg

Choose the coordinate axes as shown in Figure 5.11c Force x Component y Component
and resolve the forces acting on the knot into their S
components: T1 2T1 cos u1 T1 sin u1
S
T2 T2 cos u2 T2 sin u2
S
T 3 0 2Fg

Apply the particle in equilibrium model to the knot: (1) SF x

5 2T1 cos u1 1 T2 cos u2 5 0
(2) SF y
5 T1 sin u1 1 T2 sin u2 1 (2Fg) 5 0
continued
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108 Chapter 5 The Laws of Motion

5.4 c o n t i n u e d
S S
Equation (1) shows that the horizontal components of T 1 and T 2 must be equal in magnitude, and Equation (2) shows that
S S S
the sum of the vertical components of T 1 and T 2 must balance the downward force T 3, which is equal in ­magnitude to the
weight of the light.

Solve Equation (1) for T2 in terms of T1: (3) T2 5 T1 S Dcos u1

cos u2

Substitute this value for T2 into Equation (2): T1 sin u1 1 T1 S D cos u1

cos u2
(sin u2 ) 2Fg 5 0

Fg
Solve for T1: T1 5
sin u1 1 cos u1 tan u2
122 N
Substitute numerical values: T1 5 5 73.4 N
sin 37.08 1 cos 37.08 tan 53.08

Using Equation (3), evaluate T2: T2 5 s73.4 Nd S cos 37.08

cos 53.08 D
5 97.4 N

Both values are less than 100 N ( just barely for T2), so the cables will not break.

Finalize Let us finalize this problem by imagining a change in the system, as in the following What If?
WHAT IF? Suppose the two angles in Figure 5.11a are equal. What would be the relationship between T1 and T2?
Answer We can argue from the symmetry of the problem that the two tensions T1 and T2 would be equal to each other. Math-
ematically, if the equal angles are called u, Equation (3) becomes

T2 5 T1 S Dcos u
cos u
5 T1

which also tells us that the tensions are equal. Without knowing the specific value of u, we cannot find the values of T1 and T2.
The tensions will be equal to each other, however, regardless of the value of u.

Conceptual Example 5.5    Forces Between Cars in a Train

Train cars are connected by couplers, which are under tension as the locomotive pulls the train. Imagine you are on a train
speeding up with a constant acceleration. As you move through the train from the locomotive to the last car, measuring the
tension in each set of couplers, does the tension increase, decrease, or stay the same? When the engineer applies the brakes,
the couplers are under compression. How does this compression force vary from the locomotive to the last car? (Assume
only the brakes on the wheels of the engine are applied.)

SOLUTION
While the train is speeding up, tension decreases from the front of the train to the back. The coupler between the locomotive
and the first car must apply enough force to accelerate the rest of the cars. As you move back along the train, each coupler is
accelerating less mass behind it. The last coupler has to accelerate only the last car, and so it is under the least tension.
When the brakes are applied, the force again decreases from front to back. The coupler connecting the locomotive to the
first car must apply a large force to slow down the rest of the cars, but the final coupler must apply a force large enough to slow
down only the last car.

Example 5.6     The Runaway Car

A car of mass m is on an icy driveway inclined at an angle u as in Figure 5.12a.

(A) Find the acceleration of the car, assuming the driveway is frictionless.

SOLUTION
Conceptualize Use Figure 5.12a to conceptualize the situation. From everyday experience, we know that a car on an icy
incline will accelerate down the incline. (The same thing happens to a car on a hill with its brakes not set.)

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    5.7 Analysis Models Using Newton’s Second Law 109

5.6 c o n t i n u e d y

Categorize We categorize the car as a particle

S
under a net force because it accelerates. Further- n
more, this example belongs to a very common cat-
egory of problems in which an object moves under
the influence of gravity on an inclined plane.
mg sin u
Analyze Figure 5.12b shows the free-body diagram
for the car. The only forces acting on the car are
the normal force S n exerted by the inclined plane, u
x x
mg cos u u
which acts perpendicular to the plane, and the S S
S S Fg = m g
gravitational force F g 5 mg , which acts vertically
downward. For problems involving inclined planes,
it is convenient to choose the coordinate axes with a b
x along the incline and y perpendicular to it as in
Figure 5.12b. Using similar triangles, we can show Figure 5.12 (Example 5.6) (a) A car on a frictionless incline. (b) The free-
S body diagram for the car. The black dot represents the position of the center
that the angle between the gravitational force F g
of mass of the car. We will learn about center of mass in Chapter 9.
and the negative y axis in part b of Fig­ure 5.12 is
equal to the angle u that the incline makes with the horizontal in part a. With these axes, we represent the gravitational force
by a component of magnitude mg sin u along the positive x axis and one of magnitude mg cos u along the negative y axis. Our
choice of axes results in the car being modeled as a particle under a net force in the x direction and a particle in equilibrium
in the y direction.

Apply these models to the car: (1) SF x

5 mg sin u 5 max

(2) SF y
5 n 2 mg cos u 5 0

Solve Equation (1) for ax: (3) ax 5 g sin u

Finalize Note that the acceleration component ax is independent of the mass of the car. It depends only on the angle of incli-
nation and on g.
S
From Equation (2), we conclude that the component of F g perpendicular to the incline is balanced by the normal force;
that is, n 5 mg cos u. This situation is a case in which the normal force is not equal in magnitude to the weight of the object (as
discussed in Pitfall Prevention 5.6 on page 104).
It is possible, although inconvenient, to solve the problem with “standard” horizontal and vertical axes. You may want to try
it, just for practice.

(B) Suppose the car is released from rest at the top of the incline and the distance from the car’s front bumper to the bot-
tom of the incline is d. How long does it take the front bumper to reach the bottom of the hill, and what is the car’s speed
as it arrives there?

SOLUTION
Conceptualize Imagine the car is sliding down the hill and you use a stopwatch to measure the entire time interval until it
reaches the bottom.
Categorize This part of the problem belongs to kinematics rather than to dynamics, and Equation (3) shows that the accelera-
tion ax is constant. Therefore, you should categorize the car in this part of the problem as a particle under constant acceleration.

Analyze Defining the initial position of the front bumper xf 5 xi 1 vxi t 1 12ax t 2 S d 5 12ax t 2
as xi 5 0 and its final position as xf 5 d, and recognizing that
vxi 5 0, choose Equation 2.16 from the particle under con-
stant acceleration model:

Solve for t:
(4) t 5 Î Î 2d
ax
5
2d
g sin u

Use Equation 2.17, with vxi 5 0, to find the final velocity of vxf 2 5 2axd
the car:
(5) vxf 5 Ï2ax d 5 Ï2gd sin u
continued

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110 Chapter 5 The Laws of Motion

5.6 c o n t i n u e d

Finalize We see from Equations (4) and (5) that the time t at which the car reaches the bottom and its final speed vxf are
independent of the car’s mass, as was its acceleration. Notice that we have combined techniques from Chapter 2 with new tech-
niques from this chapter in this example. As we learn more techniques in later chapters, this process of combining analysis
models and information from several parts of the book will occur more often. In these cases, use the Analysis Model Approach
to Problem Solving discussed in Chapter 2 to help you work your way through new problems.

WHAT IF? What previously solved problem does this situation become if u 5 90°?

Answer Imagine u going to 90° in Figure 5.12. The inclined plane becomes vertical, and the car is an object in free fall!
Equation (3) becomes
ax 5 g sin u 5 g sin 90° 5 g

which is indeed the free-fall acceleration. (We find ax 5 g rather than ax 5 2g because we have chosen positive x to be down-
ward in Fig. 5.12.) Notice also that the condition n 5 mg cos u gives us n 5 mg cos 90° 5 0. That is consistent with the car falling
downward next to the vertical plane, in which case there is no contact force between the car and the plane.

S
Example 5.7    One Block Pushes Another F
m1 m2

Two blocks of masses m1 and m 2, with m1 . m 2, are placed in contact

with each other on a frictionless, horizontal surface as in Figure 5.13a. a
S
A constant horizontal force F is applied to m1 as shown. S
n1 S
n2
(A) Find the magnitude of the acceleration of the system. y S S S
P21 F P12
SOLUTION x
Conceptualize Conceptualize the situation by using Figure 5.13a and m 2g
S
S
realize that both blocks must experience the same acceleration because m 1g
they are in contact with each other and remain in contact throughout the b c
motion.
Figure 5.13 (Example 5.7) (a) A force is
Categorize We categorize this problem as one involving a particle under a applied to a block of mass m1, which pushes on
net force because a force is applied to a system of blocks and we are looking a second block of mass m 2. (b) The forces act-
for the acceleration of the system. ing on m1. (c) The forces acting on m 2.

Analyze First model the combination of two blocks as a sin- SF x

5 F 5 (m1 1 m 2)ax
gle particle under a net force. Apply Newton’s second law to F
the combination in the x direction to find the acceleration: (1) ax 5
m1 1 m2

Finalize The acceleration given by Equation (1) is the same as that of a single object of mass m1 1 m2 and subject to the same force.

(B) Determine the magnitude of the contact force between the two blocks.

SOLUTION
Conceptualize The contact force is internal to the system of two blocks. Therefore, we cannot find this force by modeling the
whole system (the two blocks) as a single particle.
Categorize Now consider each of the two blocks individually by categorizing each as a particle under a net force.

Analyze We construct a diagram of forces acting on the object for each block as shown in Figures 5.13b and 5.13c, where the
S S
contact force is denoted by P. From Figure 5.13c, we see that the only horizontal force acting on m 2 is the contact force P 12 (the
force exerted by m1 on m 2), which is directed to the right.

Apply Newton’s second law to m 2: (2) SF x

5 P 12 5 m 2ax

Substitute the value of the acceleration ax given by Equation (1)

into Equation (2):
(3) P 12 5 m 2ax 5 S m2
m1 1 m2 D F

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    5.7 Analysis Models Using Newton’s Second Law 111

5.7 c o n t i n u e d

Finalize This result shows that the contact force P 12 is less than the applied force F. The force required to accelerate block 2
alone must be less than the force required to produce the same acceleration for the two-block system.
To finalize further, let us check this expression for P 12 by considering the forces acting on m1, shown in Figure 5.13b.
S S
The horizontal forces acting on m1 are the applied force F to the right and the contact force P 21 to the left (the
S S
force exerted by m 2 on m1). From Newton’s third law, P 21 is the reaction force to P 12, so P 21 5 P 12.

Apply Newton’s second law to m1: (4) SF x

5 F 2 P 21 5 F 2 P 12 5 m1ax

Solve for P 12 and substitute the value of ax from Equation (1): P12 5 F 2 m1ax 5 F 2 m1 S F
m1 1 m2
5
m2
D S
m1 1 m2
F D
This result agrees with Equation (3), as it must.
S
WHAT IF? Imagine that the force F in Figure 5.13 is applied toward the left on the right-hand block of mass m 2.
S
Is the magnitude of the force P 12 the same as it was when the force was applied toward the right on m1?
Answer When the force is applied toward the left on m 2, the contact force must accelerate m1. In the original situation, the
S
contact force accelerates m 2. Because m1 . m 2, more force is required, so the magnitude of P 12 is greater than in the original
S
situation. To see this mathematically, modify Equation (4) appropriately and solve for P 12.

Example 5.8    Weighing a Fish in an Elevator

When the elevator accelerates When the elevator accelerates
upward, the spring scale reads downward, the spring scale
A person weighs a fish of mass m on a spring scale attached a value greater than the reads a value less than the
to the ceiling of an elevator as illustrated in Figure 5.14. weight of the fish. weight of the fish.

(A) Show that if the elevator accelerates either upward or

downward, the spring scale gives a reading that is differ- S
a
S
ent from the weight of the fish. a

SOLUTION
S
Conceptualize The reading on the scale is related to the T
9 0 1 9 0 1
extension of the spring in the scale, which is related to the force 8 2 8 2
S
7 3 7 3 T
on the end of the spring as in Figure 5.2. Imagine that the fish 6 54 6 54
is hanging on a string attached to the end of the spring. In this
case, the magnitude of the force exerted on the spring is equal
to the tension T in the string. Therefore, we are looking for T.
S
The force T pulls down on the spring and pulls up on the fish.
Categorize We can categorize this problem by identifying the
fish as a particle in equilibrium if the elevator is not accelerating
or as a particle under a net force if the elevator is accelerating. S S
mg mg
Analyze Inspect the diagrams of the forces acting on the a b
fish in Figure 5.14 and notice that the external forces acting
on the fish are the downward gravitational force F g 5 mg
S S Figure 5.14 (Example 5.8) A fish is weighed on a spring scale in an
S accelerating elevator car.
and the force T exerted by the string. If the elevator is either
at rest or moving at constant velocity, the fish is a particle in equilibrium, so S F y 5 T 2 Fg 5 0 or T 5 Fg 5 mg. (Remember that
the scalar mg is the weight of the fish.)
Now suppose the elevator is moving with an acceleration S a relative to an observer standing outside the elevator in an iner-
tial frame. The fish is now a particle under a net force.

Apply Newton’s second law to the fish: SF y

5 T 2 mg 5 may

Solve for T : (1) T 5 may 1 mg 5 mg S D S D

ay
g
1 1 5 Fg
ay
g
11

where we have chosen upward as the positive y direction. We conclude from Equation (1) that the scale reading T is greater
than the fish’s weight mg if S
a is upward, so ay is positive (Fig. 5.14a), and that the reading is less than mg if S
a is downward, so ay
is negative (Fig. 5.14b).
continued

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112 Chapter 5 The Laws of Motion

5.8 c o n t i n u e d

(B) Evaluate the scale readings for a 40.0-N fish if the elevator moves with an acceleration ay 5 62.00 m/s2.

S D
SOLUTION
2.00 mys2
Evaluate the scale reading from Equation (1) if S
a is upward: T 5 s40.0 Nd 1 1 5 48.2 N
9.80 mys2

Evaluate the scale reading from Equation (1) if S

a is downward: T 5 s40.0 Nd S 22.00 mys2
9.80 mys2
1 1 5 31.8 N D
Finalize Take this advice: if you buy a fish by weight in an elevator, make sure the fish is weighed while the elevator is either
at rest or accelerating downward! Furthermore, notice that from the information given here, one cannot determine the direc-
tion of the velocity of the elevator.

W H A T I F ? Suppose the woman in Figure 5.14 tires of watching the scale and exits the elevator. Then the elevator cable
breaks and the elevator and its remaining contents are in free fall. What happens to the reading on the scale?

Answer If the elevator falls freely, the fish’s acceleration is ay 5 2g. We see from Equation (1) that the scale reading T is zero
in this case; that is, the fish appears to be weightless.

Example 5.9    The Atwood Machine

When two objects of unequal mass are hung vertically over a frictionless pulley of
negligible mass as in Figure 5.15a, the arrangement is called an Atwood machine. The
device is sometimes used in the laboratory to determine the value of g by measuring S
the acceleration of the objects. Determine the magnitude of the acceleration of the T S
T
two objects and the tension in the lightweight string. +

SOLUTION m1 m1
m2 S m2
Conceptualize Imagine the situation pictured in Figure 5.15a in action: as one object m 1g
moves upward, the other object moves downward. Because the objects are connected
by an inextensible string, the distance one object travels in a given time interval must +
be the same as the distance the other one travels, and their velocities and accelerations S
m 2g
must be of equal magnitude.
a b
Categorize The objects in the Atwood machine are subject to the gravitational force as
well as to the forces exerted by the strings connected to them. Therefore, we can catego- Figure 5.15 (Example 5.9) The
rize this problem as one involving two particles under a net force. Atwood machine. (a) Two objects
connected by a massless inextensible
Analyze The free-body diagrams for the two objects are shown in Figure 5.15b. Two string over a frictionless pulley.
S
forces act on each object: the upward force T exerted by the string and the downward (b) The free-body diagrams for the
gravitational force. In problems such as this one in which the pulley is modeled as mass- two objects.
less and frictionless, the tension in the string on both sides of the pulley is the same. If
the pulley has mass or is subject to friction, the tensions on either side are not the same and the situation requires techniques
we will learn in Chapter 10.
We must be very careful with signs in problems such as this one. In Figure 5.15a, notice that if object 1 accelerates upward,
object 2 accelerates downward. Therefore, for consistency with signs, if we define the upward direction as positive for object 1,
we must define the downward direction as positive for object 2. With this sign convention, both objects accelerate in the same
direction as defined by the choice of sign. Furthermore, according to this sign convention, the y component of the net force
exerted on object 1 is T 2 m1g, and the y component of the net force exerted on object 2 is m 2g 2 T.

From the particle under a net force model, apply (1) SF y

5 T 2 m1g 5 m1ay
Newton’s second law to object 1:

Apply Newton’s second law to object 2: (2) SF y

5 m 2g 2 T 5 m 2ay

Add Equation (2) to Equation (1), noticing that T cancels: 2 m1g 1 m 2g 5 m1ay 1 m 2ay

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    5.7 Analysis Models Using Newton’s Second Law 113

5.9 c o n t i n u e d

Solve for the acceleration: (3) ay 5 S m2 2 m1

m1 1 m2 D g

Substitute Equation (3) into Equation (1) to find T : (4) T 5 m1(g 1 ay) 5 S 2m1m2
m1 1 m2 D g

Finalize The acceleration given by Equation (3) can be interpreted as the ratio of the magnitude of the unbalanced force on
the system (m 2 2 m1)g to the total mass of the system (m1 1 m 2), as expected from Newton’s second law. Notice that the sign of
the acceleration depends on the relative masses of the two objects; if m 2 . m1, the acceleration is positive, corresponding to
downward motion for m 2 and upward for m1. However, if m1 . m 2, Equation (3) gives a negative acceleration, indicating that m1
moves downward and m 2 moves upward.

WHAT IF? Describe the motion of the system if the objects have equal masses, that is, m1 5 m 2.

Answer If we have the same mass on both sides, the system is balanced and should not accelerate. Mathematically, we see that
if m1 5 m 2, Equation (3) gives us ay 5 0.

WHAT IF? What if one of the masses is much larger than the other: m1 .. m 2?
Answer In the case in which one mass is infinitely larger than the other, we can ignore the effect of the smaller mass.
Therefore, the larger mass should simply fall as if the smaller mass were not there. We see that if m1 .. m 2, Equation (3)
gives us ay 5 2g.

Example 5.10    Acceleration of Two Objects Connected by a Cord

y
A ball of mass m1 and a block of mass m 2 are attached by a lightweight cord
that passes over a frictionless pulley of negligible mass as in Figure 5.16a. S
a
The block lies on a frictionless incline of angle u. Find the magnitude of the S
T
m2
acceleration of the two objects and the tension in the cord.
x
S
a m1 S
m 1g
SOLUTION u

Conceptualize Imagine the objects in Figure 5.16 in motion. If m 2 moves down

the incline, then m1 moves upward. Because the objects are connected by a cord a b
(which we assume does not stretch), their accelerations have the same magni-
y
tude. Notice the normal coordinate axes in Figure 5.16b for the ball and the S
n
“tilted” axes for the block in Figure 5.16c. Just as we chose the positive direction
S
to be different for each of the objects in Example 5.9, we are free to choose T
entirely different coordinate axes for the two objects here.
m2g sin u
Categorize We can identify forces on each of the two objects and we are look-
ing for an acceleration, so we categorize the objects as particles under a net force. u x
m 2g cos u
For the block, this model is only valid for the x9 direction. In the y9 direction, S
we apply the particle in equilibrium model because the block does not accelerate m2g
in that direction. c

Analyze Consider the free-body diagrams shown in Figures 5.16b and 5.16c. Figure 5.16 (Example 5.10) (a) Two objects
connected by a lightweight cord strung over a
frictionless pulley. (b) The free-body diagram
Apply Newton’s second law 
in the y direction to the ball,
(1) SF y
5 T 2 m1g 5 m1ay 5 m1a
for the ball. (c) The free-body diagram for the
block. (The incline is frictionless.)
choosing the upward direction
as positive:

For the ball to accelerate upward, it is necessary that T . m1g. In Equation (1), we replaced ay with a because the acceleration
has only a y component.
For the block, we have chosen the x9 axis along the incline as in Figure 5.15c. For consistency with our choice for the ball,
we choose the positive x9 direction to be down the incline.
continued

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114 Chapter 5 The Laws of Motion

5.10 c o n t i n u e d
Apply the particle under a net force model to the block in
the x9 direction and the particle in equilibrium model in
(2) SF x9
5 m 2g sin u 2 T 5 m 2ax9 5 m 2a

the y9 direction: (3) SF y9

5 n 2 m 2g cos u 5 0

In Equation (2), we replaced ax9 with a because the two objects have accelerations of equal magnitude a.

Solve Equation (1) for T : (4) T 5 m1(g 1 a)

Substitute this expression for T into Equation (2): m 2g sin u 2 m1(g 1 a) 5 m 2a

Solve for a: (5) a 5 S m2 sin u 2 m1

m1 1 m2 D g

m1m2ssin u 1 1d
Substitute this expression for a into Equation (4) to
find T :
(6) T 5 3 m1 1 m2 4g
Finalize The block accelerates down the incline only if m 2 sin u . m1. If m1 . m 2 sin u, the acceleration is up the incline for
the block and downward for the ball. Also notice that the result for the acceleration, Equation (5), can be interpreted as the
magnitude of the net external force acting on the ball–block system divided by the total mass of the system; this result is con-
sistent with Newton’s second law.

WHAT IF? What happens in this situation if u 5 90°?

Answer If u 5 90°, the inclined plane becomes vertical and there is no interaction between its surface and m 2. Therefore, this
problem becomes the Atwood machine of Example 5.9. Letting u S 90° in Equations (5) and (6) causes them to reduce to
Equations (3) and (4) of Example 5.9!

WHAT IF? What if m1 5 0?

Answer If m1 5 0, then m 2 is simply sliding down an inclined plane without interacting with m1 through the string. Therefore,
this problem becomes the sliding car problem in Example 5.6. Letting m1 S 0 in Equation (5) causes it to reduce to Equation
(3) of Example 5.6!

   5.8    Forces of Friction

When an object is in motion either on a surface or in a viscous medium such as
air or water, there is resistance to the motion because the object interacts with its
surroundings. We call such resistance a force of friction. Forces of friction are very
important in our everyday lives. They allow us to walk or run and are necessary for
the motion of wheeled vehicles.
Imagine that you are working in your garden and have filled a trash can with
yard clippings. You then try to drag the trash can across the surface of your concrete
patio as in Figure 5.17a. This surface is real, not an idealized, frictionless surface.
S
If we apply an external horizontal force S
F to the trash can, acting to the right,
the trash canS remains stationary when F is small. The force on the trash can that
counteracts F and keeps it from moving acts toward the left and is called the
S
Force of static friction force
S
of static friction f s. As long as the trash can
S
is not moving, fs 5 F. Therefore,
S S
if F is increased, f s also increases. Likewise, if F decreases, f s also decreases.
Experiments show that the friction force arises from the nature of the two
surfaces: because of their roughness, contact is made only at a few locations
where peaks of the material touch. At these locations, the friction force arises in
part because one peak physically blocks the motion of a peak from the opposing
surface and in part from chemical bonding (“spot welds”) of opposing peaks as
they come into contact. Although the details of friction are quite complex at the
atomic level, this force ultimately involves an electrical interaction between atoms
or molecules.

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    5.8 Forces of Friction 115

Figure 5.17 (a) and (b) When

When the magnitude of pulling on a trash can, the direc-
For small applied the applied force S
tion of the force of friction f
forces, the magnitude exceeds the magnitude between the can and a rough sur-
of the force of static of the maximum force of face is opposite the direction of
friction equals the static friction, the trash S
the applied force F . (c) A graph of
magnitude of the can breaks free and friction force versus applied force.
applied force. accelerates to the right. Notice that fs,max . f k .

S S
n n
Motion
S S S S
fs F fk F

S S
mg mg

a b
S
|f |
fs,max

F

fs
fk  mkn

F
O Static region Kinetic region

S
If we increase the magnitude of F as in Figure 5.17b, the trash can eventually
slips. When the trash can is on the verge of slipping, fs has its maximum value fs,max
as shown in Figure 5.17c. When F exceeds fs,max, the trash can moves and accelerates
to the right. We call the friction force for an object in motion the force of kinetic Force of kinetic friction
S
friction f k. When the trash can is in motion, the force of kinetic friction on the can
is less than fs,max (Fig. 5.17c). The net force F 2 f k in the x direction produces an accel-
eration to the right, according to Newton’s second law. If F 5 f k , the acceleration
is zeroS and the trash can moves to the right with constant speed. If the applied
S
force F is removed from the moving can, the friction force f k acting to the left pro-
vides an acceleration of the trash can in the 2x direction and eventually brings it to
rest, again consistent with Newton’s second law.
Experimentally, we find that, to a good approximation, both fs,max and f k are pro-
portional to the magnitude of the normal force exerted on an object by the sur-
face. The following descriptions of the force of friction are based on experimental
observations and serve as the simplification model we shall use for forces of friction
in problem solving:
●● The magnitude of the force of static friction between any two surfaces in con-
tact can have the values
Pitfall Prevention 5.9
fs # msn (5.9) The Equal Sign Is Used in Limited
Situations In Equation 5.9, the
where the dimensionless constant ms is called the coefficient of static fric- equal sign is used only in the case
tion and n is the magnitude of the normal force exerted by one surface in which the surfaces are just
on the other. The equality in Equation 5.9 holds when the surfaces are on about to break free and begin slid-
ing. Do not fall into the common
the verge of slipping, that is, when fs 5 fs,max 5 msn. This situation is called
trap of using fs 5 msn in any static
impending motion. The inequality holds when the surfaces are not on the situation.
verge of slipping.

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116 Chapter 5 The Laws of Motion

Table 5.1 Coefficients of Friction

Pitfall Prevention 5.10
Friction Equations Equations 5.9 ms mk
and 5.10 are not vector equations. Rubber on concrete 1.0  0.8
They are relationships between Steel on steel 0.74 0.57
the magnitudes of the vectors rep- Aluminum on steel 0.61 0.47
resenting the friction and normal Glass on glass 0.94 0.4
forces. Because the friction and
Copper on steel 0.53 0.36
normal forces are perpendicular
to each other, the vectors cannot
Wood on wood 0.25–0.5 0.2
be related by a multiplicative Waxed wood on wet snow 0.14 0.1
constant. Waxed wood on dry snow — 0.04
Metal on metal (lubricated) 0.15 0.06
Pitfall Prevention 5.11 Teflon on Teflon 0.04 0.04
The Direction of the Friction Ice on ice 0.1  0.03
Force Sometimes, an incorrect Synovial joints in humans 0.01 0.003
statement about the friction force Note: All values are approximate. In some cases, the coefficient of friction can exceed 1.0.
between an object and a surface is
made—“the friction force on an
object is opposite to its motion or ●● The magnitude of the force of kinetic friction acting between two surfaces is
impending motion”—rather than
the correct phrasing, “the friction f k 5 mkn (5.10)
force on an object is opposite to
its motion or impending motion where mk is the coefficient of kinetic friction. Although the coefficient of
relative to the surface.” kinetic friction can vary with speed, we shall usually neglect any such varia-
tions in this text.
●● The values of mk and ms depend on the nature of the surfaces, but mk is gener-
ally less than ms . Typical values range from around 0.03 to 1.0. Table 5.1 lists
some reported values.
●● The direction of the friction force on an object is parallel to the surface with
which the object is in contact and opposite to the actual motion (kinetic friction)
or the impending motion (static friction) of the object relative to the surface.
30 ●● The coefficients of friction are nearly independent of the area of contact
S
F between the surfaces. We might expect that placing an object on the side
having the most area might increase the friction force. Although this method
provides more points in contact, the weight of the object is spread out over
a a larger area and the individual points are not pressed together as tightly.
Because these effects approximately compensate for each other, the friction
force is independent of the area.
S
F Q uick Quiz 5.6 You press your physics textbook flat against a vertical wall
30 with your hand. What is the direction of the friction force exerted by the wall
on the book? (a) downward (b) upward (c) out from the wall (d) into the wall
b Q uick Quiz 5.7 Charlie is playing with his daughter Torrey in the snow. She sits
Figure 5.18 (Quick Quiz 5.7) A on a sled and asks him to slide her across a flat, horizontal field. Charlie has a
father slides his daughter on a sled choice of (a) pushing her from behind by applying a force downward on her
either by (a) pushing down on her shoulders at 30° below the horizontal (Fig. 5.18a) or (b) attaching a rope to
shoulders or (b) pulling up on a the front of the sled and pulling with a force at 30° above the horizontal
rope.
(Fig. 5.18b). Which would be easier for him and why?

Example 5.11   Experimental Determination of ms and mk

The following is a simple method of measuring coefficients of friction. Suppose a block is placed on a rough surface
inclined relative to the horizontal as shown in Figure 5.19. The incline angle is increased until the block starts to move.
Show that you can obtain ms by measuring the critical angle uc at which this slipping just occurs.

SOLUTION
Conceptualize Consider Figure 5.19 and imagine that the block tends to slide down the incline due to the gravitational force.
To simulate the situation, place a coin on this book’s cover and tilt the book until the coin begins to slide. Notice how this

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    5.8 Forces of Friction 117

5.11 c o n t i n u e d y
example differs from Example 5.6. When there is no friction on an incline, any angle of
the incline will cause a stationary object to begin moving. When there is friction, how-
S
ever, there is no movement of the object for angles less than the critical angle. S n
fs
Categorize The block is subject to various forces. Because we are raising the plane to
mg sin u
the angle at which the block is just ready to begin to move but is not moving, we catego-
rize the block as a particle in equilibrium. mg cos u
u u
Analyze The diagram in Figure 5.19 shows the forces on the block: the gravitational mg
S
x
S S S
force mg , the normal force n , and the force of static friction f s . We choose x to be par-
allel to the plane and y perpendicular to it. Figure 5.19 (Example 5.11) The
external forces exerted on a block
lying on a rough incline are the grav-
From the particle in equilibrium model,
apply Equation 5.8 to the block in both
(1) SF x
5 mg sin u 2 fs 5 0
itational force mSg , the normal force
S
S
the x and y directions: (2) SF y
5 n 2 mg cos u 5 0 n , and the force of friction fs . For
convenience, the gravitational force

S D
is resolved into a component mg sin u
n along the incline and a component
Substitute mg 5 n/cos u from Equation (2) (3) fs 5 mg sin u 5 sin u 5 n tan u mg cos u perpendicular to the incline.
cos u
into Equation (1):

When the incline angle is increased until msn 5 n tan uc

the block is on the verge of slipping, the ms 5 tan uc
force of static friction has reached its
maximum value msn. The angle u in this
situation is the critical angle uc . Make
these substitutions in Equation (3):
We have shown, as requested, that the coefficient of static friction is related only to the critical angle. For example, if the block
just slips at uc 5 20.0°, we find that ms 5 tan 20.0° 5 0.364.

Finalize Once the block starts to move at u $ uc , it accelerates down the incline and the force of friction is f k 5 mkn.

WHAT IF? How could you determine mk for the block and incline?
Answer If u is reduced to a value less than uc , it may be possible to find an angle u9c such that the block moves down the incline
with constant speed as a particle in equilibrium again (ax 5 0). In this case, use Equations (1) and (2) with fs replaced by f k to
find mk: mk 5 tan u9c , where u9c , uc .

Example 5.12    The Sliding Hockey Puck

A hockey puck on a frozen pond is given an initial speed of 20.0 m/s. If the puck S
n Motion
always remains on the ice and slides 115 m before coming to rest, determine the coef-
ficient of kinetic friction between the puck and ice.
S
SOLUTION fk

Conceptualize Imagine that the puck in Figure 5.20 slides to the right. The kinetic
friction force acts to the left and slows the puck, which eventually comes to rest due
to that force. mg
S

Categorize The forces acting on the puck are identified in Figure 5.20, but the text Figure 5.20 (Example 5.12) After
of the problem provides kinematic variables. Therefore, we categorize the problem the puck is given an initial velocity
in several ways. First, it involves modeling the puck as a particle under a net force in to the right, the only external forces
the horizontal direction: kinetic friction causes the puck to accelerate. There is no acting on it are the gravitational
force m g , the normal force S
S
n , and
acceleration of the puck in the vertical direction, so we use the particle in equilibrium S
the force of kinetic friction f k .
model for that direction. Furthermore, because we model the force of kinetic friction
as independent of speed, the acceleration of the puck is constant. So, we can also cate-
gorize this problem by modeling the puck as a particle under constant acceleration.
continued

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118 Chapter 5 The Laws of Motion

5.12 c o n t i n u e d

Analyze First, let’s find the acceleration algebraically in terms of the coefficient of kinetic friction, using Newton’s second
law. Once we know the acceleration of the puck and the distance it travels, the equations of kinematics can be used to find the
numerical value of the coefficient of kinetic friction.

Apply the particle under a net force model in the

x direction to the puck:
(1) SF x
5 2 f k 5 max

Apply the particle in equilibrium model in the

y direction to the puck:
(2) SF y
5 n 2 mg 5 0

Substitute n 5 mg from Equation (2) and f k 5 mkn into 2 mkn 5 2 mkmg 5 max
Equation (1):    ax 5 2 mk g

The negative sign means the acceleration is to the left in Figure 5.20. Because the velocity of the puck is to the right, the puck is
slowing down. The acceleration is independent of the mass of the puck and is constant because we assume mk remains constant.

Apply the particle under constant acceleration model to 0 5 vxi2 1 2axxf 5 vxi2 2 2mk gxf
the puck, choosing Equation 2.17 from the model, vxf 2 5
vxi2 1 2ax(xf 2 xi ), with xi 5 0 and vxf 5 0:
vxi 2
Solve for the coefficient of kinetic friction: mk 5
2gxf
s20.0 mysd2
Substitute the numerical values: mk 5 5 0.177
2s9.80 mys2ds115 md

Finalize Notice that mk is dimensionless, as it should be, and that it has a low value, consistent with an object sliding on ice.

Example 5.13    Acceleration of Two Connected Objects When Friction Is Present

y
A block of mass m2 on a rough, horizontal surface is connected F sin u
S S S
to a ball of mass m1 by a lightweight cord over a lightweight, a x S n F
S
frictionless pulley as shown in Figure 5.21a. A force of magni- F S
T u
m2 u
T
tude F at an angle u with the horizontal is applied to the block S
m 2 F cos u
fk
as shown, and the block slides to the right. The coefficient of
kinetic friction between the block and surface is mk . Deter- m1
mine the magnitude of the acceleration of the two objects. m1g
S
m 2g
S
S
a m1

SOLUTION a b c
S S
Conceptualize Imagine what happens as F is applied to the Figure 5.21 (Example 5.13) (a) The external force F applied as
S shown can cause the block to accelerate to the right. (b, c) Diagrams
block. Assuming F is large enough to break the block free
showing the forces on the two objects, assuming the block acceler-
from static friction but not large enough to lift the block, ates to the right and the ball accelerates upward.
the block slides to the right and the ball rises.
Categorize We can identify forces and we want an acceleration, so we categorize this problem as one involving two particles
under a net force, the ball and the block. Because we assume that the block does not rise into the air due to the applied force, we
model the block as a particle in equilibrium in the vertical direction.

Analyze First draw force diagrams for the two objects as shown in Figures 5.21b and 5.21c. Notice that the string exerts a
S
force of magnitude T on both objects. The applied force F has x and y components F cos u and F sin u, respectively. Because
the two objects are connected, we can equate the magnitudes of the x component of the acceleration of the block and the y
component of the acceleration of the ball and call them both a. Let us assume the motion of the block is to the right.

Apply the particle under a net force model to the block in the
horizontal direction:
(1) SF x
5 F cos u 2 f k 2 T 5 m 2ax 5 m 2a

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 Summary 119

5.13 c o n t i n u e d
Because the block moves only horizontally, apply the particle
in equilibrium model to the block in the vertical direction:
(2) SF y
5 n 1 F sin u 2 m 2g 5 0

Apply the particle under a net force model to the ball in the
vertical direction:
(3) SF y
5 T 2 m1g 5 m1ay 5 m1a

Solve Equation (2) for n: n 5 m 2g 2 F sin u

Substitute n into f k 5 mkn from Equation 5.10: (4) f k 5 mk(m 2g 2 F sin u)

Substitute Equation (4) and the value of T from F cos u 2 mk(m 2g 2 F sin u) 2 m1(a 1 g) 5 m 2a
Equation (3) into Equation (1):
F scos u 1 mk sin ud 2 sm1 1 mkm2dg
Solve for a: (5) a 5
m1 1 m2

Finalize The acceleration of the block can be either to the right or to the left depending on the sign of the numerator in
Equation (5). If the velocity is to the left, we must reverse the sign of f k in Equation (1) because the force of kinetic friction must
oppose the motion of the block relative to the surface. In this case, the value of a is the same as in Equation (5), with the two
plus signs in the numerator changed to minus signs.
S
What does Equation (5) reduce to if the force F is removed and the surface becomes frictionless? Call this expression
Equation (6). Does this algebraic expression match your intuition about the physical situation in this case? Now go back to
Example 5.10 and let angle u go to zero in Equation (5) of that example. How does the resulting equation compare with your
Equation (6) here in Example 5.13? Should the algebraic expressions compare in this way based on the physical situations?

Summary
››Definitions
An inertial frame of reference is a frame in which an object that does not interact with We define force as that which causes
other objects experiences zero acceleration. Any frame moving with constant velocity a change in motion of an object.
relative to an inertial frame is also an inertial frame.

››Concepts and Principles

Newton’s first law states that it is possible to find an inertial frame in which an object that The gravitational force exerted on
does not interact with other objects experiences zero acceleration, or, equivalently, in the an object is equal to the product of its
absence of an external force, when viewed from an inertial frame, an object at rest remains mass (a scalar quantity) and the free-
at rest and an object in uniform motion in a straight line maintains that motion. fall acceleration:
S
Newton’s second law states that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to F g 5 mS
g (5.5)
the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass. The weight of an object is the magni-
Newton’s third law states that if two objects interact, the force exerted by object 1 on tude of the gravitational force acting
object 2 is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force exerted by object on the object:
2 on object 1. Fg 5 mg (5.6)

S
The maximum force of static friction f s,max between an object and a surface is pro- When an object slides over a surface,
portional to the normal force acting on the object. In general, fs # msn, where ms is the the magnitude of the force of kinetic
S
coefficient of static friction and n is the magnitude of the normal force. friction f k is given by f k 5 mkn, where
mk is the coefficient of kinetic friction.

continued

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120 Chapter 5 The Laws of Motion

››Analysis Models for Problem Solving

Particle Under a Net Force If a particle of mass m expe- Particle in Equilibrium If a particle maintains a constant velocity
riences a nonzero net force, its acceleration is related to (so that S
a 5 0), which could include a velocity of zero, the forces on
the net force by Newton’s second law: the particle balance and Newton’s second law reduces to

o F 5 m Sa (5.2) o F 50
S S
(5.8)
S S
m a a0
S
m
F S
F  0

Think–Pair–Share
See the Preface for an explanation of the icons used in this problems set. the thrower and the catcher of the egg, and determine a typical
For additional assessment items for this section, go to speed with which the egg must be thrown so that it covers the
distance without hitting the ground or passing over the head
1. You are a member of an expert witness group that provides sci- of the catcher. Estimate the mass and diameter of the egg (the
entific services to the legal community. Your group has been shorter diameter, perpendicular to the longest dimension).
asked by a defense attorney to argue at trial that a driver was From these data, estimate the force on the egg exerted by your
not exceeding the speed limit. You are provided with the fol- hand if your hand is held stiffly and doesn’t move when the
lowing data: The mass of the car is 1.50 3 103 kg. The mass of egg hits it. Now, simulate moving your hands backward while
the driver is 95.0 kg. The coefficient of kinetic friction between you catch the egg. Have a group member estimate the distance
the car’s tires and the roadway is 0.580. The coefficient of over which your hands move in this process. From these data,
static friction between the car’s tires and the roadway is 0.820. estimate the force on the egg exerted by your hand in this
The posted speed limit on the road is 25 mi/h. The roadway catching process. Compare the forces of your hand on the egg
was dry and the weather was sunny at the time of the incident. between these two methods of catching the egg.
You are also provided with the following description of 3. Activity A simple procedure can be followed to measure
the incident: The driver was driving up a hill that makes the coefficient of friction using the technique discussed in
an angle of 17.5° with the horizontal. The driver saw a dog Example 5.11. Lay your book down on a table and place a
run into the street, slammed on the brakes and left a skid coin on the cover far from the spine. Slowly open the book
mark 17.0 m long. The car came to rest at the end of the skid cover so that it forms an inclined plane down which the coin
mark. The driver did not hit the dog, but the sound of the will slide. Watch carefully and stop opening the cover at the
screeching tires drew the attention of a nearby policeman, instant the coin begins to slide. (a) Measure this critical angle
who ticketed the driver for speeding. that the book cover makes with the horizontal with a protrac-
(a) Should your group agree to offer testimony for the tor. From this angle, determine the coefficient of static fric-
defense in this case? (b) Why or why not? tion between the coin and the cover. (b) Place a loop of tape
2. Consider the egg-catching activity discussed in the chap- between two coins and repeat the procedure above for the
ter-opening storyline. Discuss in your group and make esti- two-coin stack. How does the coefficient of static friction for
mates of the following. Identify a separation distance between the stack compare to that for the single coin?

Problems
See the Preface for an explanation of the icons used in this problems set. 2. One or more external forces, large enough to be easily mea-
For additional assessment items for this section, go to sured, are exerted on each object enclosed in a dashed box
shown in Figure 5.1. Identify the reaction to each of these
x forces.
Section 5.1 The Concept of Force y 14°
S
T SECTION 5.4 Newton’s Second Law
1. 
A certain orthodontist uses a
wire brace to align a patient’s 14° 3. A 3.00-kg object undergoes an acceleration given by
crooked tooth as in Figure P5.1. S
V S ⁄ ⁄
T a 5 s2.00 i 1 5.00 j d m/s2. Find (a) the resultant force acting
The tension in the wire is
on the object and (b) the magnitude of the resultant force.
adjusted to have a magnitude of
18.0 N. Find the magnitude of 4. The average speed of a nitrogen molecule in air is about
the net force exerted by the wire 6.70 3 102 m/s, and its mass is 4.68 3 10226 kg. (a) If it takes
on the crooked tooth. 3.00 3 10213 s for a nitrogen molecule to hit a wall and
Figure P5.1
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Problems 121

rebound with the same speed but moving in the opposite Section 5.6 Newton’s Third Law
direction, what is the average acceleration of the molecule
14. A brick of mass M has been placed on a rubber cushion of
during this time interval? (b) What average force does the
mass m. Together they are sliding to the right at constant
molecule exert on the wall?
S S
velocity on an ice-covered parking lot. (a) Draw a free-body
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
5. Two forces, F1 5 s26.00 i 2 4.00 j d N and F2 5 s23.00 i 1 diagram of the brick and identify each force acting on it.
⁄
7.00 j d N, act on a particle of mass 2.00 kg that is initially (b) Draw a free-body diagram of the cushion and identify
at rest at coordinates (22.00 m, 14.00 m). (a) What are the each force acting on it. (c) Identify all of the action–­reaction
components of the particle’s velocity at t 5 10.0 s? (b) In what pairs of forces in the brick–cushion–planet system.
direction is the particle moving at t 5 10.0 s? (c) What dis-
placement does the particle undergo during the first 10.0 s? Section 5.7 Analysis Models Using Newton’s Second Law
(d) What are the coordinates of the particle at t 5 10.0 s?
15. Review. Figure P5.15 shows a
6. The force exerted by the wind on the sails of a sailboat is worker poling a boat—a very effi-
T 390 N north. The water exerts a force of 180 N east. If the cient mode of transportation—
boat (including its crew) has a mass of 270 kg, what are the across a shallow lake. He pushes
magnitude and direction of its acceleration? parallel to the length of the light
S pole, exerting a force of magnitude

REBECCA BLACKWELL/AP Images

7. Review. Three forces acting on an object are given by F 1 5
⁄ ⁄ S ⁄ ⁄ S 240 N on the bottom of the lake.
V (22.00 i 1 2.00 j ) N, and F 5(5.00 i 2 3.00 j ) N, and F 5
⁄ 2 3
s245.0 i d N. The object experiences an acceleration of mag- Assume the pole lies in the verti-
nitude 3.75 m/s2. (a) What is the direction of the accelera- cal plane containing the keel of
tion? (b) What is the mass of the object? (c) If the object is the boat. At one moment, the pole
initially at rest, what is its speed after 10.0 s? (d) What are makes an angle of 35.0° with the
the velocity components of the object after 10.0 s? vertical and the water exerts a hor-
izontal drag force of 47.5 N on the
8. If a single constant force acts on an object that moves on a boat, opposite to its forward veloc-
straight line, the object’s velocity is a linear function of time. ity of magnitude 0.857 m/s. The
Figure P5.15
The equation v 5 vi 1 at gives its velocity v as a function of mass of the boat including its cargo and the worker is 370 kg.
time, where a is its constant acceleration. What if velocity is (a) The water exerts a buoyant force vertically upward on the
instead a linear function of position? Assume that as a par- boat. Find the magnitude of this force. (b) Model the forces as
ticular object moves through a resistive medium, its speed constant over a short interval of time to find the velocity of the
decreases as described by the equation v 5 vi 2 kx, where k boat 0.450 s after the moment described.
is a constant coefficient and x is the position of the object.
Find the law describing the total force acting on this object. 16. An iron bolt of mass 65.0 g hangs from a string 35.7 cm long.
The top end of the string is fixed. Without touching it, a mag-
SECTION 5.5 The Gravitational Force and Weight net attracts the bolt so that it remains stationary, but is displaced
horizontally 28.0 cm to the right from the previously vertical
9. Review. The gravitational force exerted on a baseball is line of the string. The magnet is located to the right of the bolt
2.21 N down. A pitcher throws the ball horizontally with and on the same vertical level as the bolt in the final configu-
velocity 18.0 m/s by uniformly accelerating it along a straight ration. (a) Draw a free-body diagram of the bolt. (b) Find the
horizontal line for a time interval of 170 ms. The ball starts tension in the string. (c) Find the magnetic force on the bolt.
from rest. (a) Through what distance does it move before its
release? (b) What are the magnitude and direction of the 17. A block slides down a frictionless plane having an inclina-
force the pitcher exerts on the ball? V tion of u 5 15.0°. The block starts from rest at the top, and
the length of the incline is 2.00 m. (a) Draw a free-body dia-
10. Review. The gravitational force exerted on a baseball gram of the block. Find (b) the acceleration of the block
⁄ ⁄
is 2Fg j . A pitcher throws the ball with velocity v i by uni- and (c) its speed when it reaches the bottom of the incline.
formly accelerating it along a straight horizontal line for
a time interval of Dt 5 t 2 0 5 t. (a) Starting from rest, 18. A bag of cement whose weight is Fg
through what distance does the ball move before its release? hangs in equilibrium from three u1 u2
(b) What force does the pitcher exert on the ball? wires as shown in Figure P5.18. Two
of the wires make angles u1 and u2 T1 T2
11. Review. An electron of mass 9.11 3 10231 kg has an initial with the horizontal. Assuming the
T speed of 3.00 3 105 m/s. It travels in a straight line, and its
system is in equilibrium, show that T3
speed increases to 7.00 3 105 m/s in a distance of 5.00 cm. the tension in the left-hand wire is
Assuming its acceleration is constant, (a) determine the mag- Fg cos u2
nitude of the force exerted on the electron and (b) compare T1 5
CEMENT

this force with the weight of the electron, which we ignored. sin su1 1 u2d Fg

12. If a man weighs 900 N on the Earth, what would he weigh on 19. The distance between two telephone
Jupiter, where the free-fall acceleration is 25.9 m/s2? poles is 50.0 m. When a 1.00-kg Figure P5.18
bird lands on the telephone wire midway between the poles,
13. You stand on the seat of a chair and then hop off. (a) During
the wire sags 0.200 m. (a) Draw a free-body diagram of the
the time interval you are in flight down to the floor, the
bird. (b) How much tension does the bird produce in the
Earth moves toward you with an acceleration of what order
wire? Ignore the weight of the wire.
of magnitude? In your solution, explain your logic. Model
the Earth as a perfectly solid object. (b) The Earth moves 20. An object of mass m 5 1.00 kg is observed to have an accel-
toward you through a distance of what order of magnitude? eration S
a with a magnitude of 10.0 m/s2 in a direction 60.0°

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Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
122 Chapter 5 The Laws of Motion

east of north. Figure P5.20 magnitude of the force. If a strut pulls on a pin, it is in ten-
S
shows a view of the object from S a sion. If it pushes, the strut is in compression. Identify
S F2
above. The force F 2 acting on 60.0 whether each strut is in tension or in compression.
the object has a magnitude of
B
5.00 N and is directed north.
Determine the magnitude and m S
F1 60.0°
direction of the one other hori- A 50.0°
S
zontal force F 1 acting on the
object.
Figure P5.20

21. A simple accelerometer is constructed inside a car by sus-

pending an object of mass m from a string of length L that is Figure P5.24
tied to the car’s ceiling. As the car accelerates the string–
object system makes a constant angle of u with the vertical. 25. An object of mass m1 hangs from a string that passes over a
(a) Assuming that the string mass is negligible compared very light fixed pulley P1 as shown in Figure P5.25. The
with m, derive an expression for the car’s acceleration in string connects to a second very light pulley P2. A second
terms of u and show that it is independent of the mass m and string passes around this pulley with one end attached to a
the length L. (b) Determine the acceleration of the car wall and the other to an object of mass m 2 on a frictionless,
when u 5 23.0°. horizontal table. (a) If a1 and a 2 are the accelerations of m1
and m 2, respectively, what is the relation between these
22. An object of mass m1 5 5.00 kg placed m1 accelerations? Find expressions for (b) the tensions in the
on a frictionless, horizontal table
strings and (c) the accelerations a1 and a 2 in terms of the
V is connected to a string that passes
masses m1 and m 2, and g.
over a pulley and then is fastened to a
hanging object of mass m 2 5 9.00 kg m2 P2
as shown in Figure P5.22. (a) Draw P1
free-body diagrams of both objects. m2
Find (b) the magnitude of the accel-
Figure P5.22
Problems 22 and 29.
eration of the objects and (c) the ten-
sion in the string.
S
23. In the system shown in Figure P5.23, a horizontal force F x
T acts on an object of mass m 2 5 8.00 kg. The horizontal sur- m1
face is frictionless. Consider the acceleration of the sliding
object as a function of Fx . (a) For what values of Fx does the
object of mass m1 5 2.00 kg accelerate upward? (b) For what Figure P5.25
values of Fx is the tension in the cord zero? (c) Plot the accel-
eration of the m 2 object versus Fx . Include values of Fx from
2100 N to 1100 N. Section 5.8 Forces of Friction
S 26. Why is the following situation impossible? Your 3.80-kg physics
m2 Fx
book is placed next to you on the horizontal seat of your
car. The coefficient of static friction between the book
and the seat is 0.650, and the coefficient of kinetic fric-
m1 tion is 0.550. You are traveling forward at 72.0 km/h
and brake to a stop with constant acceleration over a
distance of 30.0 m. Your physics book remains on the seat
Figure P5.23 rather than sliding forward onto the floor.
24. A car is stuck in the mud. A tow truck pulls on the car with
27. Consider a large truck carrying a heavy load, such as steel
the arrangement shown in Figure P5.24. The tow cable is
beams. A significant hazard for the driver is that the load may
under a tension of 2 500 N and pulls downward and to the
slide forward, crushing the cab, if the truck stops suddenly in
left on the pin at its upper end. The light pin is held in equi-
an accident or even in braking. Assume, for example, that a
librium by forces exerted by the two bars A and B. Each bar
10 000-kg load sits on the flatbed of a 20 000-kg truck mov-
is a strut; that is, each is a bar whose weight is small com-
ing at 12.0 m/s. Assume that the load is not tied down to the
pared to the forces it exerts and which exerts forces only
truck, but has a coefficient of friction of 0.500 with the flatbed
through hinge pins at its ends. Each strut exerts a force
of the truck. (a) Calculate the minimum stopping distance
directed parallel to its length. Determine the force of ten-
for which the load will not slide forward relative to the truck.
sion or compression in each strut. Proceed as follows. Make
(b) Is any piece of data unnecessary for the solution?
a guess as to which way (pushing or pulling) each force acts
on the top pin. Draw a free-body diagram of the pin. Use 28. Before 1960, people believed that the maximum attainable
the condition for equilibrium of the pin to translate the coefficient of static friction for an automobile tire on a road-
free-body diagram into equations. From the equations cal- way was ms 5 1. Around 1962, three companies indepen-
culate the forces exerted by struts A and B. If you obtain a dently developed racing tires with coefficients of 1.6. This
positive answer, you correctly guessed the direction of the problem shows that tires have improved further since then.
force. A negative answer means that the direction should be The shortest time interval in which a piston-engine car ini-
reversed, but the absolute value correctly gives the tially at rest has covered a distance of one-quarter mile is

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 Problems 123

about 4.43 s. (a) Assume the car’s rear wheels lift the front to determine the coefficient, you imagine that there is an
wheels off the pavement as shown in Figure P5.28. emergency and start running across the room. You have a
What minimum value of ms is necessary to achieve the coworker time you, and find that you can begin at rest and
record time? (b) Suppose the driver were able to increase move 4.23 m in 1.20 s. If you try to move faster than this,
his or her engine power, keeping other things equal. How your feet slip. Assuming your acceleration is constant, does
would this change affect the elapsed time? your footwear qualify for the postal regulation?
33. You have been called as an expert witness for a trial in which

Christopher Halloran/[Link]
CR a driver has been charged with speeding but is claiming
innocence. He claims to have slammed on his brakes to
avoid rear-ending another car, but tapped the back of the
other car just as he came to rest. You have been hired by the
prosecution to prove that the driver was indeed speeding.
You have received data as follows from the police: Skid
marks left by the driver are 56.0 m long and the roadway is
level. Tires matching those on the car of the driver have
been dragged over the same roadway to determine that the
Figure P5.28 coefficient of kinetic friction between the tires and the
roadway is 0.82 at all points along the skid mark. The speed
29. A 9.00-kg hanging object is connected by a light, inextensible
limit on the road is 35 mi/h. Construct an argument to be
V cord over a light, frictionless pulley to a 5.00-kg block that is
used in court to show that the driver was indeed speeding.
sliding on a flat table (Fig. P5.22). Taking the coefficient of
kinetic friction as 0.200, find the tension in the string. 34. A block of mass 3.00 kg is pushed up
S
against a wall by a force P that makes an
30. The person in Figure P5.30
weighs 170 lb. As seen from the angle of u 5 50.0° with the horizontal as
front, each light crutch makes shown in Figure P5.34. The coefficient
an angle of 22.0° with the verti- of static friction between the block
u
cal. Half of the person’s weight and the wall is 0.250. (a) Determine
S
is supported by the crutches. the possible values for the magnitude P
S
The other half is supported of P that allow the block to remain
by the vertical forces of the stationary. (b) Describe what happens
S
Figure P5.34
ground on the person’s feet. if uP u has a larger value and what hap-
Assuming that the person is pens if it is smaller. (c) Repeat parts (a) and (b), assuming the
moving with constant velocity 22.0 22.0 force makes an angle of u 5 13.0° with the horizontal.
and the force exerted by the 35. Review. A Chinook salmon can swim underwater at 3.58 m/s,
ground on the crutches acts and it can also jump vertically upward, leaving the water with
along the crutches, determine a speed of 6.26 m/s. A record salmon has length 1.50 m and
(a) the smallest possible coeffi-
Figure P5.30
mass 61.0 kg. Consider the fish swimming straight upward in
cient of friction between crutches and ground and (b) the the water below the surface of a lake. The gravitational force
magnitude of the compression force in each crutch. exerted on it is very nearly canceled out by a buoyant force
31. Three objects are connected on a table as shown in Fig- exerted by the water as we will study in Chapter 14. The fish
ure P5.31. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the experiences an upward force P exerted by the water on its
block of mass m 2 and the table is 0.350. The objects have threshing tail fin and a downward fluid friction force that we
model as acting on its front end. Assume the fluid friction
masses of m1 5 4.00 kg, m 2 5 1.00 kg, and m 3 5 2.00 kg, and
force disappears as soon as the fish’s head breaks the water
the pulleys are frictionless. (a) Draw a free-body diagram of
surface and assume the force on its tail is constant. Model the
each object. (b) Determine the acceleration of each object,
gravitational force as suddenly switching full on when half
including its direction. (c) Determine the tensions in the two
the length of the fish is out of the water. Find the value of P.
cords. What If? (d) If the tabletop were smooth, would the
tensions increase, decrease, or remain the same? Explain. 36. A 5.00-kg block is placed on top of a 10.0-kg block (Fig.
P5.36). A horizontal force of 45.0 N is applied to the 10-kg
m2
block, and the 5.00-kg block is tied to the wall. The coef-
ficient of kinetic friction between all moving surfaces is
0.200. (a) Draw a free-body diagram for each block and
m1 m3 identify the action–reaction forces between the blocks. (b)
Determine the tension in the string and the magnitude of
the acceleration of the 10.0-kg block.

Figure P5.31 5.00

kg
32. You are working as a letter sorter in a U.S Post Office. Postal
CR regulations require that employees’ footwear must have 10.0 kg F = 45.0 N
a minimum coefficient of static friction of 0.5 on a speci-
fied tile surface. You are wearing athletic shoes for which
you do not know the coefficient of static friction. In order
Figure P5.36

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
124 Chapter 5 The Laws of Motion

Additional Problems 41. An inventive child named Nick wants to reach an apple in a
tree without climbing the tree. Sitting in a chair connected
37. A black aluminum glider floats on a film of air above a level
to a rope that passes over a frictionless pulley (Fig. P5.41),
aluminum air track. Aluminum feels essentially no force in a
Nick pulls on the loose end of the rope with such a force
magnetic field, and air resistance is negligible. A strong mag-
that the spring scale reads 250 N. Nick’s true weight is
net is attached to the top of the glider, forming a total mass
320 N, and the chair weighs 160 N. Nick’s feet are not touch-
of 240 g. A piece of scrap iron attached to one end stop on the
ing the ground. (a) Draw one pair of diagrams showing the
track attracts the magnet with a force of 0.823 N when the iron
forces for Nick and the chair considered as separate systems
and the magnet are separated by 2.50 cm. (a) Find the accel-
and another diagram for Nick and the chair considered as
eration of the glider at this instant. (b) The scrap iron is now
one system. (b) Show that the acceleration of the system is
attached to another green glider, forming total mass 120 g.
upward and find its magnitude. (c) Find the force Nick
Find the acceleration of each glider when the gliders are simul-
exerts on the chair.
taneously released at 2.50-cm separation.
38. Why is the following situation impossible? A book sits on an
inclined plane on the surface of the Earth. The angle of the
plane with the horizontal is 60.0°. The coefficient of kinetic
friction between the book and the plane is 0.300. At time
t 5 0, the book is released from rest. The book then slides
through a distance of 1.00 m, measured along the plane, in
a time interval of 0.483 s.
39. Two blocks of masses m1 and m 2 are placed on a table in con-
tact with each other as discussed in Example 5.7 and shown
in Figure 5.13a. The coefficient of kinetic friction between
the block of mass m1 and the table is m1, and that between
the block of mass m 2 and the table is m2. A horizontal force
of magnitude F is applied to the block of mass m1. We wish to
find P, the magnitude of the contact force between the
blocks. (a) Draw diagrams showing the forces for each
block. (b) What is the net force on the ­system of two blocks? Figure P5.41 Problems 41 and 44.
(c) What is the net force acting on m1? (d) What is the net
force acting on m 2? (e) Write Newton’s second law in the x 42. A rope with mass mr is attached S
direction for each block. (f) Solve the two equations in two mr F
to a block with mass mb as in Fig- mb
unknowns for the acceleration a of the blocks in terms of ure P5.42. The block rests on a
the masses, the applied force F, the coefficients of friction, frictionless, horizontal surface.
and g. (g) Find the magnitude P of the contact force between The rope does not stretch. The
the blocks in terms of the same quantities. Figure P5.42
free end of the rope is pulled
S
40. A 1.00-kg glider on a horizontal air track is pulled by a to the right with a horizontal force F. (a) Draw force dia-
string at an angle u. The taut string runs over a pulley and grams for the rope and the block, noting that the tension
is attached to a hanging object of mass 0.500 kg as shown in the rope is not uniform. (b) Find the acceleration of the
in Figure P5.40. (a) Show that the speed vx of the glider system in terms of mb, mr , and F. (c) Find the magnitude of
and the speed vy of the hanging object are related by vx 5 uvy, the force the rope exerts on the block. (d) What happens
where u 5 z(z 2 2 h 02)21/2. (b) The glider is released from rest. to the force on the block as the rope’s mass approaches zero?
Show that at that instant the acceleration ax of the glider What can you state about the tension in a light cord joining a
and the acceleration ay of the hanging object are related by pair of moving objects?
ax 5 uay . (c) Find the tension in the string at the instant the 43. In Example 5.7, we pushed on two blocks on a table. Sup-
glider is released for h 0 5 80.0 cm and u 5 30.0°. pose three blocks are in contact with one another on a
y frictionless, horizontal surface as shown in Figure P5.43.
S
A horizontal force F is applied to m1. Take m1 5 2.00 kg,
m 2 5 3.00 kg, m 3 5 4.00 kg, and F 5 18.0 N. (a) Draw a sep-
z arate free-body diagram for each block. (b) Determine the
h0 acceleration of the blocks. (c) Find the resultant force on
x each block. (d) Find the magnitudes of the contact forces
vx θ between the blocks. (e) You are working on a construction
project. A coworker is nailing up plasterboard on one side of
m a light partition, and you are on the opposite side, providing
“backing” by leaning against the wall with your back push-
vy ing on it. Every hammer blow makes your back sting. The
supervisor helps you put a heavy block of wood between the
wall and your back. Using the situation analyzed in parts (a)
through (d) as a model, explain how this change works to
make your job more comfortable.
Figure P5.40

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Problems 125

engines in reverse at maximum power, such that the total

force exerted by the frictional drag force of the water and
S
F m1 m2 m3 the force of the water on the propellers was 1.25 3 105 N
in a direction away from the reef. From this information,
construct a convincing argument that nothing the captain
could do in this situation could have prevented the ship
Figure P5.43 from striking the reef.
44. In the situation described in Problem 41 and Figure P5.41, 48. A flat cushion of mass m is
the masses of the rope, spring balance, and pulley are negli- released from rest at the corner of Cushion
gible. Nick’s feet are not touching the ground. (a) Assume the roof of a building, at height h. Wind
Nick is momentarily at rest when he stops pulling down on force
A wind blowing along the side of
the rope and passes the end of the rope to another child, of the building exerts a constant
weight 440 N, who is standing on the ground next to him. horizontal force of magnitude F h
The rope does not break. Describe the ensuing motion. on the cushion as it drops as
(b) Instead, assume Nick is momentarily at rest when he ties shown in Figure P5.48. The air
the end of the rope to a strong hook projecting from the tree exerts no vertical force. (a) Show
trunk. Explain why this action can make the rope break. that the path of the cushion is a
45. A crate of weight Fg is pushed by a force S straight line. (b) Does the cushion
S P fall with constant velocity?
P on a horizontal floor as shown in Fig- Figure P5.48
ure P5.45. The coefficient of static fric- Explain. (c) If m 5 1.20 kg, h 5
S 8.00 m, and F 5 2.40 N, how far from the building will the
tion is ms , and P is directed at angle u
below the horizontal. (a) Show that the cushion hit the level ground? What If? (d) If the cushion is
minimum value of P that will move the thrown downward with a nonzero speed at the top of the build-
crate is given by ing, what will be the shape of its trajectory? Explain.
Figure P5.45
49. What horizontal force must
m2
ms Fg sec u be applied to a large block of
P5 mass M shown in Figure P5.49
1 2 ms tan u S m1
so that the tan blocks remain F M
stationary relative to M?
(b) Find the condition on u in terms of ms for which motion
Assume all surfaces and the
of the crate is impossible for any value of P.
pulley are frictionless. Notice
46. In Figure P5.46, the pulleys and that the force exerted by the Figure P5.49 Problems
the cord are light, all surfaces are string accelerates m 2. 49 and 53
frictionless, and the cord does
50. An 8.40-kg object slides down a fixed, frictionless, inclined
not stretch. (a) How does the m1 plane. Use a computer to determine and tabulate (a) the
acceleration of block 1 compare
normal force exerted on the object and (b) its acceleration
with the acceleration of block 2?
for a series of incline angles (measured from the horizontal)
Explain your reasoning. (b) The
ranging from 0° to 90° in 5° increments. (c) Plot a graph of
mass of block 2 is 1.30 kg. Find m2 the normal force and the acceleration as functions of the
its acceleration as it depends on
incline angle. (d) In the limiting cases of 0° and 90°, are
the mass m1 of block 1. (c) What
your results consistent with the known behavior?
If? What does the result of part Figure P5.46
(b) predict if m1 is very much less
than 1.30 kg? (d) What does the result of part (b) predict
Challenge Problems
if m1 approaches infinity? (e) In this last case, what is the 51. A block of mass 2.20 kg is accel-
tension in the cord? (f) Could you anticipate the answers to erated across a rough surface by
parts (c), (d), and (e) without first doing part (b)? Explain. a light cord passing over a small
pulley as shown in Figure P5.51.
47. You are working as an expert witness for the defense of a
CR container ship captain whose ship ran into a reef surround- The tension T in the cord is main-
tained at 10.0 N, and the pulley T
ing a Caribbean island. The captain is being charged with
is 0.100 m above the top of the
intentionally running the ship into the reef. In discovery, x
block. The coefficient of kinetic M
the following information has been presented, and attor-
friction is 0.400. (a) Determine
neys on both sides have stipulated that the information is
the acceleration of the block
correct: The ship was traveling at 2.50 m/s toward the reef
when x 5 0.400 m. (b) Describe
when a mechanical failure caused the rudder to jam in the Figure P5.51
the general behavior of the accel-
straight-ahead position. At that point in time, the ship was
eration as the block slides from a location where x is large to
900 m from the reef. The wind was blowing directly toward
x 5 0. (c) Find the maximum value of the acceleration and
the reef, and exerting a constant force of 9.00 3 103 N on
the position x for which it occurs. (d) Find the value of x for
the boat in a direction toward the reef. The mass of the ship
which the acceleration is zero.
and its cargo was 5.50 3 107 kg. During the preparation
for the trial, the captain claims that without control of the 52. Why is the following situation impossible? A 1.30-kg toaster is not
direction of travel, the only choice he had was to put the plugged in. The coefficient of static friction between the

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Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
126 Chapter 5 The Laws of Motion

toaster and a horizontal countertop is 0.350. To make the 55. In Figure P5.55, the incline has mass M and is fastened to
toaster start moving, you carelessly pull on its electric cord. the stationary horizontal tabletop. The block of mass m is
Unfortunately, the cord has become frayed from your previous placed near the bottom of the incline and is released with a
similar actions and will break if the tension in the cord exceeds quick push that sets it sliding upward. The block stops near
4.00 N. By pulling on the cord at a particular angle, you suc- the top of the incline as shown in the figure and then slides
cessfully start the toaster moving without breaking the cord. down again, always without friction. Find the force that the
tabletop exerts on the incline throughout this motion in
53. Initially, the system of objects shown in Figure P5.49 is held
terms of m, M, g, and u.
motionless. The pulley and all surfaces and wheels are fric-
S
tionless. Let the force F be zero and assume that m1 can
move only vertically. At the instant after the system of objects m
is released, find (a) the tension T in the string, (b) the accel-
eration of m 2, (c) the acceleration of M, and (d) the accelera- h
tion of m1. (Note: The pulley accelerates along with the cart.) u

54. A mobile is formed by supporting four metal butterflies

of equal mass m from a string of length L. The points of H
support are evenly spaced a distance , apart as shown in
Figure P5.54. The string forms an angle u1 with the ceiling
at each endpoint. The center section of string is horizon- R
tal. (a) Find the tension in each section of string in terms
of u1, m, and g. (b) In terms of u1, find the angle u2 that the Figure P5.55
sections of string between the outside butterflies and the
inside butterflies form with the horizontal. (c) Show that
the distance D between the endpoints of the string is

D5
L
5 5
2 cos u1 1 2 cosftan21_12 tan u1+g 1 1 6
D

u1 u1
 
u2 u2
 


m
m L  5
m m

Figure P5.54

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.