Earth is made of about 75% water properties of water are responsible for life on earth natural
waters contain ionic and molecular compounds
Solutions: homogenous mixtures of two or more substances
Solvents: component in a solution other than solvent (may contain one more more solutes)
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Concentration is the amount of a solute in a particular amount of solvent or solution.
quantitive concentration units based on mass to volume ratios
Concentration of solution and convert between units:
● Molarity (M)= moles of
solute/liters of solution
● % by mass = (mass of solute/ total
mass of solution) x 100
● ppm= (mass of solute/ mass of
solution x 100
Dilutions:
● Stock solution- a concentrated solution of a substance used to prepare
solutions of lower concentration
● Dilution-process of lowering concentration of a solution by adding
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more solvent
● When diluting a solution the number of moles in the solution does
not change only the volume
Beers law of concentration: Beer’s Law:
A =ε·b·c
A= absorbance (amount of light absorbed by sample)
ε= molar absorptivity
b= path length
c= concentration of absorbing species
~Strong electrolytes are nearly 100% dissociated into ions and conduct current efficiently
~ weak electrolytes only partially dissociate into ions (vinegar, tap water)
~ non electrolytes have no ionization and no electrical current (sugar, ethanol, aqueous
solutions)
● Strong electrolytes fully dissociate (NaCl,HCl)
● Weak electrolytes partially dissociate (CH3COOH)
To find ion concentrations multiply molarity by the number of ions per unit
● AAA: absorbance
● molar absorptivity (L/mol·cm)
● bbb: path length (cm)
● ccc: concentration (mol/L)
Acids - proton (H+) donors
Bases - proton acceptors
Hydronium ions are H30+
Neutralization reactions- an acid reacts with a abase and produces a salt and water
Salt prediction~ cation of base + anion of acid
Types of equations:
● Molecular (reactants/products written as undissasociated
molecules
● Ionic (distinguish between molecular and ionic substances)
● Net ionic (remove spectator ions)
Nonmetal ions form acids in hydrolysis reaction
● Neutralization: acid + base → salt + water
● Hydrolysis: salt reacts with water to form acidic or basic solution
Strong vs weak acids
Strong acids/bases dissociate completely in aqueous solution
Weak acid/bases partially dissociate in aqueous solutions
Amphirotic acts as an acid or a base
Titrations
~an analytical method to determine the concentration of a solute in a sample by reacting with
a standard solution
~standard solution: solution of known concentration
~equivalence point: point when moles of added titrant are stoichiometrically equivalent to
moles of substance being analyzed
~end point: point reached when indicator changes color
Precipitation reactions
● Precipitate~ solid product formed from a reaction in a solution
● Can predict formation of precipitates based on solubility “ rules”
● Reactions can be written using net ionic equations
Soluble cations
•Group I ions (alkali metals) and NH4+
Soluble anions
•NO3– and CH3 COO– (acetate)
•Cl –, Br– , and I– , except those of Ag+, Cu+, Pb2+, Hg22+
•Sulfates (SO42–), except sulfates of Pb2+, Hg22+, Ca2+, Ba2+, Sr2+
Precipitation combines insoluble cation with insoluble anion
Molecular equation: Pb(NO)z(aq) + 2 Nal (aq) → 2 NaNO(aq) + PbL(s)
Total ionic equation: Pb2 (aq) + 2 NO3 (aq) + 2 Nataq) + 2l-(aq) → PbI, (5) + 2 Nat (aq) +
2NOz (aq)
Net ionic equation:Pb2+(aq) + 21-(aq) → Pbl2(s)
Types of solutions:
~ saturated solution (contains maximum concentration of solute possible at a given temp)
~Supersaturated solution (contains more than the maximum quantity of solute predicted to be
soluble in a given volume of solution given temperature)
~Use solubility rules to predict precipitate formation
~ Spectator ions: appear unchanged on both sides of ionic equations
~Molecular: regular balanced equation
~Complete ionic: break all soluble compounds into ions
~Net ionic: only include species that form the precipitate
1. O.N.s of atoms in a neutral molecule sum to zero; O.N.s of atoms in an ion sum to charge
on the ion.
2. In each atom in a pure element, O.N. = zero.
3. In monatomic ion, O.N. = charge on the ion.
4. Fluorine O.N. = -1 in all compounds.
5. Hydrogen = +1, oxygen = -2 in most compounds (except in peroxides
where oxygen = -1).
6. Brand Cl have -1 O.N., unless combined with 0 or F.
Oxidation reduction reaction
Oxidation: is a reaction that increases oxygen content of a substance (loss of electrons)
Reduction: reaction involving loss of O2 but gains electrons
REDox reaction~ transfer of electrons
Oxidation # rules:
1. O.N.s of atoms in a neutral molecule sum to zero; O.N.s of atoms in an ion sum to charge
on the ion.
2. In each atom in a pure element, O.N. = zero.
3. In monatomic ion, O.N. = charge on the ion.
4. Fluorine O.N. = -1 in all compounds.
5. Hydrogen = +1, oxygen = -2 in most compounds (except in peroxides
where oxygen = -1).
6. Brand Cl have -1 O.N., unless combined with 0 or F.
*change in oxidation state results from gain or loss of electrons
Half reaction method
1.
Write separate reduction, oxidation half reactions.
2.
Balance number of particles in each half reaction.
3.
Balance charge by adding electrons to the appropriate side.
4.
Multiply half reactions by appropriate whole numbers to balance electrons.
5. Add half reactions together to generate a redox
equation.
Redox in nature: soil color influenced by mineral content