Digital coding 1

Digital coding
Encoding is the last of the processes that takes place during theconversion
analog-digital

Processes of A/D conversion.

The encoding consists of the translation of the values ofelectric tensionanalogous that
they have already been quantified (weighted) atbinary systemthroughcodes
pre-established. The analog signalit will be transformed into aimpulse train
digital(sequence of zeros and ones).
The coding that is carried out through thebinary systemis based on thealgebra of
Boole.

Codec
Thecodecit is the specific code used for encoding/decoding the
data. Indeed, the word 'Codec' is an abbreviation of 'Coder-Decoder.'

Parameters that define the codec

[Link] of channelsIndicate the type of sound that will be dealt with:monoaural,
binauralomultichannel
2. Sampling frequencyThe sampling frequency or rate refers to the amount of
amplitude samples taken per unit of time in the sampling process (one of
the processes, along with that ofquantificationand the coding one, which intervenes in the
digitization of a periodic signal). According to the Sampling theorem
Nyquist-Shannonthe sampling rate will only determine the base bandwidth of the
sampled signal, that is to say, it will limit the maximum frequency of the components
sinusoidal functions that form aperiodic wave(like the sound, for example). Agreed
with this theorem, and always from the mathematical perspective, a higher rate of
sampling for a signal should not be interpreted as higher fidelity in the
signal reconstruction. The sampling process is reversible, which means that,
From a mathematical point of view, the reconstruction can be done exactly.
(no approximate). The sampling rate is determined by multiplying the width by two
baseband of the signal to be sampled # Resolution(Number of bits). Determine the
the precision with which the original signal is reproduced. 8, 10, 16, or 24 bits are commonly used.
per sample. Greater precision with a larger number of bits.
[Link] rateThe bit rate is the speed or data transfer rate. Its unit is the bit.
per second (bps).
[Link] codecs when making thecompressionthey eliminate a certain amount of
information, so the resulting signal is not equal to the original (compression with
losses).(architecture).
Digital coding 2

Coding of thesound
Use a type of wireless batistor specifically designed for compression and
decompressionofaudio signalstheaudio codec.

Examples of audio codec

• PAM(Pulse amplitude modulation). The carrier frequency must be at
less than twice the frequency of the modulating signal. Make a
linear quantificationfrom theamplitudefrom the analog signal. Currently, the main
the main application of PAM coding is found in thesignal transmission,
well it allows themultiplexedsend more than one signal through a single channel.
• PCM(Pulse Code Modulated) with a resolution of 8 bits (1byteUse modulation
PAMas a base, but using 7 bits instead of 8 bits, reserving the eighth to indicate
the sign).
• ADPCMAdaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulated

Coding in the environment of theDigital television

For a long time, there was a debate about which of the 2 models
existing coding had to be enforced:
• Encoding of the composite signalit is encoded theanalog signalbased on the standard
of television that exists in the country where the encoding is taking place:NTSC(USA,
PAL(Europe), SECAM(FranceIt does not allow compatibility between standards.
• Component codingIfdigitizetheanalog signalusing its division by
components:luminance(Y) andCrominance(color subcarriersR-Y and B-Y). The
the main advantage is that, for the first time, compatibility can be maintained between
standards. Only a requirement is neededD/A converterspecific for each standard, for
maintain, also compatibility with analog standards.
TheCCIR(International Radio Communication Consultative Committee) issued in1982the
normCCIR 601digital television by components.

Unipolar digital encoding

Unipolar encoding uses a single polarity, encoding only one of the states.
binaries, the 1, which takes a positive or negative polarity. The other state, usually the 0,
it is represented by 0 volts, that is, the idle line.

Polar digital encoding

Polar coding uses two levels of voltage, positive and negative.
NRZ (On return to zero)
RZ (Return to zero)
Biphase (self-synchronized)
Digital coding 3

NRZ (Non-return to zero)

The signal level is always positive or negative. The two most commonly used methods are:
NRZ-L (Non Return to Zero-L): A positive voltage means that the bit is a '0', and a
negative voltage where the bit is a '1'.
NRZ-I In this encoding, the bit '1' is represented
with the inversion of the voltage level. What the bit '1' represents is the transition between a
positive voltage and a negative voltage, or vice versa, not the voltages themselves. A bit '0' does not
it causes a change in voltage in the signal. Thus, the level of the signal depends not only on
of the current bit value, but also of the previous bit.

RZ (Return to zero)
Use three values: positive, negative, and zero. A bit '1' is represented by a transition from
Positive to zero and a bit '0' is represented by the transition from negative to zero, with return.
of voltage 0 in the middle of the interval.

Biphase (self-synchronized)
In this method, the signal changes in the middle of the bit interval, but it does not return to zero, but
which continues the rest of the interval at the opposite pole. There are two types of Biphase encoding:

• ManchesterA polarity transition from positive to negative represents the value

binary '0', and a transition from negative to positive represents a '1'.
• Manchester Differential: It needs two signal changes to represent the bit '0', but
only '1' to represent the bit '1'. That is, a reverse polarity transition to that of the
previous bit, to represent '0' and an equal transition for '1'.

Bipolar digital encoding

Bipolar Digital Coding uses three values:
Positive
Negative
Zero
The zero voltage level is used to represent a 'zero' bit. 'One' bits are encoded
as positive and negative values alternately. If the first 'one' is coded with a
positive amplitude, the second will do so with a negative amplitude, the third positive and so on
successively. There is always an alternation between the amplitude values for
to represent the bits 'one', even if these bits are not consecutive.
Digital coding 4

There are 3 types of Bipolar encoding:

AMI ("Alternate Mark Inversion")

They correspond to a type of encoding that represents the 'ones' with impulses of
alternative polarity, and to the 'zeros' by absence of pulses.
The AMI code generates ternary signals (+V -V 0), bipolar (+ -), and of the RZ or NRZ type (with
or return to zero). The AMI signal lacks a DC component and allows for detection.
of errors based on the law of formation of the alternating 'ones'. Indeed, the reception of
The consecutive 'ones' with the same polarity will be due to a transmission error.
As shown in the figure, the resulting electrical signal has no direct current component.
because the brands corresponding to the logical "1" are alternatively represented with
positive and negative amplitude. Each impulse is neutralized by the following impulse.
to be of opposite polarity.
Encoding the "zeros" with alternating polarity pulses and the "ones" using
absence of impulses, the resulting code is called pseudoternary.
AMI codes (alternate mark inversion) have been developed to alleviate the
disadvantages of NRZ and RZ binary codes (synchronization and current)
continues).
The AMI code manages to cancel the DC component of the electrical signal. However,
It does not address the issue of how to prevent the loss of the clock signal when powered on.
long sequences of zeros. This problem is solved by high bipolar codes.
density of order N, HDBN (High Density Bipolar) that belong to the family of the
AMI codes, which prevent the transmission of sequences with more than N consecutive 'zeros'.
HDB3 is a bipolar code of order 3.

B8ZS (Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution)

B8ZS: the bipolar replacement of 8 zeros, also called the binary substitution of 8 zeros, the
clear channel, and 64 clear. It is a coding method used over T1 circuits, which inserts
two successive times at the same voltage - referring to a bipolar violation - in a signal
where eight consecutive zeros are transmitted. The device that receives the signal
interprets bipolar violation as a signal of distribution gear, which
keeps the transmission and covering devices synchronized.
Digital coding 5

Generally, when successive 'ones' are transmitted, one has a positive voltage and the
another has a negative voltage.
That is, when 8 consecutive 'zeros' appear, artificial changes are introduced in the
patterns based on the polarity of the last encoded 'one' bit:
V: Violation, maintains the previous polarity in the sequence.
B: Transition, invert the previous polarity in the sequence.
The eight zeros are replaced by the sequence: 000V B0VB
B8ZS is based on the old encoding method called Alternate Mark Inversion (
AMI).

HDB3 (High Density Bipolar 3)

The HDB3 code is a good example of the properties that a line code must have.
to encode in baseband:
The frequency spectrum lacks a direct current component and its width of
the band is optimized.
The bit synchronization is guaranteed by the alternating polarity of the "ones", and
inserting synchronization pulses into the sequences of "zeros".
HDBN (High Density Bipolar) codes limit the number of consecutive zeros that are
They can transmit: -HDB3 does not support more than 3 consecutive zeros. They place a pulse.
(positive or negative) in the place of the 4th zero.
The receiver has to interpret this impulse as a zero. To do this, it is necessary
to differentiate it from the normal impulses that represent the "ones".
The impulse of the 4th zero is generated and transmitted with the same polarity as that of the impulse.
previous. It is therefore called 'polarity violation impulse' (the receiver
it recognizes this violation because it detects 2 consecutive impulses with the same polarity.
To maintain the direct current component at zero value, it is necessary to transmit
alternatively as many positive violations as negative ones ( V+ V- V+ V- ... ).
To always keep the polarity of the violations V alternating, it is necessary in some
cases insert a 'filler' pulse (when the polarity of the pulse that precedes the
Violation V does not allow for achieving that alternation). If the B impulses were not inserted, the
polarity violations V of the 4th zero would necessarily be of the same sign.

In HDB3, an impulse is referred to as the positive or negative electric states, different from
zero (0 volts).
Digital encoding 6

When more than three consecutive zeros appear, they are grouped in sets of four, and replaced.
each group0000by one of the following sequences of impulses:B00Vó000V.
Indicate an impulse with a different sign than the previous impulse. Therefore, B maintains the law.
of the alternation of impulses, or the law of bipolarity, with the rest of transmitted impulses.
It vindicates an impulse of the same sign as the impulse that precedes it, thus violating the
law of bipolarity.
The group0000 is replaced by B00V when the number of impulses between is even (or zero)
the previous violation V and the one that is going to be introduced.
The group0000is replaced by000Vwhen the number of impulses is odd between the
previous violation V and the one that is going to be introduced.
This is how the law of bipolarity of the impulses corresponding to the 'ones' is maintained, and
also the bipolarity of 'violations' through the B impulses and the V impulses.
The elemental detection of typical transmission errors of noise (inversion,
duplication or loss of pulses), it is simply done by checking that the pulses
received by the receiver comply with the polarity rules established by the encoding
HDB3.
Errors are usually detected in the event that 4 consecutive zeros appear that do not
allows HDB3 or in the case of inserting a 'one' and the two violations V+
they remain with the same polarity. However, there are cases in which there are errors that are
impossible to detect and that even propagate generating even more errors.
For example, in the image we can see an HDB3 signal with errors that is not detected.
RECEPTOR.
Digital coding 7

See also
• Analog to digital conversion
• Digital compression
• Codec
• Audio codec
• Video codec
• Differential Manchester Encoding
• Analog-to-digital conversion
• NRZ codes
• RZ Codes
• Code MS43
• Data compression
• 8b10b
• EFMand EFM Plus
• Online codes
• modulation
• physical cover
• Manchester encoding
• Differential Manchester encoding

External links
• Wikiversityhosts learning projects aboutCoding
[Link]
Analyzer From the line of code[1]
2B1Q [2]
4B5B [3]
4B3T [4]
coding 6b/8b[5]
encoding 64b/66b [6]
B3ZS [7]
B8ZS [8]
CMI [9]
coding MLT-3[10]
TC-PAM [11]
encoding Miller[12]
code ternary hybrid[13]
code biphasic brand[14]
Digital coding 8

References
This article contains information from:
Federal Standard 1037C[15]
Codes online[16]
Transmission of Narrow Band[17]

References
[1] [Link]
[2][Link]
[3][Link]
[4] [Link]
[5] [Link]
[6][Link]
7[Link]
[8] [Link]
[9] [Link]
[10] [Link]
[11] [Link]
12[Link]
[13][Link]
14[Link]
[15][Link]
[16][Link]
[17] [Link]
Sources and contributors of the article 9

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Digital Encoding Source: [Link] Contribuyentes: Airunp, Alionka, Beaire1, CommonsDelinker, Ctrl Z,
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