Nombre:

Rusbert Junior Carpio Rosario

Enrollment:
20230682

Teacher:
Joel Valdez

Subject:
Fundamentals of Electronics Laboratory

Date:
1/10/2023
 Introduction
Understood, I won't provide you with the specific steps. Instead, I'll give you a
general introduction to semiconductor materials and electrical conductors for
that you can design your own steps for practice.

Introduction to Semiconductor Materials and Electrical Conductors:

Semiconductor and electrical conductor materials are fundamental in the

electronics and the conduction of electricity. Here is a brief introduction to
both

Semiconductor Materials:

Semiconductor materials, such as silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge), are

known for having an electrical conductivity intermediate between materials
conductors and insulators. Their ability to conduct electricity can be modified
through doping, that is, the addition of small amounts of impurities that
they increase or decrease conductivity.

Electrical Conductors Materials:

Electrical conductive materials, such as copper (Cu), aluminum (Al), and gold
(Au), they have high electrical conductivity and allow the free flow of electrons, which
that make them excellent conductors of electricity. They are widely
used in electrical and electronic applications.

Ideas for Practice:

1. **Conductivity Comparison:** Design an experiment to compare the

electrical conductivity of a semiconductor material (for example, silicon) and a
electrical conductor material (like copper). You can measure the electrical resistance of
both samples and observe how they differ.
2. **Effect of Temperature:** Investigate how temperature affects the
conductivity in a semiconductor material. You can heat a silicon sample.
and measure how its electrical resistance changes at different temperatures.

3. **Doping in Semiconductors:** Explore how the doping of a semiconductor

with impurities affects its electrical conductivity. You can use different
dopant materials and measure their impact on the conductivity of the semiconductor.

4. **Applications in Electronics:** Research and present examples of applications of

semiconductor and electrical conductor materials in electronic devices
everyday items, such as diodes, transistors, and conductive wires.

Choose one of these ideas or create your own customized practice to explore the
properties and applications of semiconductor and conductor materials
practical and educational electronics.
Practical Research Work (First Partial)

The electrical conductors

Electrical conductors
they are materials that have
little resistance to the
circulation of the current
electric, given their
specific properties. The
atomic structure of the
electric conductors facilitate
the movement of the
electrons through these,
with which this type of
elements favors the
electricity transmission 1.
The electrical conductors are
are characterized by not offering
a lot of resistance to the passage of
the electric current through them. This is only possible thanks to their
electrical and physical properties that ensure the flow of electricity through
the driver does not induce the deformation or destruction of the material in question 1.

There are different categories of electrical conductors, and in turn, in each

various types can be found in the category. Some examples of conductors
Electric conductors are: copper, aluminum, gold, iron, silver, among others.

Electrical conductivity is an important property of conductors.

electric. Electric conductors must have electrical conductivity
good for fulfilling its function of transporting electric energy. The Commission
International Electrotechnics determined in mid-1913 that conductivity
pure copper electrical conductivity could serve as a reference for measuring and comparing
the conductivity of other conductive materials. Thus, the Standard was established
International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS)
by its initials in English).

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 Its origin
The electrical conductors, in their
in its most basic form, they are

materials that allow for flow

of electric current through
they. The origin of the
electric conductors
dates back to the discoveries
science and advancements
technological ones throughout the
history. Here is a brief
review of the main milestones
in the development of drivers
electric

Discovery of the
electricity: The study of the
Electricity began in ancient times, but significant advances were made starting from the century
XVII, when scientists like Otto von Guericke and Benjamin Franklin investigated the properties
electric

2. Metallic conductors: It was discovered that certain metals, such as copper, silver, and gold, had
good conductive properties. Copper became one of the most used metals due to
its high conductivity and availability.

3. Invention of the electric battery: At the end of the 18th century, Alessandro Volta invented the voltaic pile, a
a device that could generate a constant electric current. This led to the development of
practical electrical applications.

4. Development of electrical cables: As electricity was applied to lighting, the

communication and the transmission of energy, electrical cable systems were developed for
transport the current. These cables were often made of copper or aluminum, which still
being common materials for electrical conductors today.

5. Advances in insulators: To ensure safety and efficiency in the transmission of electricity,

insulating materials such as rubber and plastic were developed to coat and protect the
electric conductors.

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6. Evolution of conductor technology: Over time, conductors have been developed
special for specific applications, such as superconducting conductors for applications of
High efficiency and optical fiber conductors for high-speed data transmission.

In summary, the origin of electrical conductors is rooted in scientific advancements and

technological advancements throughout history that led to the discovery of conductive materials, the
invención de disposi vos eléctricos y el desarrollo de sistemas de cables eléctricos para diversas
electrical applications. Copper and aluminum are the most common conducting materials in the
current events, but research on new conductive materials continues to advance in search of
best solutions.

Characteristics of electrical conductors

Electrical conductors are characterized by not offering much resistance to the flow of current.
electric through these. This is only possible thanks to their electrical and physical properties, which
they ensure that the flow of electricity through the conductor does not induce deformation or
destruction of the material in question.

The main electrical characteristics of electrical conductors are

following:
Good conductivity:
Electrical conductors must have good electrical conductivity to
fulfill its function of transporting electrical energy.

The International Electrotechnical Commission determined in mid-1913 that the

the electrical conductivity of pure copper could serve as a reference for
measure and compare the conductivity of other conductive materials.

Thus, the International Standard for Annealed Copper was established.

Annealed Copper Standard, IACS for its initials in English.

The reference adopted was the conductivity of an annealed copper wire of a

meter in length, and a gram of mass at 20 °C, whose value is equal to 5.80 x
107S.m-1This value is known as electrical conductivity 100% IACS, and it is the
reference point for measuring the conductivity of conductive materials.

A conductor material is considered as such if it has more than 40% IACS.

Materials that have a conductivity greater than 100% IACS are considered
high conductivity materials

3
 • Atomic structure allows the flow of current

The atomic structure allows the flow of electric current, since the atoms
they have few electrons in their valence shell and, in turn, these electrons are
detached from the nucleus of the atom.

The described configuration implies that a large amount is not required.

energy for electrons to move from one atom to another, facilitating the
movement of electrons through the conductor.

This type of electrons is called free electrons. Their arrangement and freedom of
movement along the atomic structure is what facilitates circulation
from electricity through the conductor.

United cores
The molecular structure of conductors is made up of a network of nuclei.
very united, which remains practically motionless due to its cohesion.

This makes it favorable for the movement of electrons that are located far away.
within the molecule, as they move freely and react to the
proximity of an electric field.

This reaction induces the movement of electrons in a specific direction,

which allows the flow of electric current passing through the material
conductor.

Electrostatic equilibrium
When subjected to a particular load, conductive materials reach
eventually an electrostatic equilibrium state in which no occurs the
movement of charges within the material.

Positive charges accumulate at one end of the material and the charges
negatives accumulate at the opposite end. The displacement of the charges
towards the surface of the conductor generates the presence of equal electric fields and
opposites within the conductor. Thus, the total internal electric field within the
the material is null.

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Physical characteristics
Malleable:
Electrical conductors must be malleable; that is, they must be able to
deform without breaking.

Conductive materials are often used in household applications or

industrials, in which they must be subjected to curves and bends; for this reason, the
Malleability is an extremely important characteristic.

Resistant

These materials must be wear-resistant to withstand the conditions.

mechanical stress they are usually subjected to, combined with the temperatures
elevated due to the flow of the current.

Insulating cover

When used in a residential, industrial application or as part of the system

interconnected electricity supply, the conductors must always be
covered by an appropriate insulating layer.

This outer layer, also known as insulating jacket, is necessary for

prevent the electric current flowing through the conductor from being in contact
with the people or objects that are around.

Types of electrical conductors

Existen diferentes categorías de conductores eléctricos y, a su vez, en cada
category are the materials or means of highest electrical conductivity.

By excellence, the best electrical conductors are solid metals, among

the copper, gold, silver, aluminum, iron, and some are highlighted
alloys.

Nevertheless, there are other types of materials or solutions that have good
electrical conduction properties, such as graphite or saline solutions.

Depending on the way in which electrical conduction is carried out, it is

It is feasible to differentiate three types of conductive materials or media, which are
they detail below:

. 5
Metallic conductors

This group is made up of solid metals and their respective alloys.

Metallic conductors owe their high conductivity to the clouds of electrons.

free that favor the circulation of electric current through them. The
metals yield the electrons located in the last orbit of their atoms without investing
greater amounts of energy, which makes it conducive for electrons to jump from a
atom to another.

For their part, alloys are characterized by having a high resistivity; that is,
they present a resistance proportional to the length and diameter of the conductor.

The most commonly used alloys in electrical installations are brass, an alloy
of copper and zinc; tinplate, an alloy of iron and tin; copper alloys and
nickel; and alloys of chromium and nickel.

Electrolytic conductors
These are solutions made up of free ions, which help with conduction.
ionic class electric.

Mostly, this type of conductor is present in ionic solutions,

that electrolytic substances must undergo partial dissociations (or
totals) to form the ions that will be charge carriers.

Electrolytic conductors are based on reactions.

chemicals and in the displacement of thesubjectwhich facilitates the movement of the
electrons through the circulation path enabled by free ions.

Examples of conductors
Aluminum

It is highly used in systems of

overhead electric transmission, since to
despite having a conductivity of 35%
less than when compared to copper
cooked, itsweightit is three times lighter
that the last one.

High-voltage shots are usually

covered by an external surface of
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which prevents the
overheating of the conductor and isolates the flow of electric current from the
exterior.

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Copper

It is the most commonly used metal as

electric conductor in applications
industrial and residential, given the
balance presented between its
conductivity and the price.

Copper can be used in

low and medium caliber conductors,
of one or several threads, depending on the
current-carrying capacity of the conductor.

Gold
It is a material used in electronic assemblies of microprocessors and circuits
integrated. It is also used to manufacture the terminals of the batteries for
vehicles, among other applications.

The conductivity of gold is approximately 20% lower than the conductivity of

reworked gold. However, it is a very durable material and resistant to corrosion.

Silver

With a
conductivity of
6.30 x 107S.m-1(9-
10% higher than the
conductivity of
soft copper), it is
the metal with the highest
conductivity
electric known to
the date.

It is about a
very material
malleable and ductile, with a hardness comparable to that of gold or copper. However,
its cost is extremely high, which makes its use not so common in the industry.

7
Types of electrical conductors

There are different categories of electrical conductors, and in turn, in each

category are the materials or means of highest electrical conductivity.

By excellence, the best electrical conductors are solid metals, among

the copper, the gold, the silver, the aluminum, the iron and some are highlighted.
alloys.

However, there are other types of materials or solutions that have good
electrical conduction properties, such as graphite or saline solutions.

Depending on how the electrical conduction is carried out, it is

It is feasible to differentiate three types of conductive materials or media, which are
detailed below:

Metal conductors

This group is made up of solid metals and their respective alloys.

Metallic conductors owe their high conductivity to electron clouds.

free that favor the flow of electric current through them. The
metals give up the electrons located in the outermost orbit of their atoms without resistance
greater amounts of energy, which encourages the jump of electrons from a
atom to another.

Alloys are characterized by having a high resistivity; that is,

they present a resistance proportional to the length and diameter of the conductor.

The most commonly used alloys in electrical installations are brass, an alloy
of copper and zinc; tinplate, an alloy of iron and tin; alloys of copper and
nickel; and chromium and nickel alloys.

8
Semiconductors
We explain what an electrical semiconductor is, its types,
applications and examples. In addition, conductive materials and
insulators.

What is a semiconductor?
Semiconductors are materials capable of acting
as electrical conductors or as electrical insulators, depending on the
physical conditions they are in. These conditions usually involve
the temperature and the pressure, the incidence of radiations or the intensities of the
electric field or magnetic field to which the material is subjected.

Semiconductors are composed of a wide variety of chemical elements.

yes, they actually come from different regions of the Periodic Table, but that
share certain chemical traits (they are generally tetravalent), which gives them
they confer their particular electrical properties. Currently, the semiconductor
the most used is silicon (Si), particularly in the electronics and
computing.

9
Along with insulating materials, semiconductors were discovered in
1727 by the English physicist and naturalist Stephen Gray (1666-1736), but the laws that
their behaviors and properties were described much later, in
1821, by the famous German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854).

Additionally: Properties of matter

Applications of semiconductors

Semiconductors are especially useful in the electronics industry, given

that allow to conduct and modulate the electrical current according to the patterns
necessary. For this reason, it is common for them to be used for:

Transistors

10
Integrated circuits

Electric diodes

11
Optical sensors

Solid-state lasers

12
Electric transmission modulators (such as a
electric guitar amplifier
Types of semiconductors
Semiconductors can be of two different types,
depending on your response to the physical environment in which you
find

Intrinsic semiconductors

They are made up of a single type of atoms,

arranged in tetrahedral molecules (that is, made of four
atoms with a valence of 4) and their atoms connected by bonds
covalent.

This chemical configuration prevents the free movement of

the electrons around the molecule, except in front of a
increase in temperature: then the electrons take
part of the available energy and 'jump', leaving a
free space that translates to a positive charge, that
will in turn attract new electrons. This process is called
recombination, and the amount of heat required for it
it depends on the chemical element in question.

Extrinsic semiconductors

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These materials allow for a doping process, that is,
allow to be included in their atomic configuration
some type of impurities. Depending on these impurities,
what can be bivalent or trivalent, the materials
semiconductors are divided into two:

Extrinsic n-type semiconductors (donors). In this

type of materials, electrons outnumber the
holes or carriers of free charge ("spaces" of charge)
positive). When a potential difference is applied to
In the material, the free electrons move to the left.
of the material and the gaps then to the right.
When the gaps reach the far right, the
external circuit electrons enter the semiconductor, and
the transmission of electric current occurs.
Extrinsic P-type semiconductors (acceptors). In these
materials, the added impurity, instead of increasing the
available electrons, increases the holes Thus, it is said
from added acceptor material, as there is greater demand
of electrons that availability and each 'free' space in
where an electron should go serves to facilitate the passage of
the current.

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Examples of materials
semiconductors

The most common semiconductors used in the industry are:

Silicon (Si)

Germanium (Ge), often in silicon alloys

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

Sulfur

Oxygen

Cadmium

Selenium

Indian

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Other chemical materials resulting from the combination of elements from the
groups 12 and 13 of the periodic table, with elements from groups 16 and 15
respectively.

Conductive materials

Unlike semiconductors, whose electrical conduction properties

vary, the conductive materials are always ready to transmit the
electricity, due to the electronic configuration of its atoms. This
conductivity can fluctuate and be affected to a certain degree by the physical state of the
environment since electrical conductivity is not absolute.

The vast majority of metals (iron) are examples of conductive materials.

mercury, copper, aluminum, etc.) and water.

Insulating materials

Finally, insulating materials are those that resist conduction of

electricity, that is, they prevent the flow of electrons and are therefore useful,
to protect against electricity, to prevent it from continuing along a free course, or that it
they produce short circuits. Insulators also do not insulate one hundred percent.
efficient, They have a limit (breakdown voltage) beyond which the energy is so
intense that they cannot maintain their insulating condition and, therefore,
they transmit electric current, at least to some degree.

Examples of insulating materials include plastic, ceramic, glass, wood, and

the paper.

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 Conclusion
In this essay, we have thoroughly explored the fascinating world of materials.
semiconductors, their importance in modern technology and their various
applications.
In summary, semiconductor materials are the backbone of the era.
digital and play a crucial role in our daily lives. Their continuous
evolution and the innovative applications that make it possible leave us with a
world increasingly interconnected and technologically advanced. As
consumers and citizens, it is important to understand and appreciate the importance of
semiconductors in our current and future society.

Bibliography
Sources used
URL:
Semiconductores - Qué son, pos, aplicaciones y ejemplos ([Link])

Electrical conductors: definition, types, characteristics, examples ([Link])