Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O.

E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

Basic and Advanced Course

for RPAS pilots
According to article 50.5.c of Law 18/2014, of October 15.

Meteorology
Meteorology 2
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
25th of September Avenue, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

Index

1. METEOROLOGY
1.1. COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
1.2. STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
1.3. Variations in Pressure.......................................................................................................8
1.4. Variations in Temperature12
1.4.1. Vertical temperature variations...............................................................................12
1.4.2. Latitudinal variations of temperature...........................................................................12
1.4.3. Temperature variations derived from the distribution and thermal inertia of the earth and the
water. 12
2. GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE.............................................................14
2.1. FRONTS...................................................................................................................................14
2.1.1. Warm front. .....................................................................................................................14
2.1.2. Cold front...........................................................................................................................15
2.1.3. Stationary fronts.
2.1.4. Occlusions fronts..............................................................................................................17
2.2. CLOUDS..........................................................17
2.2.1. Classification of clouds
3. VISIBILITY
3.1. METHOD FOR ESTIMATING METEOROLOGICAL VISIBILITY.....................................................22

4. THE WIND
4.1. GEOSTROPHIC WIND..............................................................................................................25
4.2. LOCAL WINDS...................................................................................................................28
4.2.1. Sea breeze.......................................................................................................................28
4.2.2. Mountain and Valley Breeze ....................................................................................................29
4.2.3. Foehn or Föhn Winds....................................................................................................30
4.2.4. Thermal .............................................................................................................................31
4.3. HEADING AND DRIFT
5. TURBULENCES
5.1. Turbulence
5.2. MICROBURSTS.....................................................................................................................34
5.3. SHEARING..........................................................................................................................35

6. METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION.......................................................................................38
6.1. TYPES OF METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION...............................................................................38
6.2. SOURCES OF METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION
6.2.1. Annex I: Weather Guide (AEMET) ..........................................................................................40
6.3. SOLAR STORMS

Meteorology 3
Meteorology 4
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25th of September, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

1. METEOROLOGY

Meteorology is the branch of physics that addresses the study of phenomena.

atmospheric. In this topic, we will review the main concepts and
atmospheric phenomena, sources of meteorological information, etc.

The objectives of this topic are:

‹ To know what the Earth's atmosphere is like.

‹ To know the main meteorological factors to consider for

plan a flight campaign

‹ Learn how to correctly interpret meteorological information.

‹ Know the sources of meteorological information for aviation.

Meteorology 5
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
25th of September Avenue, 8, 28027 Madrid
Phone. [Link]
[Link]

THE ATMOSPHERE

[Link] of the atmosphere

û Definitions of atmosphere according to the RAE: 'gaseous layer that surrounds a celestial body'
or any other body" and "air layer
that surrounds the Earth.

û The dry composition of the atmosphere

The Earth's atmosphere is: nitrogen (78%), oxygen
(21%), argon (0.9%) and other gases
(0.1%).

û Within gases and particles

ozone is found in minor quantities,
carbon dioxide, neon, helium, methane
hydrogen and nitrogen dioxide, among
others, and small dust particles,
ashes, etc.

û Another of the components that can

to meet in very proportions
variables is water vapor. In the
in desert areas its concentration can
be close to zero, while others
areas can reach up to 4%.

1.2. Structure of the

atmosphere
û The Earth's atmosphere is divided into five.
layers or strata, with a behavior
particular, related to your
["composition","dynamics","density"]
thermal characteristics, etc.

• Troposphere (0 to 14 km). Zone

closer to the surface of
the Earth, where it takes place
life and where they are produced
meteorological phenomena. Their
thickness varies between about 14 km

Meteorology 6
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

at the equator and about 8 km at the poles.

This stratum is the one with the highest density and the most homogeneous (due to the
vertical movements that occur in it), and where the
75% of the gases and water vapor.

The density of air and temperature decrease with height, going from
an average of 17ºC to -51ºC at the boundary of the troposphere, tropopause.

• Stratosphere (14 to 50 km). Separated from the troposphere by the tropopause, it

characterized by its strong horizontal stratification. This layer contains 19%
of the gases in the atmosphere, but very little water vapor.

In this layer, the temperature increases with altitude due to the process of
ozone formation, moving from -51ºC in the tropopause to about -15ºC
on the ceiling of the stratosphere.

The stratum where the highest concentrations of ozone are produced is

is called the ozone layer and is located about 30 km high. This gas has the
particularity of absorbing a large part of high ultraviolet radiation
frequency coming from the Sun (97-99%), a process in which heat is released.

• Mesosphere (50-80 km). Separated by the stratopause, this layer is characterized

due to a very sharp drop in temperature. It only concentrates on the
0.1% of the total mass of the air and is dominated by chemical reactions and
ionization.

• Ionosphere or thermosphere (80-600 km). This layer of the Earth's atmosphere is

permanently ionized due to the photoionization caused by the
solar radiation. Thus, ultraviolet radiation and X-rays
coming from the Sun when absorbed by the molecules present in it
capes produce an increase in temperature, going from about -120ºC to
the base of this stratum at over 2000ºC at its ceiling.

Among the particularities of the thermosphere, it is worth noting that it is the

responsible for the reflection of radio waves emitted from the surface
land, in addition to being the area where most of the
meteors, giving rise to shooting stars, and where they also originate
the northern lights.

• Exosphere (600-1000 km). Outer layer of the atmosphere, where the

transition with interplanetary space. In it, the molecules escape towards
outer space.

Meteorology 7
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

Variation of temperature in the different strata of the atmosphere

[Link]

[Link] in pressure
û Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude, due to the number of
molecules present in the air decrease and with it the density of the air. This
the decrease does not occur uniformly throughout the atmosphere, but rather
it is faster in the lower layers. To give us an idea of the magnitude of this
variation, in the first 5.6 km more than half of the molecules are concentrated
contained throughout the atmosphere.

Meteorology 8
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

û In the troposphere, for every eleven meters of ascent, there is a decrease of 1.33.
millibars, while in the higher layers of the atmosphere this decrease is
slower

û As a consequence of this decrease

From the pressure with height, it is very difficult
compare the air pressure in two
regions of the Earth, especially
when these are found at different
height. In order to make comparable
the pressure measurements in the different
points of the planet, a point is established
of common reference, sea level. Of
in this way, any measure taken
around the world, starting from a series
of calculations and transformations, it will be
related to the theoretical value it would have if the
measure would have been taken at the level of
sea.

û The pressure due to the weight of the column of air is called atmospheric pressure and
its unit of measure is the atmosphere: the pressure exerted by a column of mercury
760 millimeters in height, at a latitude of 45º, at sea level, and at a
temperature of 0º C.

û The most commonly used pressure units in meteorology are the millibar and the
millimeters of mercury.

The equivalence between these measures is as follows:

1 atmosphere = 1.013.2 millibars = 760 millimeters of mercury

û Weather maps represent atmospheric pressure information in

surface in millibars (mb) and are drawn at intervals of 2 and 4 mb.

û Atmospheric pressure also varies over each point on the Earth's surface.
as a consequence of variations in air temperature. The hot air is
less dense than cold.

û If we consider a certain pressure level, for example that of 500 millibars,

which is located at an average height of 5.6 km, this same level will still be found
further away from the surface in areas with warm air, and closer in those
colder.

Meteorology 9
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

Average height of different pressure levels

(left) and variation of the height of a level
of pressure, depending on the temperature of the
air (above)

û The pressure variations in the horizontal are represented on the maps.

meteorological through isobars, or theoretical lines that connect the points with
same pressure.

Example of an isobar map (Forecast for November 3, 2014 at 07:00 hours).

Meteorology 10
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Avenue 25 of September, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

û In these maps, the isobars indicate the distribution of pressures that can
acquire different configurations:

‹ High pressure, anticyclone (A or H). Center of high pressure, surrounded by isobars.

of decreasing value. In the northern hemisphere, the wind around its center
turn clockwise.

‹ Low pressure, depression, low-pressure area or cyclone (B, L, D). Center of low pressure
surrounded by isobars of increasing value. In the northern hemisphere, the wind
Around its center, it rotates counterclockwise.

‹ Dorsal or high-pressure ridge. Extension of the anticyclone along a

axis.

‹ Barometric trough or groove. Extension of low pressures along

of an axis.

‹ Barometric ridge or swamp. Area of very stable pressure, without any existing
a well-defined isobaric gradient.

û In general terms,

‹ when the isobars appear very close together, they indicate that the pressure gradient
it is very high between close points and therefore, we can expect time
very windy and turbulent.

‹ On the contrary, if the isobars appear very far apart, the difference in
pressure is low and the weather will be calmer.

û When a high-pressure area moves towards an observer,

‹ the wind speed decreases and changes direction in the direction of the
clock hands,

‹ the atmospheric pressure increases and

‹ the cloudiness decreases.

û When the observer is under the area of high pressures,

‹ the pressure decreases and

‹ according to it surpasses, the wind changes direction in the opposite sense to that of
the clock hands and the speed increases. In this case, the cloudiness can
begin to develop as a prelude to the arrival of a downturn.

û In general, high-pressure areas indicate good weather in the timeframe of 12 to 24 hours.

hours.

Meteorology 11
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
25th of September Avenue, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

û A simple rule that relates the wind direction near the surface with the
Location of pressure systems is to position ourselves with our back to the wind in an area.
open, free of obstacles. To our left, there will be the low pressure area and
the right one, the high one.

[Link] in temperature
û Temperature variations occur mainly due to warming
and cooling of the atmosphere as a consequence of the interaction of radiation
solar with the Earth's surface and the different thermal inertia of the materials that
they make up the surface of the Earth.

1.4.1. Vertical temperature variations.

û Heat loss in the troposphere occurs from bottom to top, that is, from
the Earth's surface. In this way, we can take as a reference that, the
The temperature decrease is on the order of 6.4º C for every kilometer of ascent.

û Thermal inversions can occur, an increase in temperature with

the height, which can have different origins: from surface and height, or from
subsidence.

‹ En el primer caso, el aire que está en contacto con la superficie terrestre está
colder than the air in the upper layers, it is denser and weighs more,
making upward movements difficult.

‹ In the second case, they occur at times of high pressure due to the
descent of the air that will be compressing and drying from top to bottom,
preventing the upward movements of air.

1.4.2. Latitudinal variations of temperature.

û Latitude conditions the amount of sunlight that the Earth's surface receives.
la zona ecuatorial la distribución térmica es más regular, mientras que hacia los
at the poles, the thermal distribution is more irregular due to variations in the number
of hours of sunshine and the angle of incidence of solar radiation.

1.4.3. Temperature variations derived from distribution and inertia

thermal of the earth and water.
û The greater thermal inertia of water compared to land makes the seas and oceans
they heat up and cool down more slowly than the land. Therefore, in areas with influence
Coastal temperature variations are smaller than those inland.

û In addition, ocean circulation, through ocean currents, redistributes the

cold and hot water masses all over the Earth. This leads, for example, to the
thermal differences between the coastal areas of the east and west of the continents

Meteorology 12
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

Europe and America at the same latitudes, washed by the warm current of
Gulf and the cold Labrador current, respectively.

Meteorology 13
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
25th of September Avenue, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

2. GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE

ATMOSPHERE

[Link]
û The limit or transition between two air masses of different characteristics, different
temperature, humidity and density, is called front surface.

When two masses of air with different and uniform temperatures, one cold and the other
warm they are, a shock occurs that causes a sharp variation in the
humidity and temperature. This shock line is not a vertical wall, but a
an inclined line called a front (the slope of the cold front is on the order of 2%, and
the warm front of 0.5%.

û Based on the relative movement of air masses, four types are differentiated.
of fronts: cold, warm, stationary, and occluded.

Warm front.
û It occurs when a mass of warm air moves over a layer of cold air. The air
warm air is lighter and tends to slide upwards over the wedge of cold air. The
the rise of the warm and humid air mass causes it to cool and the vapor of
water that contains condenses in the form of droplets of water, which causes the
appearance of clouds and precipitation.

û The type of clouds associated with this type of fronts are nimbostratus and stratus.

û In weather maps, warm fronts are represented with a red line and
with a line with a semicircle, indicating the direction of advance of the front.

û Normally, the turbulence associated with warm fronts tends to be light when the
A warm air mass is stable. Occasionally, if the warm air mass is ...
Unstable, turbulence associated with convective phenomena can occur.

û In general, warm fronts are associated with poor visibility, due to the
formation of low clouds and precipitation.

Meteorology 14
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

Warm front

Cold front.
û They originate when a mass of cold air advances into a mass of
warm air. As a result, the warm air rises up in the area
limit, when being pushed by the denser cold air. This ascent and the subsequent
cooling of the air mass causes the condensation of water vapor, which
accumulate forming vertically developed clouds, which are associated with
precipitations.

û In weather maps, cold fronts are represented by a blue line and

by a line with triangles, whose vertices indicate the advance of the front.

û Visibility is usually poor before the arrival of the cold front, improving upon its arrival.
step. As the cold front approaches, the wind increases its speed,
appearing strong gusts, which tend to disappear after their passage. This type of
Fronts can move very quickly.

Meteorology 15
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

Cold front

2.1.3. Stationary fronts.

û When a collision occurs between two masses of air with different characteristics
As for humidity and temperature, none exert a displacement force.
about the other a stationary front originates.

û In weather maps, this type of front is represented by a line that

alternate the colors red and blue and a line with semicircles and triangles on the sides
opposites.

Meteorology 16
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

2.1.4. Occlusion fronts.

û As cold fronts move faster than warm fronts, at times
a warm front is overtaken in its advance by a cold front. At that moment,
The cold air occupies the lower levels and the warm front rises above it.

û In weather maps, occluded fronts are represented by a line.

address and along a line where semicircles and triangles alternate,
indicating the direction of advance of the front.

Obstructed front

[Link]
û The clouds are composed of small particles of water or ice, of density
variable, originated by the condensation of the water vapor present in the atmosphere.

û When the air cools during its ascent, its relative humidity increases until the
temperature of the dew point at which the air becomes saturated, if it continues
as the temperature decreases, the water vapor condenses into small drops of
water or ice crystals giving rise to clouds.

û The shape of clouds varies depending on the circulation of air inside them,
wind and the atmospheric composition.

û The droplets of water or ice within a cloud are in continuous

movement, colliding and grouping together. According to the atmospheric conditions.
ruling (distribution of vertical temperatures in the troposphere), it is possible to
to produce an increase in thickness until reaching the point where its weight exceeds the

Meteorology 17
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

ascending forces and fall towards the surface of the earth in the form of rain or
precipitation.

Cloud formation

û In a very simplified way, the causes that provoke the cooling of the air are:

‹ Ascent of the air mass when encountering significant relief in the terrain,
mountains.

‹ Collision of two air masses, one warm and the other cold, giving rise to a front.

‹ Ascension by convection.

2.2.1. Classification of Clouds

û In meteorology, clouds are often classified based on the height at which they
find the base of the cloud with respect to the ground. In this way we obtain three types of
clouds

[Link]. High clouds.

û Its base is located more than 6,000 m high. Due to the existing cold in this
zone the clouds are mainly made up of ice crystals. The prefix
used to denote these clouds is cirro- and the clouds that we can find
In this area, there will be cirrus, cirrostratus, and cirrocumulus.

‹ Cirrus (CI). They are clouds with great horizontal extent, although they usually do not cover
the entirety of the sky. They have a fibrous or filament-like appearance, formed by
small ice crystals, which give them a whitish color, without shadows.
Meteorology 18
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

They do not produce precipitation, but most of the time they indicate the arrival.
From more compact clouds that can indeed provide them.

‹ Cirrocumulus (CC). Its appearance is that of a bank or layer of clouds of color

white, without its own shadows, made up of very small elements in
shape of spheres, of waves, etc., arranged more or less regularly and not
compact. They do not cause precipitation.

‹ Cirrostratus (CS). Clouds with a transparent and whitish veil-like appearance.

fibrous, covering totally or partially the sky and allowing the Sun to be seen, but
in a very veiled manner. They do not produce precipitation.

[Link]. Half clouds.

û Its base is between 2,000 and 6,000 m in height. Depending on the height,
the time of year and the vertical distribution of temperature, these clouds can
made up of water droplets, ice crystals, or a combination of both.
The prefix used to name these clouds is alto- and the clouds that we find
In this area there will be the altostratus and altocumulus.

‹ Altocumulus (AC). They have the appearance of a large expanse of cloud cover.
horizontal, composed of individual clouds with little vertical development,
that can cover the sky entirely, although gaps can be seen through
where the sky or the sun will be seen. The color of these clouds is usually gray and
they also do not produce precipitation.

‹ Altostratus (AS). Its appearance is that of a uniform and fibrous mantle, of great
horizontal extension and some vertical development. They can completely cover the ...
sky, although on occasions in the thinner areas the sun can be seen
vaguely. Its color is gray-blue. This type of clouds is associated with
precipitation, in the form of water or snow, usually continuous, but not
very intense.

‹ Nimboestratus (NS). This type of continuous clouds has a great development.

horizontal and moderate vertical growth. Its color is dark gray.
They produce continuous precipitation in the form of water or snow and in amount
moderate.

[Link].Low clouds.
û Its base does not exceed 2,000 m in height. These clouds are made up of droplets of
water. In this layer we will find different types of clouds, some in which
horizontal development predominates, the strata and others in which it dominates
componente vertical, los cúmulos.

Meteorology 19
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

‹ Stratocumulus (SC) are banks of clouds with a large horizontal extent and
little vertical development of gray color. These clouds are formed by
individual elements, separated from each other but arranged
regularly. Although they can cover the entire sky, among them
fragments of blue sky often appear, or other clouds from higher levels. Their
base is usually located at about 1,500 m. This type of clouds do not produce
precipitation.

‹ Cumulus (CU). They are separate clouds, usually with a dense appearance and
with well-defined contours, having greater vertical development than horizontal.
These clouds encompass both small cumulus clouds of good weather and
those with the greatest vertical development who will be the forerunners of the
cumulonimbus or storm clouds. Their base is usually gray in color while
that at height have a bright white. They usually do not produce precipitation
except for those with greater vertical development.

‹ Cumulonimbus (CB). These clouds have the greatest vertical development,

crossing the three 'cloud layers'. They usually do not cover the sky in their
totality. Its appearance is that of a tower, dense in appearance, with the base close
very dark gray height, and a white upper part, of
flat, fibrous, and flattened shape, which gives rise to the characteristic anvil. The
precipitation associated with this type of clouds is very important,
normally in the form of very intense showers, accompanied by hail
the hail and depending on the time of year of storm phenomena. They are
made up of water droplets, ice crystals, raindrops and in the
majority of cases due to snowflakes and hail, depending on the altitude
Let the cloud reach.

‹ Nimbostratus (NS) can have its base at just over 1,000 meters.
height, which is why we also include them among the low clouds, in addition to
among the averages. In reality, they are transitional clouds, since their
base can be found between 1,200 meters and 2,000 meters in height. The
classifications of natural phenomena often have exceptions and this is one
one of the cases.

‹ Stratus (ST) are layers of clouds with great horizontal extent, but very
little vertical development. The aspect they give to the sky is that of a flat mantle
and a uniform white-gray color at low altitudes (800-600 m). This type of
clouds are not related to precipitation.

Meteorology 20
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

Meteorology 21
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

3. VISIBILITY

û One of the critical factors for the pilot is to know the visibility, that is, to know
how far can one see or identify prominent and dark objects during the
days and prominent and illuminated in conditions of darkness to be able to avoid them
time.

û Fog, haze, mist, dust, precipitation, etc. can cause reduction

of visibility.

û Visibility is expressed in units of length. The average or estimated values

They are transmitted on a conventional scale of 0 to 9.

Visibility scale with daylight and criteria

of visibility in fog conditions

û In the case of RPAS, it must be verified that the actual visibility observed and the
visual range throughout the operational area, including take-off zones and
landing is greater than 5 kilometers (conditions for visual flight).

[Link] for estimating meteorological visibility

û In view of the safe execution of operations and the confirmation on the ground
that the minimum operating requirements are met is very interesting for the pilot
define a method for estimating visibility. Therefore, we propose the following,
what can be included in the operator's operations manual:

a) The person responsible for determining visibility (observer) must prepare a

milestone plan that covers 360° and is divided into quadrants or in five or
more equiangular sectors and that includes elements of the landscape with the
following characteristics:

Meteorology 22
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. September 25, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

They must be located at known distances.

They must be well contrasted with the background (sky, ground).
iii. Its nature must be noted (tree, house, bell tower, pole
electric line, hill silhouette, etc.) orientation and
distance from the measuring station.
b) The observations must be made with the naked eye or with the instruments of
visual correction (glasses or contact lenses) that is regularly used
observer, without the aid of telescopes, binoculars, or other optical devices
of image enlargement.
c) The estimation of visibility in each orientation will be made by observing the
sharpness with which reference objects stand out, so that:
i. If the objects are perfectly distinguishable and identifiable and
they do not show color fading, visibility is much
greater than the distance to the observed landmark.

ii. If the observed object appears blurry or out of focus, or

it shows a faint fading in its colors, there is fog
or another phenomenon that reduces visibility to a distance less than
to which the milestone is located.

iii. In case any obstacle prevents the visibility of what

It happens behind it, the distance should be noted in that direction.
to which that obstacle is found, taking into account the
considerations that have just been made regarding sharpness
of the vision.

Meteorology 23
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

4. THE WIND

û The wind is a mass of moving air, whether in the vertical or in the

horizontal.

û The importance of the wind is enormous, as it is a regulator of temperature.

Air. This fundamentally depends on the differences in the amount of radiation.
solar radiation that reaches the Earth's surface and the amount of water vapor.

û Winds are produced by the difference in atmospheric pressures, moving

from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.

û The parameters of interest related to the wind are:

‹ Speed. This will be higher the greater the pressure difference.

atmospheric between two points. The speed is usually given in knots (measure
Anglo-Saxon that represents nautical miles per hour) or in meters per
according to kilometers per hour. The equivalence between them is the
next: 1 knot = 1.852 kilometers/hour = 0.515 meters/second

‹ Direction. It is expressed in degrees, counted in the direction of the hands of the clock.
clock starting from true north (0º or 360º).

û The direction of the wind does not follow a straight trajectory, but a spiral due to
the Coriolis force (originating from the Earth's rotation). As a consequence of
Hello, the wind turns to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the
left in the Southern Hemisphere.

û Therefore, the two basic forces that determine air circulation in the
atmósfera son la variación de presión (gradiente) y la propia rotación terrestre, que

Meteorology 24
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

produces the Coriolis acceleration and causes a deviation of

air movement.

Coriolis force (Fernando Llorente Martínez): Any fluid body that moves
over the Earth's surface tends to deviate to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and
to your left in the Southern Hemisphere. The deviation is a result of the force exerted
due to the rotation of the Earth, and it is known as the force of
Coriolis. Its value is maximum at the Poles and minimum at the Equator.

[Link] Wind
û Geostrophic wind is the current resulting from the interaction of the wind
gradient and the apparent force of Coriolis deviation.

û The isobars reflect the geostrophic wind circulation according to the rule of
Buys Ballot: the geostrophic wind circulates parallel to the isobars leaving it
high pressures in the Northern Hemisphere (to the left in the hemisphere)
Sur).

û This implies that, in the Northern Hemisphere, the geostrophic wind circulates in the direction
counterclockwise in anticyclones, and clockwise
in the depressions.

Meteorology 25
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

û This movement only manifests on a large scale and varies according to latitude.
Coriolis acceleration is zero at the equator and gradually increases towards
the poles, where it is maximum.

û At latitudes close to the Equator (up to 20-30º), the Coriolis force is weak and the
winds do not conform to the geostrophic hypothesis.

General atmospheric circulation. Source: Fernando Llorente Martínez.

Meteorology 26
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

Schematic of the general circulation of the atmosphere

Distribution of major high and low pressure systems

Meteorology 27
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

û When a mass of air begins to move due to a difference in pressure and

as it gains speed, the Coriolis force begins to alter its trajectory. The more
the greater its speed, the greater the influence of the Coriolis force on its
address.

û This process continues until the pressure gradient equals the Coriolis force.
and they reach equilibrium. Once this equilibrium is reached, acceleration ceases, and the
wind (in the absence of friction or resistance) keeps its speed and its
direction, parallel to the isobars or lines of constant altitude on the maps of
pressure.

û At the same time, there are other forces and determining factors of speed and the
wind direction.

‹ In the layers closest to the Earth's surface, the dominant factor is the
friction or air drag.

‹ At high levels, above 1,000 meters, the geostrophic wind

It is quite close to reality.

‹ Below, in the so-called friction layer, the friction diverts the wind.
in the direction of low pressure, so that it does not blow parallel to the
isobars, but forming an angle with them that ranges between 15-20º over the
surface of the sea and up to about 40º on rough surfaces.

[Link] winds
û The theoretical trajectories of the wind can be modified by variations in
the earth's surface, distribution of water and land masses, differences in
altitude, surface roughness, etc.

û This causes the emergence of local winds that, although they usually do not affect
large areas can become very strong, so it is necessary
take them into account.

û The difference between wind and breeze is not in their intensity, but in their scope. The wind
It is a regional phenomenon, while breezes are local.

4.2.1. Sea breeze

û The wind that occurs in coastal areas between land and sea is called
land or sea breeze, depending on where the air comes from.

û Its origin lies in the process of heating the Earth's surface, by

action of solar radiation. The earth heats up more quickly than the masses of
water.

Meteorology 28
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Avenue September 25, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

û This causes that, especially on hot days, the air closest to the ground
heat up immediately, destabilize and rise, creating a vacuum that tends to
to fill with the cooler and denser air coming from the sea,

û This leads to the sea breeze, which usually reaches its peak at the beginning of the
afternoon, to gradually decrease and finish at dusk.

û At night, the flow reverses. The land cools down more quickly than the sea,
giving way to the breeze from the land.

û The sea breeze is usually weaker, due to the differences in

Temperatures are lower than those that occur during the day.

Formation of breezes

4.2.2. Mountain and valley breeze

û In the vicinity of mountain systems, throughout the day and especially
If they are hot, a warming of the slopes occurs, which generates a flow.
ascending along the slope of the mountain. This flow of air, which goes from the
valleys, where the air is cooler, towards the summit areas, are called breeze of
valley or anabatic.

û These breezes are produced

‹ in the mornings on the slopes facing East,

‹ in the central hours of the day, on the south-facing slopes and

‹ in the afternoon in those facing West.

Meteorology 29
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

û North-facing slopes hardly ever create slope breezes.

û Frequently, these updrafts, upon reaching the ridge line,

detach from this, forming a column of ascending air that gives rise to the
typical mountain thermal.

û During the nights, the high areas cool down more quickly,
descending along the slopes of the hills towards the valleys where
continues moving towards the plains. This wind is called mountain breeze or
catabatic wind.

Anabatic and catabatic breezes

4.2.3. Foehn or Föhn winds

û These winds originate on the leeward slopes of the great mountain ranges and
they are characterized by being strong, dry, and warm winds.

û When a moving air mass encounters a mountain system, the

warm and humid air is forced to rise along the windward slope. When
the rising air cools and the humidity condenses, causing the formation of clouds
and the precipitation.

Meteorology 30
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

û Upon surpassing the summit, the wind, freed from its humidity, descends down the slope.
from the leeward side, warming up and giving rise to a dry and warm wind.

û The most evident signs of this phenomenon are the stagnant clouds on the slope of
windward, which disappear on the leeward slope, where a usually prevails.
dry and clean atmosphere, as well as the formation of lenticular clouds parallel to
mountain system.

Foehn effect

4.2.4. Thermal
û Thermal currents originate from the rising of warm air in contact with the
Earth's surface irradiated by the Sun.

û They can cause the formation of very energetic and highly developed clouds.
Vertical, called cumulonimbus, which usually brings associated phenomena
stormy.

[Link] and Drift

û The wind affects the trajectory of aircraft in flight, deviating them from their route.
projected.

‹ Route. Desired trajectory, which is given by the projection of the direction

from the aircraft over the ground and draw an imaginary line that connects the
points of origin and destination.

‹ Heading. Direction followed by the longitudinal axis of the aircraft, direction

what we want to continue. In the event that there is no wind, the route and the course
coincide.

‹ Drift. Angular difference between heading and track. To correct this

unwanted displacement we will apply what is called drift correction.

Meteorology 31
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. September 25, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

Drift caused by the action of the wind on an aircraft in flight

û This phenomenon is very relevant in long-distance flights, but it is rather little

relevant in small RPAS. Normally, the control systems of the
Aircraft are used to counteract this effect, to maintain the trajectory.
scheduled.

Meteorology 32
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. September 25, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

5. TURBULENCES

[Link]
û Turbulent flow is characterized by fluctuations in intensity and direction of the
wind at irregular intervals.

û The two main factors that give rise to turbulence are:

• Mechanical or friction turbulence. It occurs when the airflow in the

Near the Earth's surface, the flow changes from laminar to turbulent.
as a consequence of its interaction with different surface elements
terrestrial (buildings, trees, hills, etc.).

When the air strikes a mountain range or hill at an angle

near 90º, on the windward slopes we will have currents
ascending. The wind speed will gradually increase according to
we approach the summit, where it will reach its peak, while surpassing the
obstacle, on the leeward slope, the currents will be downward. In these
areas where we can most frequently find turbulence zones
(undulations, rotors, etc.).

Another factor to consider is the wind speed, as these factors are

they are accentuated by higher wind speeds and can reach up to a height of a
one third of the total height of the obstacle and a large expanse.

Generation of waves whose influence extends Appearance of rotors on the leeward slope
widely once the obstacle has been overcome. parallel to the mountain ranges.

Meteorology 33
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25th of September, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

• Convective or thermal currents. Originated by the rising of hot air.

from the Earth's surface to higher layers of the atmosphere. Occasionally
they can give rise to large vertical development clouds in which appear
strong turbulence.

Appearance of stationary cumuliform clouds Appearance of convection clouds such as

near the top of the mountain consequence of the uneven warming of the
land surface (bare soil, water, areas
bushes, etc.

[Link]
û A microburst is usually understood to be an intense and brief gust of wind of about
hundreds of meters in width that occurs near the surface of the ground.

û The most important are the downdrafts, called downbursts in English,

associated with stormy phenomena. These gusts spread out upon reaching the ground.
violence and, at times, they can have a rebound effect, creating a whirlwind of
horizontal and curvilinear axis.

Meteorology 34
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

[Link]
û The concept of wind shear defines as the change of the wind vector.
from one point in space to another.

Example of the effect of horizontal shear on the trajectory of an aircraft during landing.

û The effect referred to by this term is the very marked difference.

of the wind speed between two layers of air and are characterized by being
very local phenomena (1 to 3 km) and lasting only a few seconds.

Meteorology 35
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

û The consequences of this phenomenon are the sudden increase or decrease of the
sustentation of aircraft and their loss of control.

[Link] speed estimation

û Just as it happens with visibility, it is very useful for the pilot of a RPAS.
to have methods that allow him to estimate wind speeds at different
heights. To this end, we propose the following procedure, which can be included
also in the operator's operations manual:

a) A wind speed estimate must be made both at the level of

ground, for the takeoff and landing phases, as in altitude, for the phase of
cruise.
b) The surface wind speed must be measured by one of these two
methods:
in an open area free of obstacles, using a
handheld anemometer, placed as high as possible (minimum by
above the pilot's head and at most, ten meters high
ii. Using the empirical Beaufort scale, which is included in
continuation.

No. Speed Name Visual Characteristics

0 < 2 km/h Calm Vertical Smoke

1 2 to 5 km/h Little wind The smoke diverts, the weather vanes move.

2 6 to 11 km/h Gentle Breeze It is felt on the face, the flags are raised

3 12 to 19 km/h Light Breeze The leaves of the trees are moving, the flags are fluttering.

4 20 to 28 km/h Moderate Breeze Dust rises, the flags flutter

5 29 to 38 km/h Refreshing winds sway the branches, dust rises

6 39 to 49 km/h Strong Winds Large branches are moving

7 50 to 61 km/h Very strong winds shake the treetops.

8 62 to 74 km/h Temporal Damage to the trees makes it very difficult to walk.

9 75 a 88 km/h Strong Temporal Dragging objects, it becomes impossible to walk against the wind.

10 89 to 102 km/h Very Strong Storm, uprooted trees, damage to buildings

11 103 a 117 km/h Storm Varied damages and consequences

12 > 118 km/h Hurricane Cars, trees, roofs, etc. fly.

c) To estimate the wind speed at cruising level, it is necessary to

based on the ground-level speed data.
d) It is at the discretion of the pilot in command to consider the estimation acceptable.
an increase in speed by a factor of 0.5 of the estimated in
surface per every 50 meters of height.

Meteorology 36
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
25th September Avenue, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

e) When the pilot in command considers that greater precision is required in

the calculation of wind speed at height, to ensure safety
the operation, it is acceptable to use the following formula, used
frequently in wind projects
([Link]
ughness

V0/Vc= [ln(h0) - ln(z0)] / [ln(hc) - ln(z0)]

V0Wind speed measured at the ground (meters per second).

VcIt is the wind speed at cruise level (meters per second).

h0Height at which the measurement is taken on the ground (meters).

hcFlight altitude (AGL) for the cruise phase (meters).

z0Wind shear factor, according to the following table.

Roughness for different surfaces

Type of surface z0(Rugosidad, m)

Ice 0.00001
Calm sea 0.0001
Cut grass / airport runways 0.007
Open field 0.05
Fields (with fences, barriers, etc) 0.085
Abundant tree cover 0,2
Urban Suburbs 0.4
Forests / City 1

Meteorology 37
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

6. METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION

û Before starting a flight, the aircraft pilot must know the characteristics.
from the flying area, natural obstacles (trees, terrain, etc.) or artificial ones.
(high voltage lines, buildings, etc.), as well as the weather forecast.

û The State Meteorological Agency (AEMET) is the organization responsible for

provide national level aeronautical weather information. Furthermore,
the Meteorological Offices of Airports (OMA), the Surveillance Offices
Meteorological (OVM), the Prediction and Surveillance Groups (GPV) and the Service
Aeronautical Applications (SAA) also provide support for this work.

û The National Prediction Center (CNP) provides the service in Spain

prediction and are responsible for making the predictions and carrying out the monitoring
from the evolution of time in the airfields and airspace under its jurisdiction.
This organization provides AIRMET, SIGMET, GAMET reports (LECM and
LECB), significant maps and wind maps, etc.

û The Main Aeronautical Meteorological Offices (OMPA), associated with the

OMA has the task of monitoring the weather conditions of the airfields and
to prepare weather notices, to prepare forecasts and to issue the TAFs,
provide weather information to pilots, etc.

û The State Meteorological Agency (AEMET) through the Self-Service

Aeronautical Meteorology (AMA) allows access to reports and forecasts.
actualizados. Para ello es necesario darse de alta en el servicio e el siguiente enlace
[Link]

[Link] of meteorological information

û Aerodrome observation (METAR/SPECI). Routine meteorological report.
that airports or airfields emit at regular intervals, every half hour or one
hour. They provide information about the existing weather conditions
at the airfield, wind and temperature maps at altitude, presence of phenomena
adverse provided by AIRMET and SIGMET notices, etc.

SPECI refers to the special meteorological reports that are disseminated by the
airports and that are issued at the frequency required by the conditions
existing meteorological.

û Trend forecasts (TREND). Included at the end of the METAR as

forecasts of significant changes in weather conditions for the
airfield. These reports indicate significant variations in the wind in
Meteorology 38
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

surface, weather conditions and clouds or vertical visibility and have a

valid for two hours from the issuance of the report.

[Link] of meteorological information

û Significant low level map (SWL). Meteorological Surveillance Offices
from Madrid (LEMM) and from the OMPA of Las Palmas (GCGC) are responsible for
elaborate and issue this map.

The boundaries of these maps are defined by:

• Horizontal limits: Lat. 35ºN to 45ºN, Long. 10ºW to 05ºE (Peninsula and
Balearic Islands) and Lat. 26º30'N to 30º30'N, Long. 12º30'W to 19º30'W (Canary Islands)

• Vertical limits: From surface to FL150

The data is updated every 6 hours and reports on the

weather conditions from 3 hours before to 3 hours after your time of
validity indicated on the map, except for fronts, pressure centers, altitude of the
isotherm of 0ºC and sea conditions that are valid for the time indicated on the map.

û TAF or Tafor. Provides information about weather conditions.

expected at the aerodrome during the forecast period. The period of
The forecast varies between 9 hours, short TAF, and 24 or 30 hours long TAF.

û GAMET. Forecast for low altitude flights, below FL150, in a

flight information region (FIR) or sub-zone of it. They are published with a
frequency of six hours, two hours before its validity period, and it has a period
of six hours validity.

û SIGMET (SIGnificant METeorological information). Includes warnings for

meteorological phenomena of interest for high altitude flights.

û AIRMET (Airman's Meteorological Information). Provides information for

flights at low altitude, below FL150, regarding the actual or expected existence of
meteorological phenomena that have not been included in section I of
GAMET. These notices are issued for a specific area or sub-area of FIR or TMA.

The information contained refers to meteorological phenomena such as

moderate turbulence (MOD TUB), moderate orographic waves (MOD MTW)
extensive areas of visibility at surface less than 5 kilometers (SFC VIS),
etcetera.

Meteorology 39
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
25th of September Avenue, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

6.2.1. Annex I: Meteorological Guide (AEMET)

Aeronautical meteorological information from the State Meteorological Agency, is

find the detailed description about the type of weather information and the
encoding used in each of these reports.

[Link] storms
û Solar storms are violent explosions of plasma and charged particles.
(flares) and coronal mass ejections of the Sun.

û These explosions release a large amount of plasma and charged particles, in addition to
X-rays and gamma rays. When these charged particles collide with the field
Earth's magnetic field, they compress it and can reach the upper layers of the
atmosphere, causing overload on electrical networks, failures in satellites,
problems in telecommunications systems, etc.

û One of the problems related to solar storms is the distortion or loss of

the GPS signals. The NOAA of the United States Government makes a
continuous monitoring of solar activity, the results of which are public through
his/her website[Link] this page, the
solar activity measured by the GOES satellite, in terms of X-ray flux, and
combined information from ground station and satellite data.

Meteorology 40
 Airpilot Flight School, S.L. (A.T.O. E-207)
Av. 25 de Septiembre, 8, 28027 Madrid
Tel. [Link]
[Link]

û The bar graph at the bottom of the figure allows for quick discernment of the
GPS signal quality at a given moment and make the appropriate decisions in
regarding the possible suspension or postponement of an operation. The interpretation
what we should do regarding the expected quality level of the GPS signal is like
continue

‹ The green color indicates that the expected quality of the GPS signal is good.
They can operate the flights without any problems.

‹ The yellow color indicates that one enters a period of danger, during which
The available signal may be degraded at some point. It must be evaluated.
the possibility of postponing or suspending the operation and requires the pilot's
maximum attention.

‹ The red color indicates that the GPS signal will not be reliable. If this system is
necessary for the safety of the operation, this should be suspended or
postpone until conditions improve.

Meteorology 41