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Human Reproductive System
Prelims General Science Static Biology Human Reproductive System
2
Sexual Reproduction – Human Reproductive System, Male and Female
Reproductive System, Gametogenesis, Menstrual Cycle, Fertilisation.
Source | Credits | Picture Credits: NCERT General Science
Reproduction In Animals
There are two modes by which animals reproduce. These are:
1. Sexual reproduction, and
2. Asexual reproduction.
There are many organisms which do not reproduce (mules, sterile worker
bees, infertile human couples, etc.).
Sexual Reproduction
The reproductive parts in animals produce gametes that fuse to form
a zygote. It is the zygote which develops into a new individual. This type
of reproduction beginning from the fusion of male and female gametes is
called sexual reproduction.
The male reproductive organs include a pair of testes (singular,
testis), two sperm ducts and a penis. The testes produce the male
gametes called sperms.
The female reproductive organs are a pair of ovaries, oviducts (fallopian
tubes) and the uterus. Ovary produces female gametes called ova
(eggs).
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In human beings, a single matured egg is released into the oviduct by one
of the ovaries every month. Uterus is the part where development of the
baby takes place. Like the sperm, an egg is also a single cell.
The first step in the process of reproduction is the fusion of a sperm and
an ovum. When sperms come in contact with an egg, one of the sperms
may fuse with the egg. Such fusion of the egg and the sperm is
called fertilization.
Internal and External Fertilization
During fertilization, the nuclei of the sperm and the egg fuse to form a
single nucleus. This results in the formation of a fertilized egg or zygote.
Fertilization which takes place inside the female body is called internal
fertilization. Internal fertilization occurs in many animals including
humans, cows, dogs and hens.
During spring or rainy season, frogs and toads move to ponds and slow
flowing streams. When the male and female come together in water, the
female lays hundreds of eggs.
Unlike hen’s egg, frog’s egg is not covered by a shell and it is
comparatively very delicate. A layer of jelly holds the eggs together and
provides protection to the eggs.
As the eggs are laid, the male deposits sperms over them. Each sperm
swims randomly in water with the help of its long tail. The sperms come
in contact with the eggs. This results in fertilization.
This type of fertilization in which the fusion of a male and a female
gamete takes place outside the body of the female is called external
fertilization. It is very common in aquatic animals such as fish, starfish,
etc.
Asexual Reproduction
In each hydra, there may be one or more bulges. These bulges are the
developing new individuals and they are called buds. In hydra, the new
individuals develop as outgrowths from a single parent. This type of
reproduction in which only a single parent is involved is called asexual
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reproduction. Since new individuals develop from the buds in hydra, this
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type of asexual reproduction is called budding.
Another method of asexual reproduction is observed in the microscopic
organism, amoeba. Reproduction in which an animal reproduces by
dividing into two individuals is called binary fission. Apart from budding
and binary fission, there are other methods by which a single parent
reproduces the young ones.
Human Reproductive System
The reproductive events in humans include
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1. formation of gametes (gametogenesis), i.e., sperms in males
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and ovum in females,
2. transfer of sperms into the female genital tract (insemination),
3. fusion of male and female gametes (fertilisation) leading to formation
of zygote.
4. formation and development of blastocyst and its attachment to the
uterine wall (implantation),
5. embryonic development (gestation) and
6. delivery of the baby (parturition).
Male Reproductive System
The male reproductive system is located in the pelvis region. It includes a
pair of testes along with accessory ducts, glands and the
external genitalia.
The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch
called scrotum. The scrotum helps0 in maintaining the low
temperature of the testes (2–2.5 C lower than the normal internal body
temperature) necessary for spermatogenesis.
Each testis has about 250 testicular lobules. Each lobule contains one to
three highly coiled seminiferous tubules in which sperms are produced.
Each seminiferous tubule is lined on its inside by two types of cells
called male germ cells (spermatogonia) and Sertoli cells.
The male germ cells undergo meiotic divisions finally leading to sperm
formation, while Sertoli cells provide nutrition to the germ cells.
The regions outside the seminiferous tubules called interstitial spaces,
contain small blood vessels and interstitial cells or Leydig cells. Leydig
cells synthesise and secrete testicular hormones called androgens [a
male sex hormone, such as testosterone. Androgens stimulates or
controls the development and maintenance of male characteristics].
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The male sex accessory ducts include rete testis, vasa efferentia,
epididymis and vas deferens.
The seminiferous tubules of the testis open into the vasa efferentia
through rete testis.
The vasa efferentia leave the testis and open into epididymis. The
epididymis leads to vas deferens that ascends to the abdomen and loops
over the urinary bladder. It receives a duct from seminal vesicle [gland
that secrete many of the components of semen] and opens into urethra
as the ejaculatory duct. These ducts store and transport the sperms
from the testis to the outside through urethra.
The urethra originates from the urinary bladder and extends through the
penis to its external opening called urethral meatus.
The penis is the male external genitalia. It is made up of special tissue
that helps in erection of the penis to facilitate insemination. The enlarged
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end of penis called the glans penis is covered by a loose fold of skin
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called foreskin.
The male accessory glands include paired seminal vesicles, a prostate
[releasing a fluid component of semen] and paired bulbourethral glands.
Secretions of these glands constitute the seminal plasma which is rich
in fructose, calcium and certain enzymes.
The secretions of bulbourethral glands also helps in the lubrication of
the penis.
Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries along with a
pair of oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina and the
external genitalia located in pelvic region.
These parts of the system along with a pair of the mammary glands are
integrated structurally and functionally to support the processes of
ovulation, fertilisation, pregnancy, birth and child care.
Ovaries are the primary female sex organs [testis in males] that produce
the female gamete (ovum) [sperm in males] and several steroid
hormones (ovarian hormones).
The ovaries are located one on each side of the lower abdomen. Each
ovary is connected to the pelvic wall and uterus by ligaments.
Each ovary is covered by a thin epithelium which encloses the ovarian
stroma. The stroma is divided into two zones – a peripheral cortex and an
inner medulla.
The oviducts (fallopian tubes), uterus and vagina constitute the female
accessory ducts.
Each fallopian tube extends from the periphery of each ovary to the
uterus, the part closer to the ovary is the funnel-shaped infundibulum.
The edges of the infundibulum possess finger-like projections called
fimbriae, which help in collection of the ovum after ovulation. The
infundibulum leads to a wider part of the oviduct called ampulla.
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The last part of the oviduct, isthmus has a narrow lumen and it joins the
uterus. The uterus is single and it is also called womb. The shape of the
uterus is like an inverted pear.
It is supported by ligaments attached to the pelvic wall. The uterus opens
into vagina through a narrow cervix. The cavity of the cervix is called
cervical canal which along with vagina forms the birth canal.
The wall of the uterus has three layers of tissue. The external thin
membranous perimetrium, middle thick layer of smooth muscle,
myometrium and inner glandular layer called endometrium that lines the
uterine cavity.
The endometrium undergoes cyclical changes during menstrual
cycle while the myometrium exhibits strong contraction
during delivery of the baby.
The female external genitalia include mons pubis, labia majora, labia
minora, hymen and clitoris.
Mons pubis is a cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair.
The labia majora are fleshy folds of tissue, which extend down from the
mons pubis and surround the vaginal opening.
Thelabia minora are paired folds of tissue under the labia majora. The
opening of the vagina is often covered partially by a membrane called
hymen.
The clitoris is a tiny finger-like structure which lies at the upper junction
of the two labia minora above the urethral opening.
The hymen is often torn during the first coitus (intercourse). However, it
can also be broken by a sudden fall or jolt, insertion of a vaginal tampon,
active participation in some sports like horseback riding, cycling, etc.
In some women the hymen persists even after coitus. In fact, the
presence or absence of hymen is not a reliable indicator of virginity or
sexual experience.
A functional mammary gland is characteristic of all female mammals. The
mammary glands are paired structures (breasts) that contain glandular
tissue and variable amount of fat.
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The glandular tissue of each breast is divided into 15-20 mammary lobes
containing clusters of cells called alveoli. The cells of alveoli secrete
milk, which is stored in the cavities (lumens) of alveoli. The alveoli open
into mammary tubules.
The tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary duct. Several mammary
ducts join to form a wider mammary ampulla which is connected to
lactiferous duct through which milk is sucked out.
Gametogenesis
The primary sex organs – the testis in the males and the ovaries in the
females produce gametes, i.e, sperms and ovum, respectively, by the
process called gametogenesis.
In testis, the immature male germ cells (spermatogonia) produce
sperms by spermatogenesis that begins at puberty.
The spermatogonia (sing. spermatogonium) present on the inside wall of
seminiferous tubules multiply by mitotic division and increase in
numbers. Each spermatogonium is diploid and contains 46
chromosomes.
Some of the spermatogonia called primary spermatocytes periodically
undergo meiosis.
A primary spermatocyte completes the first meiotic division (reduction
division) leading to formation of two equal, haploid cells called
secondary spermatocytes, which have only 23 chromosomes each.
The secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic division to
produce four equal, haploid spermatids.
What would be the number of chromosome in the spermatids? 23
chromosomes.
The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa (sperms) by the
process called spermiogenesis. After spermiogenesis, sperm heads
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become embedded in the Sertoli cells, and are finally released from the
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seminiferous tubules by the process called spermiation.
Spermatogenesis starts at the age of puberty due to significant increase
in the secretion of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). This, if you
recall, is a hypothalamic hormone.
The increased levels of GnRH then acts at the anterior pituitary
gland and stimulates secretion of two gonadotropins – luteinising
hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).
LH acts at the Leydig cells and stimulates synthesis and secretion of
androgens. Androgens, in turn, stimulate the process of
spermatogenesis.
FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and stimulates secretion of some factors
which help in the process of spermiogenesis.
Sperm is a microscopic structure composed of a head, neck, a middle
piece and a tail. A plasma membrane envelops the whole body of sperm.
The sperm head contains an elongated haploid nucleus, the anterior
portion of which is covered by a cap-like structure, acrosome. The
acrosome is filled with enzymes that help fertilization of the ovum.
The middle piece possesses numerous mitochondria, which produce
energy for the movement of tail that facilitate sperm motility essential for
fertilization.
The human male ejaculates about 200 to 300 million sperms during a
coitus of which, for normal fertility, at least 60 per cent sperms must have
normal shape and size and at least 40 per cent of them must show
vigorous motility.
Sperms released from the seminiferous tubules, are transported by the
accessory ducts.
Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle and prostate are
essential for maturation and motility of sperms.
The seminal plasma along with the sperms constitute the semen. The
functions of male sex accessory ducts and glands are maintained by
the testicular hormones (androgens).
The process of formation of a mature female gamete is
called oogenesis which is markedly different from spermatogenesis.
Oogenesis is initiated during the embryonic development stage when a
couple of million gamete mother cells (oogonia) are formed within each
fetal ovary; no more oogonia are formed and added after birth.
These cells start division and enter into prophase-I of the meiotic division
and get temporarily arrested at that stage, called primary oocytes.
Each primary oocyte then gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa
cells and is called the primary follicle.
A large number of these follicles degenerate during the phase from birth
to puberty. Therefore, at puberty only 60,000-80,000 primary follicles
are left in each ovary.
The primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells
and a new theca and are called secondary follicles. The secondary follicle
soon transforms into a tertiary follicle which is characterised by a fluid
filled cavity called antrum.
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At this stage the primary oocyte within the tertiary follicle grows in size
and completes its first meiotic division. It is an unequal division resulting
in the formation of a large haploid secondary oocyte and a tiny first
polar body.
The secondary oocyte retains bulk of the nutrient rich cytoplasm of the
primary oocyte.
The tertiary follicle further changes into the mature follicle or Graafian
follicle. The secondary oocyte forms a new membrane called zona
pellucida surrounding it.
The Graafian follicle now ruptures to release the secondary oocyte
(ovum) from the ovary by the process called ovulation.
Menstrual Cycle
The reproductive cycle in the female primates (e.g. monkeys, apes and
human beings) is called menstrual cycle. The first menstruation begins at
puberty and is called menarche.
In human females, menstruation is repeated at an average interval of
about 28/29 days, and the cycle of events starting from one
menstruation till the next one is called the menstrual cycle.
One ovum is released (ovulation) during the middle of each menstrual
cycle. The cycle starts with the menstrual phase, when menstrual flow
occurs and it lasts for 3-5 days.
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The menstrual flow results due to breakdown of endometrial lining of the
uterus and its blood vessels which forms liquid that comes out through
vagina. Menstruation only occurs if the released ovum is not fertilized.
Lack of menstruation may be indicative of pregnancy. However, it may
also be caused due to some other underlying causes like stress, poor
health etc.
The menstrual phase is followed by the follicular phase. During this
phase, the primary follicles in the ovary grow to become a fully mature
Graafian follicle and simultaneously the endometrium of uterus
regenerates through proliferation.
These changes in the ovary and the uterus are induced by changes in the
levels of pituitary and ovarian hormones.
The secretion of gonadotropins (LH and FSH) increases gradually during
the follicular phase, and stimulates follicular development as well as
secretion of estrogens by the growing follicles.
Both LH and FSH attain a peak level in the middle of cycle (about 14 th
day). Rapid secretion of LH leading to its maximum level during the mid-
cycle called LH surge induces rupture of Graafian follicle and thereby
the release of ovum (ovulation).
The ovulation (ovulatory phase) is followed by the luteal phase during
which the remaining parts of the Graafian follicle transform as the corpus
luteum.
The corpus luteum secretes large amounts of progesterone which is
essential for maintenance of the endometrium. Such an endometrium is
necessary for implantation of the fertilised ovum and other events of
pregnancy.
During pregnancy all events of the menstrual cycle stop and there is no
menstruation. In the absence of fertilisation, the corpus luteum
degenerates. This causes disintegration of the endometrium leading to
menstruation, marking a new cycle.
In human beings, menstrual cycles ceases around 50 years of age; that is
termed as menopause.
Cyclic menstruation is an indicator of normal reproductive phase and
extends between menarche and menopause.
Fertilisation And Implantation
During copulation (coitus) semen is released by the penis into the vagina
(insemination). The motile sperms swim rapidly, pass through the cervix,
enter into the uterus and finally reach the ampullary region of
the fallopian tube.
The ovum released by the ovary is also transported to the ampullary
region where fertilisation takes place.
Fertilisation can only occur if the ovum and sperms are transported
simultaneously to the ampullary region. This is the reason why not all
copulations lead to fertilisation and pregnancy.
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The process of fusion of a sperm with an ovum is called fertilisation.
During fertilisation, a sperm comes in contact with the zona
pellucida layer of the ovum and induces changes in the membrane that
block the entry of additional sperms. Thus, it ensures that only one
sperm can fertilise an ovum.
The secretions of the acrosome help the sperm enter into the cytoplasm
of the ovum through the zona pellucida and the plasma.
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Ovum surrounded by few sperm blastomeres is called a morula. The
morula continues to divide and transforms into blastocyst as it moves
further into the uterus.
The blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer layer
called trophoblast and an inner group of cells attached to trophoblast
called the inner cell mass. The trophoblast layer then gets attached to
the endometrium and the inner cell mass gets differentiated as
the embryo.
After attachment, the uterine cells divide rapidly and covers the
blastocyst. As a result, the blastocyst becomes embedded in the
endometrium of the uterus. This is called implantation and it leads to
pregnancy.
In Vitro Fertilization
Have you heard of test tube babies? In some women oviducts are
blocked. These women are unable to bear babies because sperms
cannot reach the egg for fertilization. In such cases, doctors collect
freshly released egg and sperms and keep them together for a few hours
for IVF or In Vitro Fertilization (fertilization outside the body).
In case fertilization occurs, the zygote is allowed to develop for about a
week and then it is placed in the mother’s uterus. Complete development
takes place in the uterus and the baby is born like any other baby.
Babies born through this technique are called test-tube babies. This
term is actually misleading because babies cannot grow in test tubes.
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Pregnancy And Embryonic
Development
After implantation, finger-like projections appear on the trophoblast
called chorionic villi which are surrounded by the uterine tissue and
maternal blood.
The chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with each
other and jointly form a structural and functional unit between developing
embryo (foetus) and maternal body called placenta.
The placenta facilitate the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo
and also removal of carbon dioxide and excretory/waste materials
produced by the embryo.
The placenta is connected to the embryo through an umbilical
cord which helps in the transport of substances to and from the embryo.
Placenta also acts as an endocrine tissue and produces several
hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human placental
lactogen (hPL), estrogens, progestogens, etc.
In the later phase of pregnancy, a hormone called relaxin is also secreted
by the ovary. Let us remember that hCG, hPL and relaxin are produced in
women only during pregnancy.
In addition, during pregnancy the levels of other hormones like
estrogens, progestogens, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine, etc., are
increased several folds in the maternal blood.
Increased production of these hormones is essential for supporting the
fetal growth, metabolic changes in the mother and maintenance of
pregnancy.
Immediately after implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo)
differentiates into an outer layer calledectoderm and an inner layer called
endoderm. A mesoderm soon appears between the ectoderm and the
endoderm [triploblastic]. These three layers give rise to all tissues
(organs) in adults.
It needs to be mentioned here that the inner cell mass contains certain
cells called stem cells which have the potency to give rise to all the
tissues and organs.
The human pregnancy lasts 9 months. In human beings, after one month
of pregnancy, the embryo’s heart is formed. The first sign of growing
foetus may be noticed by listening to the heart sound carefully through
the stethoscope.
By the end of the second month of pregnancy, the foetus develops limbs
and digits. By the end of 12 weeks (first trimester), most of the major
organ systems are formed, for example, the limbs and external genital
organs are well developed.
The first movements of the foetus and appearance of hair on the head
are usually observed during the fifth month. By the end of about 24
weeks (end of second trimester), the body is covered with fine hair, eye-
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lids separate, and eyelashes are formed. By the end of nine months of
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pregnancy, the foetus is fully developed and is ready for delivery.
Parturition And Lactation
The average duration of human pregnancy is about 9 months which is
called the gestation period. Vigorous contraction of the uterus at the end
of pregnancy causes expulsion/delivery of the foetus. This process of
delivery of the foetus (childbirth) is called parturition.
Parturition is induced by a complex neuroendocrine mechanism. The
signals for parturition originate from the fully developed foetus and the
placenta which induce mild uterine contractions called foetal ejection
reflex. This triggers release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary.
Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle and causes stronger uterine
contractions, which in turn stimulates further secretion of oxytocin. The
stimulatory reflex between the uterine contraction and oxytocin secretion
continues resulting in stronger and stronger contractions. This leads to
expulsion of the baby out of the uterus through the birth canal –
parturition.
Soon after the infant is delivered, the placenta is also expelled out of the
uterus. The mammary glands of the female undergo differentiation during
pregnancy and starts producing milk towards the end of pregnancy by
the process called lactation. This helps the mother in feeding the
newborn.
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The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is
called colostrum which contains several antibodies absolutely essential
to develop resistance for the new-born babies.
Breast-feeding during the initial period of infant growth is recommended
by doctors for bringing up a healthy baby.
Summary
Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous.
The male reproductive system is composed of a pair of testes, the male
sex accessory ducts and the accessory glands and external genitalia.
Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules, and
each lobule contains one to three highly coiled seminiferous tubules.
Each seminiferous tubule is lined inside by spermatogonia and Sertoli
cells.
The spermatogonia undergo meiotic divisions leading to sperm
formation, while Sertoli cells provide nutrition to the dividing germ cells.
The Leydig cells outside the seminiferous tubules, synthesise and
secrete testicular hormones called androgens.
The male external genitalia is called penis.
The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of
oviducts, a uterus, a vagina, external genitalia, and a pair of mammary
glands.
The ovaries produce the female gamete (ovum) and some steroid
hormones (ovarian hormones).
Ovarian follicles in different stages of development are embedded in the
stroma.
The oviducts, uterus and vagina are female accessory ducts.
The uterus has three layers namely perimetrium, myometrium and
endometrium.
The female external genitalia includes mons pubis, labia majora, labia
minora, hymen and clitoris.
The mammary glands are one of the female secondary sexual
characteristics.
Spermatogenesis results in the formation of sperms that are transported
by the male sex accessory ducts.
A normal human sperm is composed of a head, neck, a middle piece and
tail.
The process of formation of mature female gametes is called oogenesis.
The reproductive cycle of female primates is called menstrual cycle.
Menstrual cycle starts only after attaining sexual maturation (puberty).
During ovulation only one ovum is released per menstrual cycle.
The cyclical changes in the ovary and the uterus during menstrual cycle
are induced by changes in the levels of pituitary and ovarian hormones.
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After coitus, sperms are transported to the junction of the isthmus and
ampulla, where the sperm fertilizes the ovum leading to formation of a
diploid zygote.
The presence of X or Y chromosome in the sperm determines the sex of
the embryo.
The zygote undergoes repeated mitotic division to form a blastocyst,
which is implanted in the uterus resulting in pregnancy.
After nine months of pregnancy, the fully developed foetus is ready for
delivery.
The process of childbirth is called parturition which is induced by a
complex neuroendocrine mechanism involving cortisol, estrogens
and oxytocin.
Mammary glands differentiate during pregnancy and secrete milk after
child-birth.
The new-born baby is fed milk by the mother (lactation) during the initial
few months of growth.
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