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DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF SOLAR THERMAL COOLING AND HEATING

SYSTEM

Thesis · June 2014

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DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF SOLAR THERMAL
COOLING AND HEATING SYSTEM

A
DISSERTATION

Submitted in partial fulfillment of credit course work

requirement for the award of degree
of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
in
ALTERNATE HYDRO ENERGY SYSTEMS

By
ARVIND GUPTA
(12512006)

ALTERNATE HYDRO ENERGY CENTRE

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKE
ROORKEE – 247667 (INDIA)
JUNE, 2014
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work presented in this dissertation entitled “ Design and
Simulation of Solar Thermal Cooling and Heating System” submitted in partial fulfilment
of requirements for the award of degree of Master of Technology in “Alternate Hydro
Energy Systems”, submitted in Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, Indian Institute of
Technology Roorkee, is an authentic record of my work carried out under the guidance and
supervision of Dr R. P. Saini, Associate Professor, Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, Indian
Institute of Technology, Roorkee.

I also declare that I have not submitted the matter embodied in this dissertation for
award of any other degree or diploma.

Date:
Place: Roorkee (Arvind Gupta)

CERTIFICATE

This is certified that the above statements made by the candidate is correct to the best
of my knowledge.

Dr. R. P. Saini
Associate Professor
Alternate Hydro Energy Centre
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Roorkee – 247667

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to my supervisor

Dr R. P. Saini, Associate Professor, Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, Indian institute of
Technology, Roorkee for guiding me to undertake this dissertation as well as providing me all
the necessary guidance and support throughout this work. He has displayed unique tolerance
and understanding at every step of progress, without which this work would not have been in
the present shape.

I am also thankful to all the staffs of Alternate hydro Energy Centre for their constant
support and all my friends, for their help and encouragement at the hours of need.

Date:

Place: Roorkee (Arvind Gupta)

iii
 ABSTRACT

The cooling and heating systems have become indispensable part of our life. These
systems are one of the major contributors to the overall energy consumption. The heating,
ventilation and cooling (HVAC) market continues to rise since last few decades. Undoubtedly,
heating and cooling systems add enormously to the CO2 emission. Fossil fuel depletion also is
an issue associated with the fossil fuel based energy. With the concerns over usage of
conventional electricity the solar powered cooling and heating systems have evolved which are
driven by thermal input. There are many solar based cooling systems viz. (i) absorption, (ii)
adsorption, (iii) desiccant and (iv) ejector systems.

The literature review shows that among the various solar refrigeration methods
absorption refrigeration has been extensively studied and preferred. Present work focuses on
solar powered cooling and heating system based on absorption chiller. A solar thermal
absorption system for cooling and heating system has been theoretically designed for Students’
Computer Laboratory, Alternate Hydro Energy Center at IIT Roorkee, India. Among the two
popular refrigerant pairs NH3 -water and LiBr-water, LiBr-water has been chosen for the
absorption chiller because it can utilize the thermal energy at relatively very low temperatures
to produce cooling. The system in consideration is powered by hot water from flat plate
collector field. The solar data and meteorological information have been generated with the
guidelines from ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals – 2013. The cooling load has been
calculated using the radiant time series (RTS) method which was 8.77 kW at the peak. The
absorption cycle was simulated in spreadsheet program after knowing the cooling demand and
the heat input required to the system was obtained.

It was seen that to meet a peak cooling demand of 8.77 kW, the flat plate solar collector
field required was 54 m2 . The optimum volume of hot water storage tank was suggested to be
integrated with the system. The system is able to meet the heating requirement in winter by
directly supplying the hot water and by heating the air. A COP of 0.82 was achieved in the
present study and it was seen that the system required minimal amount of electricity to pump
the working fluid.

iv
 CONTENTS

Title Page No.

Declaration ii
Certificate ii
Acknowledgement iii
Abstract iv
Contents v
List of tables viii
List of figures ix

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Energy Scenario 1
1.2 Renewable Sources of Energy 3
1.3 Solar Energy 5
1.4 Utilization of Solar Energy 5
1.4.1 Photovoltaic System 5
1.4.2 Solar Hot Water 5
1.4.3 Solar Electricity 6
1.4.4 Passive Solar Heating and Day Lighting 7
1.4.5 Solar Process Space Heating And Cooling 7
1.5 Solar Photovoltaic versus Solar thermal 8
1.6 Cooling Demand Trend 9
1.7 Basics of cooling/refrigeration 9
1.7.1 Types of Cooling Processes 10
[Link] Vapour Compression System 10
[Link] Vapour Sorption Systems 10
[Link] Gas Cycle Refrigeration System 12
1.7.2 Coefficient of Performance 13
1.8 Solar Cooling and Heating 14
1.8.1 General 14
1.8.2 Solar Electric Refrigeration and Cooling 15

v
 [Link] Vapour Compression Systems 15
[Link] Thermoelectric Refrigeration 15
[Link] Stirling Refrigeration 16
1.8.3 Solar Thermal Refrigeration Systems 16
[Link] Absorption Cooling 16
[Link].1 Single-effect Absorption System 16
[Link].2 Half-effect Absorption System 17
[Link].3 Double-effect Absorption System 17
[Link] Adsorption System 18
[Link] Desiccant System 18
[Link] Ejector Refrigeration (Thermo-mechanical) System 20
1.9 CLOSURE 20
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Theoretical Studies 21
2.2 Experimental Studies 23
2.3 Summary of Review 25
2.4 CONCLUSION 36
2.5 OBJECTIVE 36
CHAPTER 3. SOLAR ABSORPTION COOLING AND HEATING SYSTEM
3.1 System description 37
3.1.1 Working of the system 38
3.1.2 Components of the system 38
[Link] Solar Collector 38
[Link].1 Stationary Collector 39
[Link].2 Sun Tracking concentrating Collector 42
[Link] Hot Water Storage Tank 44
[Link] Absorption Chiller 44
[Link] Fan Coil Unit 46
[Link] Cooling Tower 47
3.2 CLOSURE 47
CHAPTER 4. METEOROLOGICAL DATA, SOLAR DATA AND LOAD
CALCULATION
4.1 Site 48

vi
4.2 Site details 50
4.3 Load calculation 51
4.3.1 Meteorological data for Roorkee 51
4.3.2 Solar radiation calculation over Roorkee 53
4.4 Cooling load 72
4.4.1 Heat gain through exterior surface 73
[Link] Wall Cooling Load 76
[Link] Roof Cooling Load 78
[Link] Window Cooling Load 78
4.4.2 Lighting/Appliances Cooling Load 81
4.4.3 Internal/Occupants Cooling Load 83
4.4.4 Total Cooling Load 84
4.5 Heating load 86
4.6 CLOSURE 87
CHAPTER 5. DESIGN OF SOLAR BASED LiBr-WATER ABSORPTION
COOLING SYSTEM
5.1 Design of absorption chiller 88
5.1.1 Mathematical Modelling of Different Chiller Components 90
5.2 Parameters calculations 91
5.3 Solar Collector area 95
5.4 Flow rate of water 96
5.5 Volume of Hot Water Storage Tank 97
5.6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 97
CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
6.1 Conclusion 98
6.2 Recommendations 99
List of Publications 100
References 101

vii
 LIST OF TABLES

No. Caption Page

1 Summary of literature review 26
2 Solar energy collectors’ summary 43
3 Meteorological Data of Roorkee, India 51
4 Surface Orientations and azimuths, measured from south 57
5 Solar radiation calculation data table over Student computer Lab, 60
AHEC, IIT Roorkee (on June 21)
6 Beam, diffuse and reflected components of radiation on Computer 63
Lab’s wall & roof (June 21)
7 Solar radiation calculation data table over Student computer Lab, 66
AHEC, IIT Roorkee (January 21)
8 Beam, diffuse and reflected components of radiation on Computer 69
Lab’s wall & roof (January 21)
9 Sol-air temperature calculation for the wall and the roof on June 21 75
10 Hourly heat input profile for the vertical wall using the sol-air 77
temperature with indoor temperature 25⁰C
11 Hourly heat input profile for the roof using the sol-air temperature 79
with indoor temperature 25⁰C
12 Window hourly cooling load calculation 80
13 Heat gain from lighting and appliances 81
14 Lighting/Appliances heat gain profile based on occupancy schedule 82
and hourly load
15 Hourly lighting/appliances heat gain and cooling load 83
16 Total cooling load hourly profile for 24hrs on June 21 85
17 Design parameters for absorption chiller 89
18 All calculated parameters of the absorption chiller 94
19 Energy Flows in the absorption chiller 95
20 Radiation components over the collector at an angle of 40 ⁰ 96

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

No. Figure Caption Page

1. Reserve to production ratio of Coal in years(R/P ratio) 1
2. Reserve to production ratio of Oil in years (R/P ratio) 2
3. Reserve to production ratio of Natural Gas in years (R/P ratio) 2
4. World CO2 emission by sector in 2010 3
5. Solar photovoltaic panels 6
6. Flat plate thermal system for water heating 6
7. Parabolic-trough collector 6
8. Dish/engine collector 6
9. A Solar tower 7
10. Solar spectrum used in a PV system 8
11. Basic vapour-compression refrigeration system 10
12. Vapour absorption refrigeration system 11
13. Schematic of a closed reverse Brayton cycle 12
14. A solar assisted single-effect absorption cycle 16
15. Schematic of solar assisted double-effect water/LiBr absorption 17
system
16. Basic adsorption cycle 18
17. Schematic drawing of a desiccant cooling system 19
18. Ejector refrigeration system 20
19. Solar hybrid tri-generation plant 21
20. NH3-water absorption chillers with concentrating collector 25
21. Solar absorption cooling and heating system layout 37
22. Pictorial view of a Flat plate collector 40
23. Exploded view of a flat plate collector 40
24. Schematic diagram of compound parabolic collector 41
25. Schematic diagram of an evacuated tube collector 42
26. Sun tracking concentrating collectors 43
27 An absorption cooling system 45
28 A fan coil unit 46
29 Flow chart for the design process 48
30 AHEC, IIT Roorkee 49

ix
31 Bird-eye view of AHEC, Roorkee 49
32 Plan of the Computer Lab, AHEC, IIT Roorkee 50
33 Panoramic view of Computer Lab, AHEC, IIT Roorkee 50
34 Monthly temperature at the Roorkee by Meteonorm 7 52
35 Motion of earth around sun 54
36 Various Solar angles for a surface 55
37 Incident radiation over Roorkee on June 21 64
38 Total radiation on vertical wall of lab on June 21 64
39 Hourly radiation on Horizontal surface on June 21 at Roorkee 65
40 Total incident radiation on Horizontal surface on June 21 at Roorkee 65
41 Hourly radiation over Roorkee on Jan 21 70
42 Hourly radiation on vertical wall of lab on Jan 21 70
43 Total hourly incident radiation on vertical wall of lab on Jan 21 71
44 Hourly incident radiation on Horizontal surface (roof) of lab on Jan 71
21
45 Total hourly incident radiation on horizontal surface (roof) of lab on 72
Jan 21
46 Overview of Radiant Time Series method 74
47 Hourly cooling load on June 21 86
48 LiBr-Water Absorption Cooling System 88

x
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Energy Scenario

The importance of energy in sustaining life is unquestionable. Energy is the most prime
requirement of humankind in today’s developing world and with this world being continuously
more and more populous the energy demand is on surge exponentially. Population and income
growth are the key drivers behind growing demand for energy. As per the projections made,
by 2030 world population would reach 8.3 billion, which means an additional 1.3 billion people
will require energy; and world income in 2030 is expected to be roughly double the 2011 level
in real terms [1]. Also any country’s economic and industrial development requires energy.
The major sources of energy today are fossil fuels and the oil being the world’s leading fuel at
33.1% of global energy consumption [2]. The other fossil fuels are coal and gas which are burnt
to extract the energy. The earth crust possesses a limited reserves of fossil fuels which once
used can’t be replenished in a practicable duration of time instead they take millions of years
to replenish and that’s why they are called as non-renewable sources of energy. With the current
rate of consumption of fossil fuels all the reserves are going to be exhausted in coming years.
This poses a risk of energy security in future.

300

237.79
Coal 244.41
250

200 2007
150 128.57
2008
123.89
109.47 2009
100
2010
50.95
50 2011
2012
0
Asia Pacific Europe and Middle East North South and World
Eurasia and Africa America Central
America

Figure 1. Reserve to production ratio of Coal in years(R/P ratio) [3]

1
 Oil
140
121.91
120

100
78.06 2008
80
2009
60 52.93 2010
37.7 38.68 2011
40
22.36 2012
20 13.64

0
Africa Asia Europe & Middle North S. & World
Pacific Eurasia East America Cent.
America

Figure 2. Reserve to production ratio of Oil in years (R/P ratio) [4]

Natural Gas
250

200
2008
146.79 2009
150
2010

100 2011
67.06 2012
56.41 55.68
50 42.85
31.52
12.09
0
Africa Asia Europe & Middle North S. & World
Pacific Eurasia East America Cent.
America

Figure 3 Reserve to production ratio of Natural Gas in years (R/P ratio) [5]

2
 In recent decades, apart from the energy security threats there have been several
concerns over the usage of fossil fuels regarding the environment. The burning of fossil fuels
causes serious damage to our environment. Their usage on large scale over the years is the
reason for acid rain, ozone layer depletion and global climate change. The burning of coal,
natural gas, and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas
emissions (GHG) [6]. The analysis of data reveal that two sectors produced nearly two-thirds
of global CO 2 emissions in 2010: electricity and heat generation accounted for 41% [7].

Figure 4. World CO 2 emission by sector in 2010 [7]

*Other includes commercial/public services, agriculture/forestry, fishing, energy industries

other than electricity and heat generation, and other emissions not specified elsewhere.

The average temperature of earth has risen by about 0.6 K due to GHG, according to
United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) [1]. These concerns have
compelled to search for the alternative sources of energy which are nonpolluting and never-
ending. These are called renewable sources of energy. The technologies to harness energy from
these sources are of recent research topic across the globe.

1.2 Renewable Sources of Energy

Renewable sources of energy are theoretically non exhaustible sources of energy which
exist naturally. These are (i) Solar. (ii) Hydro, (iii) Biomass, (iv) Geothermal, (v) Wind and
(vi) Ocean energy. Most renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly from the sun.
Renewable energy currently constitutes 15% of the global energy mix [8].

3
 Solar energy is harnessed in two ways: (i) Solar Photovoltaic and (ii) Solar thermal.
Solar photovoltaic cells convert the solar radiation intercepted by the panel into electricity
directly while in solar thermal applications the solar radiations are intercepted and converted
into heat which is then carried away by some fluid for various purposes.
Hydropower utilizes the potential and kinetic energy of water to generate electricity
with the help of hydro turbines.

Biomass energy is the energy which is extracted from organic materials by combustion
process. Wood is the largest biomass energy resource. The other sources of biomass include
plants, agriculture or forestry residues, and the organic constituents of municipal and industrial
wastes. The fumes from landfills can also be used as a biomass source [9].

Geothermal energy is the thermal energy stored in Earth. Geothermal energy can be
extracted from the shallow ground, hot water and hot rock found in the earth crust. Extremely
high temperatures magma exists in the deeper portion of the earth crust, which can be a great
source og heat. The upper layer of earth crust, approximately upper 10 feet of the earth's surface
maintains nearly constant temperature which ranges from 10° to 16°C. Geothermal heat pumps
or ground source heat pump use this thermal reservoir to heat and cool buildings [10].

Wind energy is harvested by tapping the kinetic energy of wind with the help of wind
turbines to generate electricity.

The ocean can produce two types of energy: (i) thermal energy and (ii) mechanical
energy. The sun warms the upper layer of ocean more than the deep water and thus a
temperature gradient is created. This difference in temperature is the cause for thermal energy.
Ocean mechanical energy is basically caused due to tides. The gravitational pull of moon and
sun drive the tides. This rise and fall of tides exhibits enormous amount of mechanical energy
which can be converted into electrical energy by employing mechanical devices.

Among all these green and naturally available sources, solar energy stands out. Solar
energy is ubiquitous unlike other renewable energy sources and hence can be harnessed
everywhere. It takes lesser space to employ solar energy technologies in comparison to other
renewable technologies. Solar energy requires lesser maintenance. Most countries now accept
that solar energy has huge potential because it is clean, freely available. Among all the
renewable sources of energy, solar energy is the most abundant one and is available in both
direct as well as indirect forms.

4
1.3 Solar Energy

The Sun generates and emits energy at a rate of 3.8x1023 kW and approximately
1.8x1014 kW of it is intercepted by the earth. About 60% of intercepted amount reaches the
earth surface. The remaining portion is either reflected back into space or gets absorbed by the
atmosphere. Of 0.1% of this energy, if converted at an efficiency of 10% would generate four
times the world’s total generating capacity of about 3000 GW [11]. Solar energy’s technical
potential is hundreds of times greater than the world’s total electricity use.

Solar energy is the result of electromagnetic radiation released from the sun by nuclear
fission reaction. It reaches earth in form of visible, infrared and ultraviolet radiation. These
radiations can be intercepted and converted into other useful forms of energy. There is a range
of technologies [12] that have been developed to tap the solar energy.

1.4 Utilization of Solar energy

Solar radiation can be utilized in several ways using different types of systems, either
by converting it to other useful forms of energy or directly as heat, light etc.

1.4.1 Photovoltaic (Solar cells) Systems

Solar cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. They are made of materials called
as semiconductors. When sunlight falls on such materials, the solar energy energizes electrons
to loose from their atoms and to flow through the material thus producing electricity. This
phenomenon of converting light to electricity is called the photoelectric effect.

1.4.2 Solar Hot Water

The solar energy can be used to heat water for domestic use in buildings and swimming
pools, in general cases. Solar water heating systems for buildings in general, have a solar
collector and a storage tank. The most commonly used collector in these systems are flat-plate
collectors. Solar water heating systems can be either active or passive. Active systems require
the input of mechanical energy to maintain the flow of the heat carrying fluid, thus they are
equipped with the pumps, while passive systems work automatically without any external
mechanical energy input by naturally created density difference with the help of gravity.

5
 Figure 5. Solar photovoltaic panels [13] Figure 6. Flat plate thermal system for water
heating [14]
1.4.3 Solar Electricity

These systems use sun’s heat to generate electricity. Solar electricity plants require high
temperature steam which can rotate the large turbine coupled with the generator to generate
electrical power.

Figure 7. Parabolic-trough collector [15] Figure 8. Dish/engine collector [16]

The higher temperature of steam is achieved by using concentrating type collectors which are
of mainly three types: parabolic-trough, dish/engine, and power tower. In all kinds of
concentrating collectors the solar energy is intercepted and concentrated to heat a heat carrying
fluid. The concentrator directs the radiation onto the receiver where the solar radiation gets
absorbed.

6
 Figure 9. A Solar tower [17]

1.4.4 Passive Solar Heating and Day lighting

In this type of application solar energy is used to heat and light the buildings. The
passive systems need no mechanical input as generally required by the solar thermal system
for moving heat carrying fluids. Also, these types of systems can be integrated into building
structure. The windows and rooms can act as the collectors and the storage system. The south-
facing portion of the building always receive the maximum sunlight. That is why, the structures
designed for passive solar heating usually have large windows facing south. The floors and
walls get heated up during the day and release the heat at night. The sunspaces and trombe
walls are the other passive solar heating design options. A sunspace is same as a greenhouse
which is provided on the south part of a building while a trombe wall is a thick black painted
wall facing south, which is made of a material that can absorb a good amount of heat. A glazing
is provided a few inches in front of the wall to hold the heat. Day lighting is simply the use of
natural sunlight to lighten up a building's interior.

1.4.5 Solar Process Space Heating and Cooling

This application includes industrial and commercial utilization of the solar thermal
energy. Heating systems provide hot water or space heating for nonresidential buildings. A

7
typical system may include solar collectors, a heat exchanger, and a large storage tank. The
heat from a solar collector can also be used to cool a building. Solar absorption coolers use a
similar approach. Solar energy can also be used with evaporative coolers to extend their
usefulness to more humid climates, using desiccant cooling.

1.5 Solar Photovoltaic versus Solar thermal

The solar thermal systems are preferred over solar photovoltaic because solar thermal
systems can utilize more of solar radiation. In photovoltaic panels, most of the intercepted
radiation is lost in increasing the temperature of panel and cannot be converted into electricity.
As the aim of using a thermal collector is to convert solar energy directly into heat, thermal
collectors have no such limitation. The solar thermal collector efficiency can be as much as
95%. Figure 10 roughly shows the distribution of various radiations when the solar rays
intercept a solar PV collector.

Figure 10. Solar spectrum used in a PV system [20]

As per the Figure 10, 65% of the radiation falling over the PV collector is lost as heat and
merely 35% of the radiation can be converted into electricity. Hence, it has also be seen that
the collection efficiencies of thermal collectors are more than the double that of solar
photovoltaic collectors [20]. The promise of the solar thermal system is obviously huge,
therefore, the present work focuses on the refrigeration techniques, strictly based on the solar
thermal systems.

8
1.6 Cooling demand trend

In recent times there has been seen a huge demand in cooling and refrigeration sector
because of changing climate. According to Japan Air Conditioning, Heating & Refrigeration
News (JARN) estimates, the global market for air conditioners was about 89 million units in
2010, a 21% increase compared with 2009 [18]. Up to now, majority of cooling and
refrigeration systems rely on electricity from fossil fuels and the electricity consumption in this
sector is about 15% of worldwide electricity use and this percentage is even higher (more than
20%) in some developed countries[19]. Thus, this sector contributes to the CO 2 emission and
global warming in the large magnitude. Availability of alternative technologies of cooling and
refrigeration which do not depend on the fossil fuels will help in reducing the carbon emission
and control global warming. These facts have attracted the attention of researchers worldwide
towards the solar options.

The solar options for cooling systems have been looked upon extensively in the past. It
becomes however, very important to understand the various cooling and refrigeration
technologies first, before exploring the solar based cooling technologies. The following section
briefly discusses various cooling methods employed in today’s world.

1.7 Basics of cooling/refrigeration

Refrigeration or cooling can be defined as the process of achieving and maintaining a

temperature below that of the surroundings. One of the most important applications of cooling
has been in the air conditioning systems for human thermal comfort and other important
application being the preservation of perishable food products by storing them at low
temperatures. Air conditioning means the simultaneously controlling air’s temperature,
moisture content, cleanliness, odor and circulation, as required. The air can be conditioned for
the occupants or a process or product in the space. The cooling can be achieved by several
methods suchas vapor compression, vapour sorption, gas cycle systems etc.

9
1.7.1 Types of cooling processes
[Link] Vapour Compression System

Vapour compression refrigeration or cooling systems are the most commonly used
among all refrigeration systems. A vapour compression system consists of (i) a compressor,
(iii) a condenser, (iii) a thermal expansion valve, and (iv) an evaporator. In such systems, the
working fluid that is refrigerant, undergoes phase change to produce the cooling effect. At low
pressure, the refrigerant passes through the evaporator where it absorbs the heat and gets
evaporated at low temperature and thus producing the cooling effect. The vaporized refrigerant
is then made to pass through the mechanical compressor to increase its pressure and
temperature. The refrigerant vapor then passed through the condenser to lose its heat to the
environment or the cooling medium. The condensed refrigerant then gets expanded at the
throttle valve to finally again come to evaporator. This cycle repeats in a cooling system. The
input to such system is the mechanical energy to run the compressor. Hence these systems are
also called as mechanical refrigeration systems.

Figure 11. Basic vapor-compression refrigeration system [21]

[Link] Vapour sorption systems

Sorption refrigeration system utilizes physical or chemical attraction between a pair of

substances to produce refrigeration effect. A sorption system converts the thermal energy to
the cooling effect. Such systems use heat as the input to produce the cooling or refrigerating
effect. The working substance is a solution of two substances, one sorbent and one sorbate.
Among the two, the sorbate has lower boiling point and plays as the refrigerant. Absorption

10
refers to a sorption process where a liquid sorbent absorbs refrigerant molecules into its inside
and changes physically and/or chemically in the process. Vapour absorption refrigeration
system is a closed sorption system. The absorption cycle has three main processes (i)
Evaporation: In evaporation, the liquid refrigerant gets evaporated at low pressure by
extracting the heat from its surroundings. (ii) Absorption: Here, the evaporated refrigerant gets
absorbed in another liquid called the sorbent which reduces its partial pressure in the evaporator
and letting more refrigerant to evaporate. (iii) Regeneration: At the generator, the heat input
makes the refrigerant laden solution to give off the refrigerant vapour. The vapour is then
condensed in the condenser to again supply the liquid refrigerant in the evaporator.

Figure 12. Vapour absorption cooling system [21]

Fig. 12 shows a schematic diagram of a sorption system or vapour absorption system.

When the refrigerant leaves the evaporator, it is absorbed by sorbent in absorber and is then
pumped to generator. After reaching generator, the refrigerant is separated by the application
of heat. The refrigerant vapour then goes to condenser where the temperature of vapour
refrigerant decreases as it loses its heat to the cooling medium around the condenser.

Adsorption cooling systems is another type of sorption system where the sorbent is a
solid which attracts refrigerant vapour onto its surface. Desiccation system is another sorption
process where a sorbent is a desiccant which can absorb the moisture content from humid air.
Desiccant cooling is basically used where humidity control is of major concern.

11
 [Link] Gas Cycle Refrigeration System

Air cycle refrigeration systems are the systems which employ an air standard cycle to
produce the cooling effect. As the name implies, the air is used as the working [Link] which
a gas is used as the working fluid. There is no phase change of the working fluid takes place in
such systems.

Reverse Carnot cycle and reverse Brayton cycle may be used to achieve refrigeration
employing a gas. An ideal reverse Carnot cycle will consist of four processes: (i) isentropic
compression, (ii) reversible isothermal heat rejection, (iii) isentropic expansion and (iv)
reversible isothermal heat absorption. Carnot cycle is a theoretical ideal cycle which has several
practical constraint. The main problem with Carnot cycle with a gas is the difficulty of
achieving isothermal heat transfer processes.

Figure 13. Schematic of a closed Reverse Brayton cycle [22]

A Reverse Brayton refrigeration system is an important cycle frequently employed in

gas cycle refrigeration systems. This may be thought of as a modification of reversed Carnot
cycle, as the two isothermal processes of Carnot cycle are replaced by two isobaric heat transfer
processes. In the Fig. 13, the working substance, air, enters the compressor at 1 and leaves at
2. The external work, Wnet is given at the compressor. The compressed air passes through
condenser, HTHX to lose its heat to the cooling medium. The condensed gas is made to pass
through the turbine T where expansion (3-4) takes place and the temperature and the pressure

12
is reduced. After turbine, the gas enters the evaporator LTHX, to absorb the heat, where
eventually cooling effect (4-1) is produced. This cycle repeats to produce continuous cooling.

1.7.2 Coefficient of Performance

The performance of cooling devices is measured as Coefficient of performance (COP).

COP is an alternative term to efficiency used in thermodynamics. COP of a refrigerator is given
as the ratio of refrigeration effect to the external work done to the system. Therefore the COP of
different solar cooling systems can be defined as follows:
For solar electric compression refrigeration,

Qe
COPele =
W

Where; COPele = COP of solar electric compression refrigeration; Q e = cooling effect in

kW; W = electrical power input in kW.

For solar mechanical compression refrigeration,

Qe
COPmech =
Qboil

Where; COPmech = COP of solar mechanical compression cooling system; Q boil = input heat
to boiler of Rankine cycle in kW.

For solar absorption refrigeration,

Qe
COPab =
Q gen

Where; COPab = COP of absorption cooling; Q gen = heat input to generator in kW.

For solar adsorption refrigeration,

Qe
COPad =
Qde

Where; COPad = COP of adsorption cooling; Q de = heat input at the generator in kW.

For solar desiccant cooling,

13
 m a (ho − hs )
COPdesi =
Qregen

Where; COPdesi = COP of desiccant cooling system; m a = mass flow rate of supply air in
kg/s; h o = specific enthalpy of outdoor air in kW/kg; h s = specific enthalpy of supply air
(kW/kg); Q regen = heat input for regeneration in kW.

1.8 Solar Cooling and Heating

1.8.1 General

Refrigeration, including air conditioning, is necessary for life and will continue to
expand worldwide as the climate changes have been seen. In recent years there has been a sharp
demand of refrigeration technologies due to increased needs of refrigeration & air conditioning
for both commercial and residential purposes during hot season. And as already discussed
fifteen percent of the electricity produced in the whole world is employed for refrigeration and
air-conditioning processes of various kinds [23] and also there is a lack of electrical energy and
storage to accommodate high energy consumptive systems such as refrigeration and cooling.
This gap between demand and supply cannot be filled by merely efficiency improvement.
Considering that cooling demand increases with the intensity of solar radiation, solar based
refrigeration can be considered as a logical solution. The energy crisis has opened the doors for
solar energy to not only meet the peak demands but also refrigeration and cooling needs. Air
conditioning of buildings is responsible for a large percentage of the greenhouse and ozone
depletion effect, as refrigerant harmful gases are released into the atmosphere from
conventional cooling systems. The need to implement advanced new concepts in building air
conditioning systems is more crucial than ever today. Solar cooling systems have the advantage
of using absolutely harmless working fluids such as water, or solutions of certain salts. They
are energy efficient and environmentally safe. Solar assisted refrigeration and cooling
technologies can contribute by being a part of solutions for mitigating global warming.
Therefore, solar cooling technology development has become a key research area worldwide.

Solar refrigeration and cooling can be achieved fundamentally in two ways:

a) Solar electric refrigeration

b) Solar thermal refrigeration

14
1.8.2 Solar Electric Refrigeration or Cooling

Solar electric systems use electricity as an input to the systems.

[Link] Vapour Compression Systems

Vapour compression systems are the most widely used cooling systems in the world.
As already discussed vapour compression cooling systems use a liquid refrigerant which is
circulated through various components of the system. The refrigerant absorbs the heat at the
evaporator and cools the space and rejects the heat at the condenser. In a solar based vapour
compression refrigeration system, the electrical work required for compressor is supplied by
solar photovoltaic (PV) panels.

[Link] Thermoelectric Refrigeration

This kind of refrigeration systems are based on the Peltier–Seebeck effect. In Peltier–
Seebeck effect, the the temperature difference develops the electrical voltage. In other words,
the thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature differences to electric voltage
and vice-versa. Thermoelectric elements are made of semiconductors. These semiconductors
may be bismuth telluride (Bi 2 Te 3 ) and antimony telluride (Sb 2 Te 3 ) alloys. These kind of
cooling systems don’t have any moving parts or the refrigerant liquid which makes them
compact in size. They find their application in electronic cooling, portable refrigerators and in
space applications like satellite and space ships where the size of a cooling system is extremely
limited. COP of such systems is at present very low. COP can range from 0.3 to 0.6[1].

[Link] Stirling Refrigeration

Stirling cycle is gas cycle which consists of four thermodynamic processes same as the
vapor compression cycle. A Stirling engine is a heat engine which operates by cyclic
compression and expansion the working fluid. The compression and expansion take place at
different temperature levels in such a way that heat energy is converted to mechanical energy.
The reverse Stirling cycle can be employed in a system for cooling effect cooling effect by
connecting it to the PV panels.

15
1.8.3 Solar Thermal Refrigeration or Cooling

Solar thermal systems use solar heat rather than solar electricity to produce cooling
effect.
[Link] Absorption Cooling

Absorption refrigeration has been most frequently and widely adopted for solar thermal
refrigeration [24]. It is same as the vapour compression cooling system except for the
compression process. The compressor in the vapour compression is replaced by an absorber-
generator unit. An absorber, pump, expansion valve, heat exchanger and generator are the main
parts of the absorption cooling system. In a solar absorption cooling system, the heat input from
the solar collector is used at the generator to separate the refrigerant vapour from the solution.
In general, LiBr-water and NH3-water solution are used as the refrigerant solution in the
absorption systems [25].
According to the solution regeneration and thermal operation cycle, the absorption systems can
be divided into three categories: single-effect, half-effect and double-effect solar absorption
cycles.
[Link].1 Single-effect Solar Absorption System

The literature shows that the single effect solar absorption systems with the flat plate
collector and evacuated tube collector are widely implemented among all the absorption
cooling systems [26]. Figure 14 shows a single effect absorption cycle. The cycle starts at the
absorber where it absorbs the refrigerant vapour from the evaporator to make a strong solution.
The strong solution is then pumped through a heat exchanger to the generator part. The
refrigerant vapour gets separated at the generator by getting heated from the heat input.

Figure 14. A solar assisted single-effect absorption cycle [27]

16
 [Link].2 Half-effect Solar Absorption System

The half effect systems are same as the single effect but different for the facts that the
half effect systems can operate at lower temperatures and the COP of such systems is
approximately half to that of the single effect systems [28].

[Link].3 Double-effect Solar Absorption System

Double-effect absorption cooling systems need heat source at higher temperature. The
performance of double-effect absorption cooling systems is better than the single-effect and
half-effect systems. Figure 15 illustrates a double effect absorption cooling system. A double
effect system has two generators and two heat exchangers as shown in the Fig.15. In Fig. 15,
the cycle starts at generator G-I which provides heat to generator G-II. The condenser passes
the refrigerant and leads to the evaporator V by losing its heat. The refrigeration occurs at the
evaporator and then the solution passes through the heat exchangers HX-I and HX-II from the
absorber Ab to G-I by pumping. Through this process, HX-II can pass the fluids to G-II and
then G-II passes to HX-I. The complete cycle follows three different pressure levels: high,
medium and low.

Figure 15. Schematic of solar assisted double-effect WATER/LiBr absorption system [29]

17
 [Link] Adsorption System

In adsorption process, the refrigerant vapour is adsorbed over the solid surface by just
physical attraction. There is no chemical changes involved in the adsorption process. The
material getting adsorbed is known as the adsorbate and the surface over which adsorption
takes place is known as the adsorbent.

Figure 16. Basic adsorption cycle

Commonly used adsorbents are zeolite, silica gel, activated carbon and etc. The adsorbent can
catch and hold the refrigerant because of the high surface volume ratio and high porosity of the
adsorbent material. When saturated, the refrigerant vapour can be can be regenerated by simply
applying the heat input. In the simplest case, an adsorption refrigerator can be assumed as a
two vessels connected to each other as shown in Figure 16, one of which is filled with adsorbent
and adsorbate.

[Link] Desiccant Systems

Desiccant cooling systems process water vapor in the earth's atmosphere to produce
cooling. Since mass transfer occurs between the system and its environment, they are
commonly referred to as "open-cycle" systems. These systems use a liquid or solid material
called a desiccant to remove water vapor from the air. The process by which water is removed

18
is most often adsorption on the solid desiccants and absorption in the liquid desiccants. Various
desiccants are available in the market, these can be liquid as well as a solid, as said earlier. All
the water absorbing sorbents can act as a desiccant to remove moisture. Commonly used
desiccants are silica gel, activated alumina, zeolite, LiCl and LiBr. The main components of a
solar assisted desiccant cooling system are shown in the figure 17. Warm and humid air enters
the slowly rotating desiccant wheel and is dehumidified by adsorption of water (1-2). Since the
air is heated up by the adsorption heat, a heat recovery wheel is passed (2-3), resulting in a
significant pre-cooling of the supply air stream. Subsequently, the air is humidified and thus
further cooled by a controlled humidifier (3-4) according to the set-values of supply air
temperature and humidity. The exhaust air stream of the rooms is humidified (6-7) close to the
saturation point to exploit the full cooling potential in order to allow an effective heat recovery
(7-8). Finally, the sorption wheel has to be regenerated (9-10) by applying heat in a
comparatively low temperature range from 50 °C-75 °C and to allow a continuous operation
of the dehumidification process. Flat-plate solar collectors are normally applied as heating
system in solar assisted desiccant cooling systems [30].

Figure 17. Schematic drawing of a desiccant cooling system [30]

19
 [Link] Ejector Refrigeration (Thermo-mechanical) Systems

The ejector system represents the thermo − mechanical cooling which is another
alternative to the conventional vapour compression cycle. It is a thermally driven technology
by low grade thermal energy. They have been developed by replacing the compressor with a
boiler, an ejector and a pump in the vapour compression cycle. Their utmost advantage is
capability of producing refrigeration from waste heat or solar energy by using heat source at
temperatures above 80 °C.

Figure 18. Ejector refrigeration system [25]

1.9 CLOSURE

Present chapter starts with the discussion on present energy scenario and related
concerns. The repercussions of using conventional energy sources have been highlighted and
renewable sources of energy have been briefly introduced. The aim of the chapter is to explain
the contribution of cooling and heating systems in the CO 2 emissions and to introduce the solar
energy based alternatives. Prior to discussing solar cooling options, various available cooling
technologies have been presented. Out of the two solar cooling options, solar electric and solar
thermal, the solar thermal options have been said preferable as it utilizes maximum of the
radiation. The next chapter will follow with the literature review on solar thermal based cooling
and heating systems with a special focus on absorption technology based systems.

20
 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical studies

S.O. Enibe [32] and R. Best & N. Ortega [33] discussed various solar cooling techniques
and stressed that the cost was the main concern for wide implementation.
F. Assilzadeh et al. [37] simulated in TRNSYS program a LiBr-water based solar
absorption cooling system. Evacuated tube collector was considered and it was found that a hot
water storage tank is essential for the system.
D.S. Kim & C.A. Infante Ferreira [1] and J.M. Abdulateef et al. [47] found that single-
effect solar thermal absorption cooling system was the best option.
A single effect LiBr-water solar absorption system was designed by M. Mazloumi [39]
with the capacity of 17.5 kW. The thermodynamic result showed that collector mass flow rate
affected the thermal storage capacity.
Two case studies were presented by Desideri et al. [41] in which industrial refrigeration
and solar cooling system for hotel users were considered. For industrial refrigeration authors
suggested LiBr-water absorption chiller with evacuated tube collector and storage tank and for
hotels a hybrid, or thermo-solar, tri-generation plant which produces electricity, heating and
cooling effect at the same time.

Fig 19. Solar hybrid tri-generation plant [41]

21
 Ursula Eicker and Dirk Pietruschka [42] also developed a full simulation model for
absorption cooling systems with a stratified storage tank. They found that doubling of mass flow
decreased the required collector surface area and thus solar thermal system costs by 30%.
Tiago Mateus and Armando C. Oliveira [44] studied integrated solar absorption cooling
and heating systems using the TRNSYS simulation. The study found that the initial cost of the
system was high although the exploitation cost was found to be considerable low.
Boonrit Prasartkaew and S. Kumar [49] did the simulation by mathematical modeling of a
solar–biomass based single effect LiBr–water absorption. They found that environmental impacts
can be significantly reduced if investment is good on the solar collectors.
T. Tsoutsos et al. [55] did the performance and economic evaluation of a LiBr-water solar
heating and cooling system using TRNSYS. Investment cost was quite high as per their
observation.
Marwan Mokhtar et al. [56] evaluated the techno-economic performance of the solar
collector/chiller system. Authors considered 25 feasible combinations of solar energy collection
and cooling technologies and concluded that two very influential parameters determine the most
economical solar cooling option; the cost and the performance of the refrigeration technologies.
Lin et al. [64] performed a numerical investigation of a two-stage NH 3 -water air-cooled
R R

absorption solar refrigeration system with 5 kW cooling capacity. The simulation results showed
that thermal COP is 0.34 and electrical COP is 26 under a typical summer condition with 85 °C
hot water supplied from solar collector.
X.Q. Zhai et al. [65] presented various cooling modes. As per their study half-effect
absorption chillers and two-stage absorption chillers seem to be more suitable for air-cooled solar
absorption cooling systems in hot and dry regions. They concluded that two parameters determine
the most economical solar cooling option; the cost and the performance of the refrigeration
technologies. They gave the specific hot water tank volume as 0.01–0.08 m3/m2 .
P P P P

Emilio J. Sarabia Escriva et al. [66] obtained an equation that shows the dependence of the
generator/solar-collectors equilibrium temperature on basic design parameters of single effect
absorption cooling machines.
V. Boopathi Raja and V. Shanmugam [27] concluded that LiBr–water single effect
absorption cooling method is more suitable for domestic purpose and flat plate and evacuated tube

22
solar collectors are more reliable and economical for the system. Authors also quoted the optimum
generator and evaporator temperatures as 75 to 92 °C and 5–10 °C respectively.
Ullah et al. [73] reviewed various solar thermal refrigeration systems and concluded that
COP of absorption cooling systems is better than that of adsorption systems.
F.J. Cabrera et al. [74] reviewed and stressed consideration of parabolic trough collectors
(PTC) in process heat and double effect absorption chillers because PTCs solar fraction was found
to be higher than that of other collectors and flat-plate collectors had the lowest.
Renato M. Lazzarin [75] performed the analysis to compare the various popular solar
cooling techniques in terms of the overall efficiency and the investment cost. The evaluation
suggested that the investment costs are similar for PV solar cooling systems, flat plate collector,
evacuated tube collector and parabolic trough collector driven absorption for a daily production of
10 kWh cooling.
Ioan Sarbu & Calin Sebarchievici [29] stressed that solar hybrid cooling systems can
provide higher capacity and better thermal COPs by eliminating some of the problems encountered
with individual working pairs.
2.2 Experimental studies
K Sumathy et al. [35] proposed a low driving temperature strategy. A two-stage lithium
bromide absorption chiller was developed successfully and a practical integrated solar cooling and
heating system with a 100 kW was constructed. This two-stage chiller could be driven by hot water
of temperature from 75 to 60°C.
Zambrano et al [38] developed a model of a single-effect absorption chiller of 35 kW
capacity using hot water from flat plate collectors which fed. A dynamic model of a solar cooling
plant was developed and validated with real data with satisfactory results.
Ahmed Hamza H. Ali et al. [40] did the performance assessment of a 35.17 kW single-
effect LiBr-water absorption chiller using evacuated tube collectors in operation for the duration
of five years. Hot water and cold water storage tanks were included in the system. The specific
collector area of 4.23 (m2/kW cold ) was reported to harvest maximum possible solar heat fraction.
P P R R

Francis Agyenim et al. [47] developed and installed a fully functional solar absorption
LiBr-water system with a capacity of 4.5 kW and proved the feasibility of the new concept of cold
water storage.

23
 C. Sanjuan et al. [50] proposed a different solar absorption cooling system with interior
storage. The energy was storage in the form of crystallized salts. This doesn’t use liquid refrigerant.
However, authors stated that these systems cannot substitute big absorption pumps.
Pablo Bermejo et al. [51] tested a double effect LiBr-water absorption system which was
powered by hot water from Fresnel collector. Average daily COP was 1.1-1.25.
Ming Qu et al. [52] studied a small solar thermal cooling and heating system at Carnegie
Mellon University. The system used 52 m2 of linear parabolic trough solar collectors; a 16 kW
P P

double effect, LiBr-water absorption chiller. TRNSYS results were validated and a sizable storage
tank was suggested.
K.F. Fong et al. [53] did a comparative study and found that solar electric compression
refrigeration and solar absorption refrigeration had the highest energy saving potential in the
subtropical Hong Kong. It was found that the parabolic concentrators had the primary energy
consumption only slightly better than the flat plate collectors.
J.D. Marcos et al. [59] designed an experimental solar energy facility which used a new
type of flat plate vacuum solar collectors. The experiment proved that approximately 10 m2 of P P

solar panels is needed to produce 1 kW of cooling capacity with an air-cooled LiBr-water

absorption chiller.
F. Palacín et al. [61] and C. Monné et al. [63] validated the TRNSYS results of real solar
absorption cooling system. The performance was evaluated with new heat rejection systems. The
COP was improved with the use of the geothermal sink.
Syed A.M. Said et al. [38] investigated 5 kW NH 3 -water absorption chillers over a period
R R

of 24 h at a refrigeration temperature of −9 °C and concluded the refrigeration system with

refrigerant storage is the best-suited design as collector size would be comparatively small
compared to other alternatives.
S. Du et al. [68] performed an experiment on an air-cooled two-stage NH 3 -WATER 2 kW
R R

absorption system which was driven by 85 °C hot water with an evaporating temperature of 8 °C
and ambient air temperature of 29 °C. Its thermal COP was reported as 0.21.
Naci Kalkan et al. [25] designed a LiBr-water absorption system with average chiller inlet
temperature of 78 °C and thermal COP of 0.58 was reported. Hot water storage of 60-90 L/m2 was P P

suggested for evacuated tube collector.

24
 Pedro J et al. [71] did TRNSYS simulation of a 17.6 kW LiBr-water single-effect
absorption chiller with a heat storage tank of 1000 L. The flat plate collector field of 38.4 m2 wasP P

used and a COP of 0.691 was found.

Y.L. Yin et al. [77] designed an 8 kW LiBr-water absorption cooling system with a 3 m3 P P

hot water storage tank. MATLAB program was used to predict the performance. It was found that
the solar radiation intensity had a greater impact on the performance than the ambient temperature.
Christine Weber et al. [79] found from their operational experience of NH 3 -water R R

absorption chiller that concentrating solar collectors provide high efficiency at high driving
temperatures favorable for thermally driven chillers. Hot water temperature of 100-205 °C and
chiller temperature of -12 °C was reported with a COP of 0.8. Such systems with concentrating
collectors were suggested for southern countries with high amount of direct irradiation. A
minimum size of 175 kW is recommended for economic use as end losses increase significantly
as well as the specific collector field cost for smaller units.

Fig 20. NH 3 -water absorption chillers with concentrating collector [79]

R R

2.3 Summary of review

A summary has been presented in the Table 1.

25
 Table 1. Summary of literature review
S. No. Author(s) System/Parameter(s) Result(s)
Theoretical Studies
1. S.O. Enibe (1997) Discussed SPV based vapour compression 1. Cost is high.
[32] refrigeration, absorption and adsorption system 2. Performance improvement required.
2. G.A. Florides et Presented TRNSYS simulation of a 11 kW LiBr- 1. Optimum system: 15m2 compound parabolic
P P

al. [34] Water absorption solar cooling system. collector and 600 l hot water storage tank.
3. Ibrahim Atmaca A 10.5 kW LiBr-water solar absorption chiller 1. The hot water inlet temperature decreases the
24T 24T

and Abdulvahap was dynamically simulated. absorber and solution heat exchanger surface
Yigit [36] area.
2. The storage tank mass should be kept at a
minimum and for the study it was 3750 kg.
3. Evacuated tube collectors was the best choice
for present study
4. Assilzadeh, F. et TRNSYS simulation of a solar LiBr-water 1. Optimized system: 1 ton chiller with 35m2 of P P

al. [37] absorption system was done for Malaysia collector tilted at 20° to horizontal and storage
weather. tank size of 0.8m3. P P

5. D.S. Kim & C.A. A review of solar electric, solar thermal and new Solar thermal with single effect absorption
Infante Ferreira emerging technologies was presented. system is the best option.
[1]

26
6. M. Mazloumi et A single effect 17.5 kW LiBr-water absorption 1. Collector mass flow rate has has a significant
al. [39] system was simulated Horizontal N-S parabolic effect on optimum capacity of the storage
trough collector was used with an insulated tank.
thermal storage. 2. The minimum collector area was 57.6 m2. P P

7. Desideri et al. Two case studies were presented for solar cooling For industries, LiBr-water absorption chiller
[41] in industries and in hotels. with vacuum tube collectors and a storage tank
and for hotels, hybrid tri-generation plant was
suggested which produces electricity, heating
and cooling.
8. Ursula Eicker and A full simulation model for absorption cooling 1. Increasing the mass flow decreases the
Dirk Pietruschka systems, combined with a stratified storage tank collector surface area and thus the costs.
[42] was developed using TRNSYS. 2. For 3 m2 kW−1 collector area at 85 ° C and
P P P P

under low flow conditions, solar fraction of

80% was achieved.
3. Dynamic simulations are necessary for
correct solar thermal system sizing.
10. Tiago Mateus and A TRNSYS simulation based study was done to 1. The cost and CO 2 can be saved by employing
R R

Armando C. evaluate the potential of integrated solar integrated systems.

Oliveira [44] absorption cooling and heating systems for 2. Single-family house and the hotel showed the
building applications. economic feasibility for the system.
3. Cost of chiller and the solar thermal systems
need to go down.

27
11. J.M. Abdulateef Authors performed the steady-state analysis of 1. Single-effect Solat absorption system
et al. [47] the ejector refrigeration system. appeared to be the best option and solar
ejector refrigeration system were not
economically competitive
12. Boonrit Authors studied the simulation by mathematical Results indicated that solar–biomass hybrid air
Prasartkaew and modelling of a solar–biomass based single effect conditioning for tropical locations for residential
S. Kumar [49] LiBr–water absorption chiller. applications is feasible.
The overall system performance on a daily and
monthly basis was evaluated.
13. Berhane H. Authors worked for reducing the life cycle impact Environmental impacts can be largely reduced
Gebreslassie et al. of cooling. by investing on the solar collectors.
[54]
14. T. Tsoutsos et al. TRNSYS simulation of a LiBr-water absorption Investment cost was high and payback period
[55] chiller with storage tank was done. was 11.5 years without subsidy.
15. Marwan Mokhtar A techno-economic analysis of the solar collector 1. Large-scale cooling plants were the most
et al. [56] and chiller system was done by considering 25 economical.
feasible combinations of solar collection and 2. Selection of heat rejection system and storage
cooling systems. tank size were found to be very important.
18. P. Lin et al. [64] A numerical simulation of a 5 kW two-stage air- A thermal COP of 0.34 and electrical COP of 26
cooled NH 3 -water solar absorption chiller was
R R in summer condition was fond with 85 °C hot
done. water supplied from solar collector.

28
19. X.Q. Zhai et al. Authors presented some new design options with 1. Half-effect and two-stage chillers seemed
[65] regard to solar collectors, auxiliary energy more suitable for air-cooled solar absorption
systems and cooling modes after reviewing solar cooling systems in hot and dry regions.
single-effect absorption cooling systems. 2. Solar collection and chiller performance are
very influential parameters for cost.
3. Ground source heat pumps may be integrated
as auxiliary system.
4. Ground cooling can eliminate the need for
cooling towers.
5. The specific tank volume was 0.01–0.08
m3/m2 .
P P P P

20. Emilio J. Sarabia Single effect solar absorption cooling system was The increase in the evaporator temperature had a
Escriva et al. [66] studied analytically and the effect of generator negative effect
temperature was analyzed.
21. V. Boopathi Raja Study to minimize the cost of solar LiBr-water 1. Single effect LiBr–water absorption cooling
and V. absorption cooling system was done. system was more suitable for domestic
Shanmugam [27] purpose.
2. Flat plate and evacuated tube solar collectors
were more economical.
3. Optimum generator temperatures were around
75 to 92 °C and evaporation temperatures
about 5–10 °C.

29
23. Berhane H. Mathematical modelling was done to optimize the The technology is not economically viable as per
Gebreslassie et al. economic and environmental performance of the current market.
[72] solar absorption cooling system.
25. F.J. Cabrera et al. Parabolic trough collector (PTC) based air 1. Flat-plate collectors (FPC) had the lowest
[74] conditioning systems were reviewed and the solar fraction and the PTC had the maximum.
performance was compared with other types of 2. By including hot water storage tank in the
solar collectors. system the auxiliary heating can be also
lowered.
26. Renato M. Author compared the various solar cooling 1. The specific cost of PV was found higher than
Lazzarin [75] techniques in terms of the overall efficiency and solar thermal.
the investment cost. 2. The investment costs were very similar for
PV solar cooling systems and FPC, ETC and
PTC driven absorption for a daily production
of 10 kWh cooling.
27. Ali M. Authors compared the performance solar Desiccant cooling system achieved a higher
Baniyounes et al. absorption and solar desiccant cooling system. solar fraction than absorption cooling system.
[76]
29. Yin Hang et al. Solar absorption integrated systems were studied The methodology can be applied to other
[78] which could provide cooling, heating and hot renewable energy systems
water. Optimization study was done on TRNSYS
simulation program.

30
 Experimental
1. Ibrahim Dincer et A water heating and cooling system based on 1. Theoretical and experimental COP were
al. [31] absorption cooling using a mixture of R22 and found to be 0.6 and 0.45 respectively with a
Dimethyl Ether Tetra Ethylene Glycol as the generator temperature of 90 degrees.
working fluid was constructed using flat plate 2. R22 has detrimental effect on environment. It
collectors. should be replaced.

2. R. Best & N. A review on solar cooling technology was 1. Performance was highly dependent on
Ortega [33] presented and a solar cooling installation which environmental conditions.
included flat plate collector of 316 m2 , LiBr-
P P 2. The cost of the system should be affordable.
water absorption chiller and a heat storage tank of
30m3 was studied.
P P

3. K Sumathy et al. A solar based low temperature (75-60 °C) 2-stage The proposed system could be integrated with
[35] LiBr-water absorption cooling system was existing solar hot water system hence is efficient
developed. and cost effective
4. Zambrano et al. A model of a solar cooling system was developed Experiment results were in agreement with the
[38] for demonstration purpose. The system included a theoretical results.
35 kW single-effect absorption chiller with flat
plate collector.
5. Ahmed Hamza H. A performance study was done for a 35.17 kW The specific collector area was 4.23 (m2/kW cold ).
P P R R

Ali et al. [40] solar single-effect LiBr-water absorption chiller

in operation for the duration of five years.

31
 Plant included vacuum tubes collectors, a hot
water storage tank of 6.8 m3, a cold water storage
P P

capacity of 1.5 m3 and a 134 kW cooling tower.

P P

7. Francis Agyenim A solar cooling system consisting of a 12 m2 P P 1. The concept of cold storage was well proved.
et al. [48] vacuum tube solar collector, a 4.5 kW LiBr/H2O 2. Electrical COP and thermal COP were 3.64
absorption chiller, a 1000 l cold storage tank and and 0.58 respectively.
a 6 kW fan coil was studied. 3. 180 – 250 Liters of storage capacity was
required per kW of cooling produced.
4. Chilled water temperature was 7 °C.

9. Pablo Bermejo et A 174 kW double-effect LiBr-water absorption 1. The daily average solar collector efficiency
al. [51] chiller with 352 m2 solar field of a linear
P P was found to be 0.35.
concentrating Fresnel collector was tested. 2. Daily average COP of 1.1–1.25 was reported.

10. Ming Qu et al. A 16 kW double effect, LiBr-water absorption 1. The orientation of the collectors impacted the
[52] solar thermal cooling and heating system with performance significantly.
52m2 of linear parabolic trough solar collectors
P P 2. The storage tank should be placed in solar
was developed and studied. Models were collection loop.
developed in TRNSYS. 3. A drain-back tank should be considered to
achieve higher system performance.
11. K.F. Fong et al. A comparative study was done for a particular When solar electric and solar absorption systems
[53] building in Hong Kong. The systems included: (i) were considered the yearly energy savings
solar electric compression, (ii) solar mechanical

32
 compression, (iii) solar absorption (iv) solar would be 15.6% to 48.3% compared to the
adsorption and (v) solar solid desiccant cooling. conventional cooling.
Simulation models were developed and
performances were evaluated.
12. J.D. Marcos et al. An experimental air cooled 4.5-kW LiBr/water 1. 65.3% of heating demand and 46% of the air
[59] solar absorption cooling and heating facility with conditioning demand was met.
a net flat plate vacuum collector area of 42 m2 P P 2. Nearly 10 m2 of collectors was needed for 1
P P

was developed and studied in Madrid. System kW of cooling capacity.

also included a 1500-l hot storage tank. 3. The mean COP of absorption chiller was 0.55.
14. F. Palacín et al. A model of 4.5 single effect, air cooled, LiBr- 1. When used dry cooling tower, the COP was
[62] water absorption chiller was developed and highly influenced by the outdoor temperature.
simulated in TRNSYS program. Two heat 2. Geothermal sink improved the performance
rejection sinks were analyzed with the system; and performance was independent of outdoor
dry cooling tower and geothermal sink. conditions.
15. C. Monné et al. Developed a dynamic model of a 4.5 kW single 1. Cooling water temperature influenced the
[63] effect, LiBr–water rotary absorption chiller and a COP.
dry cooler tower using TRNSYS. 2. Geothermal sink improved the COP up to
42%.
16. Syed A.M. Said A detailed study on the alternate designs of solar 1. The refrigeration system with refrigerant
et al. [68] absorption cooling technology was done. Authors storage was the best-suited design.
investigated a 5 kW ammonia-water absorption 2. Refrigerant storage systems had the high
COP.

33
 chillers over a period of 24 h at a evaporator 3. The cost of the refrigerant-storage system was
temperature of −9 °C. lesser as compared to other alternatives.

17. S. Du et al. [69] An experimental study on an air-cooled 2 kW When the prototype was driven by 85 °C hot
two-stage NH 3 -water absorption refrigeration
R R water with an evaporating temperature of 8 °C
system was done. and ambient air temperature of 29 °C, its thermal
COP and electric efficacy (ε) reached 0.21 and
5.1 respectively.
18. Naci Kalkan et al. A 4.5 kW solar LiBr-water single effect 1. Average chiller inlet temperature was 78 °C
[25] absorption air-conditioning system was designed and total electrical and thermal COP of 3.64
with improvements. The system included 15 m2 P P and 0.58 was achieved.
of evacuated tube collectors, a 1000 L cold water 2. 60 to 90 L of storage may be required for each
tank and a 6 kW fan coil unit. m2 of evacuated tube collector.
P P

3. The system was uneconomic.

19. François A 5 kW solar NH 3 -water absorption chiller was
R R The solution heat exchanger and the absorber
Boudéhenn et al. developed and the numerical and experimental were found as the optimization point.
[70] analyses were presented.
20. Pedro J et al. [71] A17.6 kW LiBr-water single-effect absorption 1. An average of 29% of the solar energy
chiller was studied and simulated in TRNSYS. incident on the solar collectors’ surface was
The system consisted of 38.4 m2 flat-plate
P P transferred to the hot water storage.
collector. 2. Average COP of the absorption chiller was
0.691.

34
21. Y.L. Yin et al. A 8 kW solar LiBr-water absorption cooling 1. Solar radiation intensity has a greater impact
[77] system with 96 m2 of collector area was
P P on the performance than the ambient
experimented. A water storage tank of 3 m3 wasP P temperature.
used to store the hot water. Theoretical modelling 2. Indoor temperature decreases with the
was done on MATLAB. increase of the solar radiation intensity as well
as the decrease of the ambient temperature.
3. The systems were not competitive
22. Christine Weber Authors studied the operation of NH 3 -water
R R 1. Hot water temperature of 100-205 °C and
et al. [79] absorption chiller with concentrating solar chiller temperature of -12 °C was reported
collectors. with a COP of 0.8.
2. Such systems with concentrating collectors
were suggested for southern countries with
high amount of direct irradiation.
3. A minimum size of 175 kW is recommended
for economic use

35
2.4 CONCLUSION
The literature study shows that the absorption chillers have been the most popular and
preferred technology in terms of solar thermal based cooling systems. Mostly, LiBr-water and the
Ammonia-water are used as refrigerant solutions or working pairs. Among the two pairs, the LiBr-
water can be easily employed in the cooling systems for human thermal comfort. The chillers with
NH 3 -water as the working fluid can produce refrigerating effect of sub-zero temperatures but the
R R

temperature requirement at the generator is in the range of 95-120 C for water cooled chillers
which will necessarily require concentrating collectors. The temperature requirements in LiBr-
water chillers can be as low as 70 C. The temperature can be achieved by flat plate collectors very
much suited for the LiBr-water chillers, thus saving the cost. The water cooled single effect LiBr-
water solar absorption chiller seemed best suited for small cooling requirements and inclusion of
hot water tank improved the performance. The chillers can serve as the heating system as well. In
winter, the hot water from collector can be used directly or the air can be heated by using the fan
coil.

2.5 OBJECTIVE
Present work intends to design a LiBr-water based solar thermal powered absorption cooling and
heating system. The theoretical design will be carried out for Students’ Computer Lab at AHEC,
IIT Roorkee, India. The cooling and heating loads will be calculated for the design day and based
on the cooling load, the absorption cycle will be simulated in spreadsheet and the various
parameters will be calculated and analyzed. The aim of the effort is to find out the thermal energy
requirement and the flat plate solar collector field area. The hot water storage tank is being included
in the solar thermal loop and the volume of the tank will be calculated.

36
CHAPTER 3 SOLAR ABSORPTION
COOLING AND HEATING
SYSYTEM

3.1 System Description

A solar absorption cooling and heating system being designed in present work consists of a
LiBr-water absorption chiller which is hot water fired coming from solar thermal system. In
heating mode, the chiller remains idle and the hot water is directly fed to the fan coil unit to warm
the space. The complete system can be explained as follows:

Figure 21. Solar absorption cooling and heating system layout

37
3.1.1 Working of the system

Cooling mode

In the cooling mode, the chiller is hot water fired to produce cooling effect. The incident
solar radiation is intercepted by the solar collector where the solar heat increases the temperature
of incoming water. The hot water then flows into and is stored in the hot water storage tank. The
hot water from the storage tank is fed to the LiBr-Water absorption chiller as shown in the figure
where it loses its heat in the generator part of the chiller and comes out with low temperature which
goes back to the hot water storage tank. The cooling effect is produced in the evaporator part of
the chiller where the water is chilled. The chilled water coming out from chiller goes to fan coil
unit where it cools the air stream going into the space to be conditioned. The cooling water
continuously flows from the cooling tower to extract heat at absorber and the condenser part as
explained in the section to follow.

Heating mode

In heating mode the chiller is left idle as there is no cooling required. The hot water from
the hot water storage tank is made to flow directly to fan coil unit where it heats the air stream to
be sent to the air-conditioned space. The operation during heating hours is very simplified as the
absorption chiller and cooling tower do not function.

3.1.2 Components of the system

The main components of the system are:

1. Solar collector
2. Hot water storage tank
3. LiBr-water absorption chiller
4. Fan coil unit
5. Cooling tower

[Link] Solar collector

A solar collector absorbs the incoming solar radiation and converts the same into thermal
energy. The thermal energy collected is then transferred by a transport medium which can be any
38
of heat carrying fluid like air, water and etc. The heated fluid from the collector can be directly
used or can be stored in any hot water storage tanks. Any typical solar collector comprises of a
glazing surface, absorber plate, headers, insulation and casing.

There are two types of solar collectors. The two types are (i) stationary and (ii)
concentrating. In a stationary and non-concentrating solar collector, the solar radiation is
intercepted and absorbed with the same areas of interception and collection while in case of
concentrating collectors, the radiation is intercepted on a larger area than the collection area. As
the name suggests, the radiation is collected at a concentrated area. The ratio of the area of the
interception to that of collection is known as the concentration ratio.

[Link].1 Stationary Collectors

There are basically three types of stationary collectors:

1. Flat plate (FPC);

2. Stationary compound parabolic (CPC) and

3. Evacuated tube (ETC).

Flat plate collectors (FPC)

A flat-plate solar collector is shown in Fig. 22 and Fig. 23. The solar radiation passes
through a transparent cover known as glazing and falls on the absorber surface. During the
absorption, a large share of falling energy is absorbed by the plate and transferred to the heat
carrying fluid in the tubes which can be then carried away for storage or direct use. The absorber
plate and the sides of casing are properly insulated to reduce various thermal losses to the
environment. The glazing at the top is employed to minimize the convection losses from the
absorber plate. The transparent cover, glazing also reduces radiation losses from the collector as
the glazing (glass) does not allow the long-wave thermal radiation to pass through which are
emitted by the absorber plate. This is known as greenhouse effect. FPC are generally stationary
and don’t require any kind of tracking of the sun. The collectors is oriented towards the equator.
This is why it faces south in the northern hemisphere and faces north in the southern hemisphere.

39
The tilt angle of the collector is kept equal to the local latitude with addition or subtraction of 10
– 15⁰.

Figure 22. A Flat plate collector [80] Figure 23. Exploded view [80]

The various FPC components can be briefly discussed as below:

Glazing: This is the layer(s) glass or other transparent material which can transmit radiations.
Absorber plates: These are flat plates which are corrugated, or grooved and where tubes or the
passages are attached where the fluid flows.
Headers or manifolds: To admit the fluid in the collector and to discharge it.
Insulation: It minimizes the thermal losses to the environment from the back and sides of the
collector.
Container or casing: It encloses all the components and keeps them free from dust, moisture, etc.
The FPC are wide used because they can collect the solar energy at the lower cost.

Stationary compound parabolic collectors (CPC)

CPC can reflect all the incident radiation within wide limits to the absorber. the two
sections of the parabola are joined together facing each other to avoid the requirement of
tracking the sun as shown in Fig. 24.

40
 Compound parabolic concentrators have the capability of accepting incoming radiation
over a wide range of incident angles. It uses multiple internal reflections by which, any radiation
that enters the aperture within the collector acceptance angle, finally reaches to the absorber
surface at the bottom of the collector. The absorber has many configurations. It can be cylindrical
as shown in Fig. 24 or it can be flat. In the CPC shown in Fig. 24, the lower portion of the
reflector (AB and AC) is kept circular, while the upper portions (BD and CE) are parabolic. T in
the Fig.24 is the tube where the heat is collected in a heat carrying fluid.

Figure 24. Schematic of a compound parabolic collector [80]

Evacuated tube collectors

The FPC are generally well suited for areas with good amount of solar radiation. Their
benefits are heavily decreased when weather conditions are hostile during cold, cloudy and
windy days. The evacuated tube collectors are efficient options in such conditions. Evacuated
solar collectors operate differently. The evacuated tube collectors consist of a heat pipe which is
inside a vacuum tube, as shown in Fig. 25.

The vacuum cover reduces the losses by conduction and convection and hence the
collectors can achieve higher temperatures than FPC. Evacuated tube collectors can collect both
direct and diffuse radiation as a FPC. The efficiency of EPC is higher at low incidence angles
and this adds an advantage over FPC and there is an improvement in day-long performance. ETC
use phase change materials to transfer heat. The material gets vaporized absorbing the heat.
Evacuated collectors have a heat pipe which is a great conductor, placed inside a vacuum tube.

41
 Figure 25. An evacuated tube collector [80]

The pipe, which is a sealed copper pipe, is then attached to a black copper fin that fills the
tube. Extending from the top of each tube there is a metal tip which attached to the sealed pipe
which acts as condense). Each heat pipe contains a small amount of fluid e.g. methanol that
evaporates and condenses. Solar heat evaporates the liquid and when the vapour reaches the heat
sink region to condense and release its latent heat. The condensed fluid then returns back to the
collector and this process repeats. Fig. 5 shows an evacuated tube collector. Water, or glycol, can
be used as fluid to flow through the manifold to pick up the thermal energy from the tubes. The
heated liquid can then be circulated through any heat exchanger to gives off its heat to a process
or can be directly sent to the storage tank.

Sun tracking concentrating collector

The higher temperature of the fluid can be achieved if the solar radiation can be collected
on a small area.
In all the concentrating collectors solar radiation is concentrated and then is transferred into
heat. Concentration is achieved by using reflection or refraction of radiation by using the mirrors
or lens. After the reflection or refraction, the radiation is concentrated in a point or line which is
the focal zone, thus increasing the energy intensity in the receiving surface increasing the
temperature of the fluid.

42
 Parabolic trough collector Fresnel type PTC

Parabolic dish collector Central tower system

Figure 26. Sun tracking concentrating collectors [80]

Table 2. Solar energy collectors’ summary [80]

43
[Link] Hot water storage tank

A hot water storage tank is simply a water tank which is employed for hot water storage.
This can be done for many applications such as domestic use, space heating, or cooling. A properly
insulated thermal tank can retain the thermal energy for several days. Hot water tanks may be
supplied with an auxiliary heating source such as gas burner or oil burner, electric heaters etc. By
integrating hot water storage tank with solar thermal systems the efficiency of the system can be
improved and an intermittent systems can be developed which can be quite relevant with cooling
and heating system.

Purposes of a hot water tank can simply be summarized with two following points:

1. To avail the continuous run of hot water to the cooling system or FCU.
2. To avail the hot water in the times of non- sunshine hours.

The obvious ideal condition for storage tanks is to be insulated properly to arrest the different
heat losses to the surroundings. Very popular storage tank for the solar thermal systems are
stratified hot water storage tank.

Stratified hot water storage tank is preferred in solar thermal system because of their special
capability of maintaining temperature difference between the different layers of water in the tank.
The mixing of the tank water is prevented in the stratified storage tank thus there is a considerable
difference in the temperature of water at the upper (hot) end of the tank and lower (cold) end of
tank.

[Link] Absorption chiller

Absorption chiller is a very crucial component of the system. This is an alternative to the
conventional cooling/refrigeration system which is vapor compression refrigeration. In vapor
compression system huge amount of compression work is required which is given through
electrical supply. In case of absorption chiller, the cooling effect is produced by inputting thermal
energy even in the form of low temperature heat source. The complete absorption system can be
explained as in figure 27.

44
 Absorption machines are available in the market for two basic purposes. For applications
in air conditioning which need cooling above 0⁰C and for applications requiring cooling below
0⁰C. In application where above 0 C cooling is needed, LiBr-water based machines are preferred
and NH 3 -water for the other.

In present work, the system is designed for air conditioning purpose hence the selected refrigerant
absorbent pair is water-lithium bromide.

Figure 27 shows a a typical LiBr-water machine. The complete process takes place in two vessels.
The top vessel houses the generator and condenser and the lower vessel contains the absorber and
evaporator. The heat input is given at the generator.

Figure 27. An absorption cooling machine

This input heat evaporates the refrigerant, water in LiBr-water absorption machine, at the
generator. The water vapor then passes into the condenser section where a cooling medium
45
condenses the water vapor to the liquid state. The liquid water then goes down to the evaporator
where absorbs heat from the fluid to be cooled. Due to a very low pressure in the absorber-
evaporator section, boiling point of water decreases thus it boils off at a very low temperature.
Evaporated water is then made to pass into the absorber where it gets mixed with a strong LiBr-
H2O solution. This strong solution absorbs the water vapor coming from the evaporator to make
a weak solution. The solution is sent to the generator section by pumping. This cycle repeats to
produce cooling effect at the evaporator

In an absorption chiller, three fluid loops are there that have external connections: (i)
generator heat input loop, (ii) cooling water loop, and (iii) chilled water loop.

[Link] Fan coil unit

A fan coil unit is a device which consists of a cooling or heating coil and a fan. It is an
integral part of a heating and cooling system employed in commercial, residential, and industrial
buildings or applications. Fan coil unit is technically air to water heat exchanger. The fan coil
receives hot or cold water, and removes heat from or adds heat to the air through heat transfer.

Figure 28. A fan coil unit [81]

46
Fan coil units can use a medium of chilled water to provide cooling to the conditioned space. Fan
coil units are capable of utilizing lower grade chilled water. Similar to the cooling, the fan coil unit
can be used for heating purposes where it heats the incoming air stream by taking heat from the
hot water supply. In general, they are supplied with low temperature hot water for heating
purposes.

[Link] Cooling Tower

A cooling tower is used to cool the hot water by losing its heat to the environment. The
heat energy absorbed by the chiller needs to be rejected out of the system and into the
atmosphere. Evaporative heat rejection devices called cooling towers are typically used to lower
the water temperature in large chiller systems.

The system in this study is considered to be water cooled chiller. Hence, a cooling tower is
required to lose waste heat while the chiller is in operation to produce cooling effect.

3.2 CLOSURE

The proposed system has been described in the present chapter. A typical layout of the system has
been drawn and the working of the system in the cooling and heating mode has been explained.
The system comprises of various components and each component has been illustrated in the
chapter. The chapter also discusses the various major components’ characteristics and operation.
The following chapter deals with the site details, meteorological information for the site and solar
data calculation leading to the load calculations.

47
 CHAPTER 4 METEOROLOGICAL DATA, SOLAR DATA
AND LOAD CALCULATION

Solar thermal cooling and heating machine has various components as discussed in the
Chapter 3. For designing the system, the various calculations are involved. The complete process
for the design can be summarized as follows:

• Identify the site

1

• Get the complete details of site (Location, Dimensions,

2 Construction details)

• Calculate cooling and heating load (Occupancy, solar

3 gain, internal gain, )

• Design of absorption chiller

4

• Solar collector area, storage tank volume and flow rate

5

Figure 29. Flow chart for the design process

4.1 Site

The chosen site for the project undertaken is the Student Computer Laboratory of
Alternate Hydro Energy Center (AHEC), Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Roorkee, India.
The computer lab is located on the second floor of the AHEC building which is open for the
students all day in office hours, generally from morning 8 AM to evening 5 PM.

48
 Figure 30. AHEC, IIT Roorkee

Figure 31. Bird-eye view of AHEC, Roorkee

The computer lab has two adjacent rooms on its two sides. The windows are provided on the one
side and one side faces the corridor. The exposed surface to solar radiation is the wall with the

49
fenestration which is around 15 ⁰ left to the north. The plan of the computer lab is shown in the
figure 32.

Figure 32. Plan of the Computer Lab, AHEC, IIT Roorkee

Figure 33. Panoramic view of Computer Lab, AHEC, IIT Roorkee

4.2 Site details

Latitude: 29.87 ⁰N

Longitude: 77.9 ⁰E

Floor area: 44 m2

50
 Height: 3.1 m

Total fenestration area: 12.75 m2

Window glass thickness: 0.3175 cm (1/8 in) (single glazed)

Wall thickness (brickwork): ~23 cm (9 Inches)

Total wall area exposed to surroundings: ~23 m2 (including fenestration)

Total side walls area: ~36.6m2

Wall area towards the corridor: ~23 m2

Roof (concrete): ~15 cm (6 Inches)

4.3 Load calculation

Cooling and heating load calculations require collection and processing of various
meteorological data.

4.3.1 Meteorological data for Roorkee, India

Roorkee is a city in the state of Uttarakhand, India which spreads over a plane landscape
with the grand spectacle of Himalayas ranges adjoining it in the East and the North-east. Roorkee
is located at 29.8749° N (latitude), 77.8899 (longitude) ° E. It is on the banks of the Ganges canal.
The popular attraction of the city is the Upper Ganges Canal which flows south and bisects the
Roorkee city.

Table 3. Meteorological Data of Roorkee, India

Latitude 29.87° N
Longitude 77.89° E
Elevation 274 m
Coldest Month January
Hottest Month June
Average temperature in coldest month 12.6° C
Average temperature in hottest month 31.3° C

51
The average temperature at the Roorkee for the design months were calculated using the
software Meteonorm 7. The monthly temperature plot is shown in the Fig. 34.

Figure 34. Monthly temperature at the Roorkee by Meteonorm 7

Using the meteorological data and the ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals [82] the climate
design conditions were developed.

Chapter – 14 of ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamental [82] provides the climate design

information for the location Dehradun which was used to generate the climate design conditions
for Roorkee since Roorkee can be approximated to have same weather conditions as that of
Dehradun which is just at a distance of ~70 kms. This approximation is very much valid for
generating climate design information for calculating cooling load and heating load calculations.
Firstly the solar radiation available over Roorkee was calculated using the spreadsheet with the
mathematical relations available in ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamental [82].

52
4.3.2 Solar Radiation Calculation over Roorkee, India

It is mandatory to know the clear-sky solar radiation on the design days for several
calculations that require the heats gains to calculate the cooling and heating load. Accordingly,
hourly clear sky beam and diffuse solar radiation were calculated using various expressions
explained in following section. The obtained values of solar irradiance were transposed on the
receiving surface according to their orientation.

Solar Constant: According to ASHRAE, the solar constant Esc can be defined as the
intensity of solar radiation on a surface n that is normal to the solar beam, just outside the earth’s
atmosphere, at the average earth-sun distance. The widely accepted and used value that was
proposed by the World Meteorological Organization in 1981, is Esc= 1367 W/m2.

Since the earth revolves the sun in an elliptical orbit, the extraterrestrial radiant flux Eo changes
throughout the year. It reaches a maximum of 1412 W/m2 in beginning of January, when earth is
nearest to the sun, also known as the aphelion. The minimum value of extraterrestrial radiant flux
is 1322 W/m2 in the starting of July, the day when the earth is farthest from the sun known as
perihelion. Extraterrestrial solar irradiance incident on a surface normal to the sun’s ray can be
approximated with the following equation:

  (n − 3)  
E Esc 1 + 0.033cos 360
=  (4)
  365  

Where n is the day of year (1 for January 1, 32 for February 1, etc.) and the argument inside the
cosine is in degrees.

Equation of Time (ET) and Solar Time: For the reason that the earth’s orbital velocity
also changes throughout the year, the apparent solar time (AST) which is determined by a solar
time sundial, changes a bit from the average time kept by a clock running at a uniform rate. This
difference is called the equation of time and is calculated by the following formula:

 0.0075 + 0.1868cos ( Γ ) − 3.2077 sin ( Γ ) − 

ET = 2.2918   (5)
1.4615cos ( 2Γ ) − 4.089sin ( 2Γ ) 
 

With ET expressed in minutes and

53
 n −1
Γ =360 (6)
365

Once the equation of time is calculated, the standard solar time is calculated by adding the equation
of time and the longitude correction as following:

AST =LST + ET / 60 + (LON − LSM) /15 (7)

Where LON is the longitude of the location and LSM is the local standard meridian for that time
zone which is calculated as:

LSM = 15TZ (8)

Where TZ is the time zone, expressed in hours ahead or behind coordinate universal time (UTC).

Declination ( δ ): Solar declination is defined as the angle between the earth-sun line and
the equatorial plane. Since the equatorial plane is tilted at an angle of 23.45⁰ to the orbital plane,
the solar declination ( δ ) changes throughout the year as shown in the Fig. 82.

Figure 35. Motion of earth around sun [82]

The solar declination angle ( δ ) is calculated for each day as follows:

 n + 284 
δ = 23.45sin  360   (9)
 365 

54
Where δ is in degrees and the argument in the sine is also in degrees.

Sun Position: The sun position in the sky with respect to the location is easily expressed
in terms of the solar altitude angle above the horizontal and the solar azimuth angle measured
from the south as shown in the figure.

Figure 36. Various Solar angles for a surface [82]

The altitude angle (β) is the angle between the horizontal plane and a line coming from the
sun. The altitude angle ranges from 0° (sun is on the horizon) to 90° (sun directly overhead).
Negative values of the altitude angle correspond to night times. The solar azimuth angle (φ) is
explained as angle between the south of the projection on the horizontal plane and the earth to sun
line. Conventionally, it is taken positive for afternoon hours and negative for morning hours.

Solar altitude angle and the azimuth angle depend on various factors. These are local
latitude L, the declination angle δ which varies each day and is function of date, and the hour angle
H. The hour angle, H is the angular displacement of the sun east or west of the local meridian due
to the rotation of the earth, and it is calculated in degrees by using the expression:

=H 15 ( AST − 12 ) (10)

55
 Where AST is the apparent solar time. H is zero at solar noon, positive for the times in the afternoon
and negative for the morning hours. Now the solar altitude angle can be calculates from the
equation:

=sin β cos L cos δ cos H + sin L sin δ (11)

The azimuth angle is determined by its sine and cosine as follows:

sin φ = sin H cos δ / cos β (12)

=cos φ ( cos H cos δ sin L − sin δ cos L ) / cos β (13)

Air Mass: The air mass m is defined as the ratio of the mass of the atmosphere through
which the direct radiation passes to the mass it would pass if the sun was just overhead, the zenith.
Air mass is a function of solar altitude angle β and is calculated from equation:

1/ sin β + 0.50572 ( 6.07995 + β ) 

−1.6364
m= (14)
 

Clear sky solar radiation: The clear sky solar radiation is defined by its beam or direct
and diffuse components. The direct or the beam component represents the solar radiation coming
directly from the sun and the diffuse components comprises of all the radiations emanating from
the rest of the sky. The both components can be obtained by using the formulae:

=Eb E exp  −τ b m ab  (15)

=Ed E exp  −τ d m ad  (16)

Where

Eb = beam normal irradiance which is measured perpendicularly to rays of the sun

Ed = diffuse horizontal irradiance which is measured on horizontal surface

E = extraterrestrial normal irradiance

m = air mass

56
 τ b and τ d = beam and diffuse optical depth

ab and ad = beam and diffuse air mass exponents

values of τ b and τ d are location specific and vary during the year.

The air mass exponents ab and ad are calculated as follows:

1.219 − 0.043τ b − 0.151τ d − 0.204τ bτ d

ab = (17)

ab =0.202 − 0.852τ b − 0.007τ d − 0.357τ bτ d (18)

Once the beam normal irradiance Eb and diffuse horizontal irradiance Ed have been
calculated, the values can be transposed to receiving surfaces of various orientations.

Transposition to receiving surfaces of various orientations:

In present study, the cooling and heating load is to be calculated for a Computer Lab, which
has vertical and horizontal exposed surfaces which receive solar gain. That’s why calculation of
clear-sky solar radiation on exposed surfaces of arbitrary orientations is required. The solar
radiation receiving surfaces can be vertical or tilted. The following section describes the method
that can enable calculating solar irradiance incident on any surface by knowing the direct normal
or beam and diffuse horizontal irradiance.
To calculate the irradiance at any surface, some solar angles corresponding to the receiving
surfaces must be known. The orientation of any surface is best described by its tilt angle and its
azimuth angle. The tilt angle Σ is the slope of the surface, the anle between its plane and the
horizontal. Tilt lies between 0 and 180° but generally, slope is between 0° for horizontal and 90°
for vertical surface. The surface azimuth angle ψ is the angle between the south of the projection
on the horizontal plane and the normal to the surface. The surfaces that faces west direction has a
positive surface azimuth angle and those that facing east has a negative surface azimuth. Table 4
summarizes the solar azimuths for common orientations.
Table 4. Surface Orientations and azimuths, measured from south

Orientation N NE E SE S SW W NW
Solar azimuth ψ 180⁰ -135⁰ -90⁰ -45⁰ 0⁰ 45⁰ 90⁰ 135⁰

57
The surface-solar azimuth angle γ is the angle between the solar azimuth angle φ and the surface

azimuth angle ψ:

γ = φ −ψ (19)

Values of γ more than 90⁰ or smaller than -90⁰ signifies that the surface is in shade.

Finally, the angle of incidence θ is defined as the angle between the line normal to the irradiated
surface and the earth-sun line. The incidence angle is very important in load calculations, and solar
technology for the reason it decides the magnitude of the direct component of solar radiation falling
on the surface and the surface’s ability to absorb, transmit, or reflect the sun’s rays. It is given by

=cos θ cos β cos γ sin ∑ + sin β cos ∑ (20)

For vertical surfaces ( ∑ =90 ) and

cos θ = cos β cos γ (21)

Whereas for horizontal surfaces ( ∑ =0 ) and

θ= 90 − β (22)

Now, Total clear-sky irradiance Et on the receiving surface is calculated by summing the three
components: the direct orbeam component Et,b; the diffuse component Et,d,; and the ground-
reflected component Et,r emanating from the ground facing the receiving surface. Thus,

Et = Et ,b + Et ,d + Et ,r (23)

Beam Component, Et,b is obtained from

Et ,b = 0 (24)

This relation is valid when cos θ > 0 ; otherwise Et ,b = 0 .

58
Diffuse component, Et,d for vertical surfaces is calculated from

=
Et ,d Ed Y sin ∑ (25)

Where,

(
Y max 0.45, 0.55 + 0.437 cos θ + 0.313cos 2 θ
= ) (26)

For a non-vertical surface with slope ∑ , the following relationships are used.

Et ,d Ed (Y sin ∑ + cos ∑ )
= if ∑ ≤ 90 (27)

=
Et ,d Ed Y sin ∑ if ∑ > 90 (28)

Ground-Reflected component, Et,r for surfaces of all orientations is given by

1 − cos ∑
=
E t ,r ( Eb sin β + Ed ) ρ g (29)
2

Where ρ g is the ground reflectance which is generally taken as 0.2.

The solar radiation available at Roorkee has been calculated using the ASHRAE handbook
of fundamentals (2013). Subsequently the incident radiation was calculated for each hour on the
exposed wall of the Computer Lab, AHEC, IIT Roorkee i.e. the wall with the windows/fenestration
and the roof top. The calculation was done using spreadsheet programming and tabulated in the
following section. The important results of the radiation availability on design days have been
plotted on the different charts.

As mentioned in the previous section, hottest month at Roorkee is June and coldest month
is January, the radiation data have been calculated for 21st date of the months. The June 21 is
chosen to design day for calculation of cooling load and January 21 has been taken as design day
for heating load calculations.

All angles are in degrees and radiations in Watts in the tables.

59
 Table 5. Solar radiation calculation data table over Student computer Lab, AHEC, IIT Roorkee (on June 21)

Equation
AST= Hour Solar Solar Extraterrestrial
Declination Of Air Beam
Time LST LST+ET/60+ Angle Altitude Azimuth Normal
(δ) Time Sin β sin(φ) mass Normal
(Hrs) (LON- (H) Angle angle irradiance
(⁰) (ET) (m) Irradiance Eb
LSM)/15 (⁰) (β) (φ) Eₒ
(Hours)
1 23.45 1 -1.3246 0.67099 -169.935 -0.58512 -35.8112 -0.1977 -11.4028 NA 1322.989 NA
2 23.45 2 -1.3246 1.67099 -154.935 -0.52244 -31.4962 -0.45581 -27.1168 NA 1322.989 NA
3 23.45 3 -1.3246 2.67099 -139.935 -0.41066 -24.2462 -0.64762 -40.3624 NA 1322.989 NA
4 23.45 4 -1.3246 3.67099 -124.935 -0.25738 -14.9148 -0.77831 -51.1064 NA 1322.989 NA
5 23.45 5 -1.3246 4.67099 -109.935 -0.07306 -4.18978 -0.86475 -59.8538 9.491276 1322.989 14.08882
6 23.45 6 -1.3246 5.67099 -94.9352 0.129747 7.454947 -0.9218 -67.1904 7.306459 1322.989 31.64677
7 23.45 7 -1.3246 6.67099 -79.9352 0.337217 19.70744 -0.95949 -73.6357 2.943804 1322.989 200.3022
8 23.45 8 -1.3246 7.67099 -64.9352 0.535214 32.3584 -0.98378 -79.666 1.86392 1322.989 346.4244
9 23.45 9 -1.3246 8.67099 -49.9352 0.710242 45.25459 -0.99737 -85.8445 1.40638 1322.989 447.1224
10 23.45 10 -1.3246 9.67099 -34.9352 0.850374 58.2524 -0.99843 -86.7895 1.175185 1322.989 512.6218
11 23.45 11 -1.3246 10.67099 -19.9352 0.946061 71.09572 -0.96546 -74.8961 1.056554 1322.989 551.293
12 23.45 12 -1.3246 11.67099 -4.93515 0.990782 82.21426 -0.58259 -35.6329 1.008967 1322.989 567.9344
13 23.45 13 -1.3246 12.67099 10.06485 0.981488 78.95826 0.83712 56.83727 1.018496 1322.989 564.5468
14 23.45 14 -1.3246 13.67099 25.06485 0.918814 66.75324 0.984702 79.96529 1.087823 1322.989 540.7227
15 23.45 15 -1.3246 14.67099 40.06485 0.80703 53.80672 0.99997 89.55611 1.238154 1322.989 493.5809
16 23.45 16 -1.3246 15.67099 55.06485 0.653754 40.82523 0.9939 83.66834 1.527452 1322.989 417.1804
17 23.45 17 -1.3246 16.67099 70.06485 0.469432 27.99743 0.976746 77.61961 2.123129 1322.989 301.9325
18 23.45 18 -1.3246 17.67099 85.06485 0.266625 15.46354 0.948336 71.50224 3.704359 1322.989 140.4326
19 23.45 19 -1.3246 18.67099 100.0649 0.059154 3.391267 0.904874 64.8063 13.90393 1322.989 3.124773
20 23.45 20 -1.3246 19.67099 115.0649 -0.13884 -7.98084 0.839142 57.04961 NA 1322.989 NA
21 23.45 21 -1.3246 20.67099 130.0649 -0.31387 -18.2926 0.739476 47.68679 NA 1322.989 NA
22 23.45 22 -1.3246 21.67099 145.0649 -0.454 -27.0008 0.589621 36.13012 NA 1322.989 NA
23 23.45 23 -1.3246 22.67099 160.0649 -0.54969 -33.3457 0.37444 21.98973 NA 1322.989 NA
24 23.45 24 -1.3246 23.67099 175.0649 -0.59441 -36.4706 0.098143 5.632246 NA 1322.989 NA

60
 Table continued……

Surface Beam Diffuse

Diffuse Surface solar incident angle for
Azimuth Cos Ɵ for component component
Time Horizontal azimuth angle for vertical exposed
Angle for vertical incident on the Y incident on the
(Hrs) Irrradiance the exposed wall ƴ wall/fenestration Ɵ
Exposed wall ψ surface vertical wall Et,b vertical exposed
Ed (W) (⁰) (⁰)
(⁰) (W) wall Et,d (W)

1 0 165 -176.403 -0.80935 144.0326 0 0.45 0

2 0 165 -192.117 -0.83368 146.4785 0 0.45 0
3 0 165 -205.362 -0.82391 145.4779 0 0.45 0
4 0 165 -216.106 -0.78071 141.3252 0 0.45 0
5 0.026527 165 -224.854 -0.70701 134.9925 0 0.45 0.011937
6 0.272143 165 -232.19 -0.60786 127.4347 0 0.45 0.122464
7 34.14769 165 -238.636 -0.48999 119.34 0 0.45 15.36646
8 120.6599 165 -244.666 -0.36145 111.1893 0 0.45 54.29697
9 209.1295 165 -250.845 -0.23099 103.3555 0 0.465757 97.40363
10 277.4645 165 -251.79 -0.16444 99.46442 0 0.486605 135.0156
11 321.2843 165 -239.896 -0.1625 99.35218 0 0.487252 156.5464
12 340.8626 165 -200.633 -0.12678 97.28354 0 0.499628 170.3045
13 336.8434 165 -108.163 -0.0597 93.42267 0 0.525026 176.8516
14 309.0686 165 -85.0347 0.034161 88.04231 18.47188 0.565294 174.7146
15 256.8032 165 -75.4439 0.148412 81.46509 73.25334 0.62175 159.6675
16 180.6008 165 -81.3317 0.114047 83.45135 47.57811 0.60391 109.0666
17 88.76334 165 -87.3804 0.040356 87.68715 12.18477 0.568145 50.43047
18 14.34026 165 -93.4978 -0.0588 93.37099 0 0.525386 7.534177
19 0.000269 165 -100.194 -0.17667 100.1757 0 0.482566 0.00013
20 0 165 -107.95 -0.30521 107.7707 0 0.45 0
21 0 165 -117.313 -0.43567 115.8277 0 0.45 0
22 0 165 -128.87 -0.55915 123.9971 0 0.45 0
23 0 165 -143.01 -0.66725 131.8548 0 0.45 0
24 0 165 -159.368 -0.75258 138.8147 0 0.45 0

61
 Table continued….

Beam
Diffuse
Ground reflected Ɵ for cosƟ Component
Component
Time component on horizontal for On
On
(Hrs) vertical exposed receiving Horizontal Horizontal
Horizontal
wall, Et,r surface Surface Surface
Et,dh
Et,bh

1 0 125.8112035 -0.58512 0 0
2 0 121.4961893 -0.52244 0 0
3 0 114.2461677 -0.41066 0 0
4 0 104.9147869 -0.25738 0 0
5 0 94.18977986 -0.07306 0 0
6 0.437820324 82.54505256 0.129747 4.10606 0.272143
7 10.1693087 70.29256353 0.337217 67.5454 34.14769
8 30.6070955 57.64160423 0.535214 185.411 120.6599
9 52.66945522 44.74540857 0.710242 317.565 209.1295
10 71.33849072 31.74760162 0.850374 435.9204 277.4645
11 84.28412188 18.90428172 0.946061 521.5569 321.2843
12 90.3561568 7.785742525 0.990782 562.699 340.8626
13 89.09392773 11.04173889 0.981488 554.0958 336.8434
14 80.58919437 23.24676154 0.918814 496.8233 309.0686
15 65.51376257 36.19328428 0.80703 398.3344 256.8032
16 45.33341115 49.17477216 0.653754 272.7333 180.6008
17 23.05000841 62.00256955 0.469432 141.7367 88.76334
18 5.178311758 74.53646103 0.266625 37.44285 14.34026
19 0.018511284 86.60873338 0.059154 0.184844 0.000269
20 0 97.98083734 -0.13884 0 0
21 0 108.2926178 -0.31387 0 0
22 0 117.0007772 -0.454 0 0
23 0 123.345713 -0.54969 0 0
24 0 126.4705778 -0.59441 0 0
Table concluded.
From the Table 5, the solar beam, diffuse and reflected components of irradiance on vertical exposed
surface/wall and horizontal roof of student computer lab can be tabulated as follow.

62
 Table 6. Beam, diffuse and reflected components of radiation on Computer Lab’s wall & roof (June 21)
Beam Diffuse
Component Component beam Total
Beam Diffuse total incident
AST= Incident Incident Ground component incident
Time Normal Horizontal radiation on
LST+ET/60+(LON- On on the reflected on radiation
(Hrs) Irradiance Irradiance horizontal
LSM)/15 The vertical component Et,r horizontal on vertical
Bb Ed surface
vertical wall exposed on vertical surface Et,bh wall
Et,b wall Et,d exposed wall
1 0.67099 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 1.67099 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 2.67099 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 3.67099 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 4.67099 14.08881724 0.026527486 0 0 0 0 0 0.026527486
6 5.67099 31.64677208 0.272143324 0 0.122464496 0.437820324 4.106059921 0.56028482 4.378203244
7 6.67099 200.3022132 34.14768546 0 15.36645846 10.1693087 67.54540152 25.53576716 101.693087
8 7.67099 346.4243517 120.659944 0 54.29697482 30.6070955 185.411011 84.90407032 306.070955
9 8.67099 447.122434 209.1295143 0 97.40363448 52.66945522 317.5650378 150.0730897 526.6945522
10 9.67099 512.6218186 277.464512 0 135.0156326 71.33849072 435.9203952 206.3541233 713.3849072
11 10.67099 551.292981 321.2843474 0 156.5463908 84.28412188 521.5568714 240.8305127 842.8412188
12 11.67099 567.9344386 340.8625868 0 170.3045455 90.3561568 562.6989812 260.6607023 903.561568
13 12.67099 564.5467634 336.8434475 0 176.8516165 89.09392773 554.0958298 265.9455443 890.9392773
14 13.67099 540.7226692 309.0686445 18.47188201 174.7145996 80.58919437 496.8232992 273.775676 805.8919437
15 14.67099 493.5809242 256.8032433 73.25333752 159.6674745 65.51376257 398.3343824 298.4345746 655.1376257
16 15.67099 417.1803735 180.6008353 47.57811194 109.066573 45.33341115 272.7332763 201.978096 453.3341115
17 16.67099 301.9324565 88.76333788 12.18477041 50.43047338 23.05000841 141.7367463 85.6652522 230.5000841
18 17.67099 140.4325868 14.34026489 0 7.534177071 5.178311758 37.44285269 12.71248883 51.78311758
19 18.67099 3.124773324 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
20 19.67099 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
21 20.67099 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
22 21.67099 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
23 22.67099 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
24 23.67099 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

63
From above table it is evident that on June 21, the vertical wall of the Computer Lab remains most
of the time in shade and receives direct or beam radiation for a brief period of time i.e. from 14
hours to 17 hours and that too in very minimal quantities. Maximum incident radiation on the
exposed wall of the computer lab is from diffuse radiation.

Hourly Radiation(W/m2) on June 21 over Roorkee, IN

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

beam normal irradiance Eb diffuse horizontal irradiance Ed

Figure 37. Incident radiation over Roorkee on June 21

Hourly Total Radiation(W/m2) on vertically exposed wall of

Student Computer Lab, AHEC, IITR, IN
350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Ground reflected component Et,r ( for vertical exposed wall)
Diffuse component incident on the vertical exposed wall Et,d
beam component incident on the vertical wall Et,b

Figure 38. Total radiation on vertical wall of lab on June 21

64
 Hourly Radiation(W/m2) on Horizontal surface on June 21 at
Roorkee, IN
600

500

400

300

200

100

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

diffuse horizontal irradiance Ed beam component on horizontal surface Et,bh

Figure 39. Hourly radiation on Horizontal surface on June 21 at Roorkee

Total incident hourly radiation on the Horizontal surface on

June 21 at Roorkee
1000
900
800
700
Radiation, W/m2

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hours

diffuse horizontal irradiance Ed beam component on horizontal surface Et,bh

Figure 40. Total incident radiation on Horizontal surface on June 21 at Roorkee

65
 Table 7. Solar radiation calculation data table over Student computer Lab, AHEC, IIT Roorkee (January 21)

Equation Beam
AST= Solar Solar Extraterrestrial
Time Declination Of Hour Air Normal
LST LST+ET/60+(LON- Sin Β Altitude Sin(Φ) Azimuth Normal
(Hrs) (Δ) Time Angle(H) Mass(M) Irradiance
LSM)/15 Angle (Β) Angle (Φ) Irradiance Eₒ
(ET) Eb
1.00 -20.14 1.00 -10.60 0.52 -172.25 -0.98 -78.01 -0.61 -37.52 0 1322.99 0.00
2.00 -20.14 2.00 -10.60 1.52 -157.25 -0.92 -67.26 -0.94 -69.92 0 1322.99 0.00
3.00 -20.14 3.00 -10.60 2.52 -142.25 -0.82 -54.61 -0.99 -82.94 0 1322.99 0.00
4.00 -20.14 4.00 -10.60 3.52 -127.25 -0.66 -41.63 -1.00 -88.81 0 1322.99 0.00
5.00 -20.14 5.00 -10.60 4.52 -112.25 -0.48 -28.67 -0.99 -82.04 0 1322.99 0.00
6.00 -20.14 6.00 -10.60 5.52 -97.25 -0.27 -15.92 -0.97 -75.58 0 1322.99 0.00
7.00 -20.14 7.00 -10.60 6.52 -82.25 -0.06 -3.54 -0.93 -68.76 20.73 1322.99 50.64
8.00 -20.14 8.00 -10.60 7.52 -67.25 0.14 8.24 -0.87 -61.03 6.67 1322.99 287.35
9.00 -20.14 9.00 -10.60 8.52 -52.25 0.33 19.08 -0.79 -51.77 3.03 1322.99 537.63
10.00 -20.14 10.00 -10.60 9.52 -37.25 0.48 28.46 -0.65 -40.28 2.09 1322.99 655.85
11.00 -20.14 11.00 -10.60 10.52 -22.25 0.58 35.59 -0.44 -25.93 1.71 1322.99 715.79
12.00 -20.14 12.00 -10.60 11.52 -7.25 0.64 39.51 -0.15 -8.84 1.57 1322.99 741.56
13.00 -20.14 13.00 -10.60 12.52 7.75 0.64 39.44 0.16 9.43 1.57 1322.99 741.15
14.00 -20.14 14.00 -10.60 13.52 22.75 0.58 35.41 0.45 26.45 1.72 1322.99 714.44
15.00 -20.14 15.00 -10.60 14.52 37.75 0.47 28.19 0.65 40.70 2.11 1322.99 653.11
16.00 -20.14 16.00 -10.60 15.52 52.75 0.32 18.75 0.79 52.11 3.09 1322.99 532.19
17.00 -20.14 17.00 -10.60 16.52 67.75 0.14 7.87 0.88 61.30 6.96 1322.99 275.11
18.00 -20.14 18.00 -10.60 17.52 82.75 -0.07 -3.94 0.93 69.00 13.06 1322.99 120.77
19.00 -20.14 19.00 -10.60 18.52 97.75 -0.28 -16.33 0.97 75.79 0 1322.99 0.00
20.00 -20.14 20.00 -10.60 19.52 112.75 -0.49 -29.09 0.99 82.25 0 1322.99 0.00
21.00 -20.14 21.00 -10.60 20.52 127.75 -0.67 -42.06 1.00 89.05 0 1322.99 0.00
22.00 -20.14 22.00 -10.60 21.52 142.75 -0.82 -55.03 0.99 82.62 0 1322.99 0.00
23.00 -20.14 23.00 -10.60 22.52 157.75 -0.92 -67.66 0.94 69.32 0 1322.99 0.00
24.00 -20.14 24.00 -10.60 23.52 172.75 -0.98 -78.26 0.58 35.65 0 1322.99 0.00

66
 Table continued……

Surface
Surface Solar Beam
Diffuse Component
Azimuth Azimuth Cos Ɵ For Incident Angle For Component
Time Diffuse Horizontal Incident On The
Angle For Angle For Vertical Vertical Exposed Incident On Y
(Hrs) Irradiance Ed Vertical Exposed
Exposed The Surface Wall/Fenestration, Ɵ The Vertical
Wall Et,d
Wall Ψ Exposed Wall Et,b
Wall Ƴ
1.00 0.00 165.00 -202.52 -0.19 101.06 0.00 0.48 0.00
2.00 0.00 165.00 -234.92 -0.22 102.83 0.00 0.47 0.00
3.00 0.00 165.00 -247.94 -0.22 102.56 0.00 0.47 0.00
4.00 0.00 165.00 -253.81 -0.21 102.03 0.00 0.47 0.00
5.00 0.00 165.00 -247.04 -0.34 110.01 0.00 0.45 0.00
6.00 0.00 165.00 -240.58 -0.47 118.19 0.00 0.45 0.00
7.00 19.45 165.00 -233.76 -0.59 126.16 0.00 0.45 8.75
8.00 47.76 165.00 -226.03 -0.69 133.40 0.00 0.45 21.49
9.00 79.50 165.00 -216.77 -0.76 139.20 0.00 0.45 35.78
10.00 98.34 165.00 -205.28 -0.79 142.65 0.00 0.45 44.25
11.00 109.43 165.00 -190.93 -0.80 142.98 0.00 0.45 49.24
12.00 114.60 165.00 -173.84 -0.77 140.09 0.00 0.45 51.57
13.00 114.52 165.00 -155.57 -0.70 134.68 0.00 0.45 51.53
14.00 109.17 165.00 -138.55 -0.61 127.66 0.00 0.45 49.12
15.00 97.86 165.00 -124.30 -0.50 119.79 0.00 0.45 44.04
16.00 78.71 165.00 -112.89 -0.37 111.61 0.00 0.45 35.42
17.00 46.37 165.00 -103.70 -0.23 103.56 0.00 0.46 21.55
18.00 28.80 165.00 -96.00 -0.10 95.99 0.00 0.51 14.63
19.00 0.00 165.00 -89.21 0.01 89.24 0.00 0.56 0.00
20.00 0.00 165.00 -82.75 0.11 83.66 0.00 0.60 0.00
21.00 0.00 165.00 -75.95 0.18 79.62 0.00 0.64 0.00
22.00 0.00 165.00 -82.38 0.08 85.64 0.00 0.59 0.00
23.00 0.00 165.00 -95.68 -0.04 92.15 0.00 0.53 0.00
24.00 0.00 165.00 -129.35 -0.13 97.41 0.00 0.50 0.00

67
Table continued….

Ground Beam
Diffuse
Reflected Component
For Horizontal CosƟ For Component
Time Component On
Receiving Horizontal On
(Hrs) Et,r ( For Horizontal
Surface Ɵ Surface Horizontal
Vertical Surface
Et,Dh
Exposed Wall) Et,Bh

1.00 0.00 168.01 -0.98 0.00 0.00

2.00 0.00 157.26 -0.92 0.00 0.00
3.00 0.00 144.61 -0.82 0.00 0.00
4.00 0.00 131.63 -0.66 0.00 0.00
5.00 0.00 118.67 -0.48 0.00 0.00
6.00 0.00 105.92 -0.27 0.00 0.00
7.00 1.63 93.54 -0.06 0.00 19.45
8.00 8.89 81.76 0.14 41.18 47.76
9.00 25.53 70.92 0.33 175.77 79.50
10.00 41.09 61.54 0.48 312.56 98.34
11.00 52.61 54.41 0.58 416.62 109.43
12.00 58.64 50.49 0.64 471.76 114.60
13.00 58.53 50.56 0.64 470.83 114.52
14.00 52.31 54.59 0.58 413.93 109.17
15.00 40.63 61.81 0.47 308.48 97.86
16.00 24.98 71.25 0.32 171.04 78.71
17.00 8.40 82.13 0.14 37.66 46.37
18.00 2.05 93.94 -0.07 0.00 28.80
19.00 0.00 106.33 -0.28 0.00 0.00
20.00 0.00 119.09 -0.49 0.00 0.00
21.00 0.00 132.06 -0.67 0.00 0.00
22.00 0.00 145.03 -0.82 0.00 0.00
23.00 0.00 157.66 -0.92 0.00 0.00
24.00 0.00 168.26 -0.98 0.00 0.00

Table concluded

68
 Table 8. Beam, diffuse and reflected components of radiation on Computer Lab’s wall & roof (January 21)

Ground
Beam
Beam Diffuse Reflected Total
Beam Diffuse Component
AST= Component Component Component Incident
Time Normal Horizontal On
LST+ET/60+(LON- Incident On Incident On The Et,r ( For Radiation Total Incident
(Hrs) Irradiance Irradiance Horizontal
LSM)/15 The Vertical Vertical Exposed Vertical On Radiation On
Eb Ed Surface
Wall Et,b Wall Et,d Exposed Vertical Horizontal
Et,bh
Wall) Radiation Surface
1.00 0.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2.00 1.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3.00 2.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
4.00 3.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
5.00 4.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
6.00 5.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
7.00 6.52 50.64 19.45 0.00 8.75 1.63 0.00 10.38 19.45
8.00 7.52 287.35 47.76 0.00 21.49 8.89 41.18 30.39 88.95
9.00 8.52 537.63 79.50 0.00 35.78 25.53 175.77 61.30 255.27
10.00 9.52 655.85 98.34 0.00 44.25 41.09 312.56 85.34 410.90
11.00 10.52 715.79 109.43 0.00 49.24 52.61 416.62 101.85 526.05
12.00 11.52 741.56 114.60 0.00 51.57 58.64 471.76 110.21 586.36
13.00 12.52 741.15 114.52 0.00 51.53 58.53 470.83 110.07 585.34
14.00 13.52 714.44 109.17 0.00 49.12 52.31 413.93 101.43 523.10
15.00 14.52 653.11 97.86 0.00 44.04 40.63 308.48 84.67 406.34
16.00 15.52 532.19 78.71 0.00 35.42 24.98 171.04 60.40 249.76
17.00 16.52 275.11 46.37 0.00 21.55 8.40 37.66 29.95 84.03
18.00 17.52 120.77 28.80 0.00 14.63 2.05 0.00 16.68 28.80
19.00 18.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
20.00 19.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
21.00 20.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
22.00 21.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
23.00 22.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
24.00 23.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

69
 Hourly Radiation over Roorkee on January 21
800.00

700.00

600.00
Radiation W/m2

500.00

400.00

300.00

200.00

100.00

0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hours

beam normal irradiance Eb diffuse horizontal irradiance Ed

Figure 41. Hourly radiation over Roorkee on Jan 21

Hourly radiation on vertical wall on January 21

70.00

60.00

50.00
Radiation W/m2

40.00

30.00

20.00

10.00

0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hours

beam component incident on the vertical wall Et,b

Diffuse component incident on the vertical exposed wall Et,d
Ground reflected component Et,r ( for vertical exposed wall)

Figure 42. Hourly radiation on vertical wall of lab on Jan 21

70
 Total hourly incident radiation on the vertical wall on Jan 21
120.00
100.00
Radiation W/m2

80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hours

Ground reflected component Et,r ( for vertical exposed wall)

Diffuse component incident on the vertical exposed wall Et,d
beam component incident on the vertical wall Et,b

Figure 43. Total hourly incident radiation on vertical wall of lab on Jan 21

Hourly incident radiation on Horizontal surface on Jan 21

500.00
450.00
400.00
350.00
Radiation W/m2

300.00
250.00
200.00
150.00
100.00
50.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hours

diffuse horizontal irradiance Ed beam component on horizontal surface Et,bh

Figure 44. Hourly incident radiation on Horizontal surface (roof) of lab on Jan 21

71
 Total hourly incident radiation on Horizontal surface
700.00
600.00
Radiation W/m2

500.00
400.00
300.00
200.00
100.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hours

diffuse horizontal irradiance Ed beam component on horizontal surface Et,bh

Fig 45. Total hourly incident radiation on horizontal surface (roof) of lab on Jan 21

4.4 Cooling Load

Calculation of cooling load has been done according to the ASHRAE Handbook of
fundamentals (2013). Cooling load is the result of heat transfer through the building walls and
roofs by conduction, convection and radiation plus the heat from internal sources. The various
factors affecting the building cooling load are:
1. External source: Walls, roofs, windows/fenestrations, and etc.
2. Internal source: Lightings, occupants, appliances, and etc.
3. Infiltration: Air leakage and moisture migration
4. System: Outdoor air, duct leakage and heat gain, reheat, fan and pump energy, and
energy recovery.

Space Heat Gain: This rate of heat gain is defined as the rate at which heat enters into the
building and generated inside the space. Heat gain can enter through many modes. The different
entry modes are (i) solar radiation through windows (transparent surfaces); (ii) heat conducted
through exposed walls and roofs; (3) heat conducted through ceilings, floors, and interior
partitions; (4) heat generated by people, lightings, and appliances; (5) energy transfer through
ventilation and infiltration of outdoor air; and (6) miscellaneous heat gains. Sensible heat is added
by conduction, convection, and/or radiation and latent heat gain takes place when moisture is
added somehow to the space

72
 Space Cooling Load: This is the rate of heat removal from the space to maintain a constant
temperature and humidity. By adding all the instantaneous heat gains at any given time does not
equal to the cooling load at that given time. The cooling load at any instant depends on the heat
gains in past hours in addition to the concurrent heat gains.

In present work, the cooling load has been calculated using Radiant Time Series Method
(RTS). This method is a simple way to calculate cooling load which is rigorous but quantifies
each component’s contribution to the total cooling load. This method is employed to calculate
peak design load. RTS method considers the delay of conductive heat gain through wall, roofs and
floors and delay of radiative heat gain conversion to cooling loads. The heat conduction through
walls and roof takes place due to temperature difference between the outdoor and indoor space.
Also, the walls and roof absorb the solar radiation and then transfer the heat to the indoor space.
Due to thermal capacity of the building materials, there remains a considerable time delay in heat
input. The heat addition to the conditioned space is mostly by combination of convection and
radiation. The convective part adds to cooling load immediately while there is a time delay in the
radiative part because it is first absorbed, and then heat is transferred by convection from the
surface. RTS method takes into consideration both the time delay, conduction and convection by
multiplying hourly heat gains by the 24 hour time series. The series coefficients called as radiant
time factors and conduction time factors can be referred from the ASHRAE handbook of
fundamentals. The whole procedure of RTS method can be overviewed in Fig. 46.

4.4.1 Heat Gain through exterior surface

Sol-Air Temperature: Sol-Air temperature is defined as the temperature of outdoor air
that gives the same rate of heat transfer into the surface exposed as the combination of incident
solar radiation, radiant energy exchange with the sky and other outdoor surroundings, and the
convective heat exchange with the outdoor air. The Sol-air temperature is calculated using the
equation,
α Et ε∆R
te =+
to −
ho ho

Where

α = absorptance of surface for solar radiation

Et = total solar radiation incident on surface, W/m2

ho = coefficient of heat transfer by long wave radiation and convection at outer surface, W/m2-⁰C

73
to = outdoor air temperature, ⁰C

te = sol-air temperature temperature, ⁰C

ε = hemispherical emittance of the surface

∆R = difference between long wave radiation on surface from sky and surroundings and radiation
emitted by blackbody at outdoor temperature, W/m2 -⁰C

Fig. 46. Overview of Radiant Time Series method [82]

The sol-air temperature has been calculated for vertical (wall) and horizontal (roof) exposed
ε∆R
surface in Table 6.7. For vertical surface is considered as 0 while for horizontal surface it is
ho
to be taken
α
as 4 K as described by the handbook. is considered as 0.026 for the light coloured surface and
ho
α
0.052 for the dark coloured surface. For the present calculations, has been taken as 0.052. The
ho
hourly temperature of outdoor air is required to calculate the sol-air temperature. The 24 h

74
 temperature profile was generated for a typical day in June at Roorkee using the ASHRAE
handbook of fundamentals data for Dehradun.
Table 9. Sol-air temperature calculation for the wall and the roof on June 21

Total incident Sol-air

Total incident Sol-air
radiation on temperature
Hour Tdb Twb radiation on vertical temperature
Horizontal surface for vertical
exposed wall, Et(wall) for roof
(Roof), Et(Roof) wall
1 24.37 18.18 0.00 0.00 24.37 20.37
2 23.81 17.98 0.00 0.00 23.81 19.81
3 23.40 17.84 0.00 0.00 23.40 19.40
4 22.98 17.70 0.00 0.00 22.98 18.98
5 22.70 17.60 0.00 0.03 22.70 18.70
6 22.98 17.70 0.56 4.38 23.06 19.63
7 23.95 18.03 25.54 101.69 27.78 35.20
8 26.31 18.85 84.90 306.07 39.05 68.22
9 28.96 19.76 150.07 526.69 51.47 103.96
10 31.32 20.58 206.35 713.38 62.27 134.33
11 33.40 21.30 240.83 842.84 69.53 155.83
12 34.79 21.78 260.66 903.56 73.89 166.33
13 35.91 22.16 265.95 890.94 75.80 165.55
14 36.60 22.40 273.78 805.89 77.67 153.48
15 36.60 22.40 298.43 655.14 81.37 130.87
16 35.77 22.11 201.98 453.33 66.06 99.77
17 34.65 21.73 85.67 230.50 47.50 65.23
18 33.26 21.25 12.71 51.78 35.17 37.03
19 31.18 20.53 0.00 0.00 31.18 27.18
20 29.65 20.00 0.00 0.00 29.65 25.65
21 28.40 19.57 0.00 0.00 28.40 24.40
22 27.15 19.14 0.00 0.00 27.15 23.15
23 26.18 18.80 0.00 0.00 26.18 22.18
24 25.20 18.46 0.00 0.00 25.20 21.20

Heat input at the exterior of the wall and the roof is done by using the conduction time series
(CTS). Conductive heat input from wall and roof at the exterior is defined by the conduction
equation as
=
qi ,θ − n UA(t e,θ − n − t rc )

where
qi ,θ − n = conductive heat input for the surface n hours ago, W

U = overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2-K=

A = surface area, m2= (23 m2)

75
 t e,θ − n = sol-air temperature n hours ago, ⁰C

t rc = room temperature, ⁰C (= 25 ⁰C)

Conduction heat gain for the current hour can be calculated using the heat input for the
current hour and past 23 hours in the conduction time series:

q=
θ c0 qi ,θ + c1qi ,θ −1 + c2 qi ,θ − 2 + c3 qi ,θ −3 + ... + c23 qi ,θ − 23
where
qθ = hourly heat gain through conduction for the surface, W
qi ,θ = heat input for the current hour

qi ,θ − n = heat input n hours ago

c0 , c1 , c2 , etc.= conduction time factors

[Link] Wall cooling load using sol-air temperature conduction time series and radiant time
series

The wall cooling load can be calculated once the conductive heat gain using the sol-air
temperature has been obtained. The conductive heat gain is used then used to calculate the wall
heat gain using conduction time series (CTS). The wall heat gain can be split into convective and
radiative part of the load by using the convective fraction and radiant time series (RTS) according
to the wall construction details. In present case, the wall is made of brick with R5 insulation,
sheathing and gyp board. The hourly detailed calculation has been presented in the Table 10.
For example. At 3PM the, heat gain can be calculated using the conductive time series as,

q=
15 c0 qi ,15 + c1qi ,14 + c2 qi ,13 + c3 qi ,12 + ... + c23 qi ,1

Or q15 = 490.6466 W

Now the total cooling load for the vertical wall can be calculated by summing the convective and
radiative portions. The convective and radiative portion has been considered according to
ASHRAE handbook of fundamentals. For vertical wall, convective fraction is 0.54.

Convective fraction, Qc = 490.6466*0.54 = 264.9 W

The radiant cooling load suing the RTS,

=
qr ,15 r0 qi ,15 (0.46) + r1qi ,14 (0.46) + r2 qi ,13 (0.46) + .... + r23 qi ,16 (0.46)

76
 = 234.50 W

Table 10. Hourly heat input profile for the vertical wall using the sol-air temperature with indoor
temperature 25⁰C

wall heat
conduction conductive Convective Radiant Net wall
gain RTS for
Hour time heat gain heat gain heat gain cooling
using wall
factors qi,n Qconvec qr,15 load
CTS qi

1 5 -8.30006 113.9719 61.54482323 29 50.70717 112.252

2 14 -15.602 87.10957 47.03916564 15 42.60173 89.6409
3 17 -21.0785 63.52612 34.30410321 10 35.95078 70.25488
4 15 -26.5549 44.00126 23.76068274 7 29.85676 53.61744
5 12 -30.2059 27.83232 15.02945429 6 23.4356 38.46506
6 9 -25.4512 14.47547 7.816754831 5 18.55364 26.37039
7 7 36.52767 6.238567 3.368826208 4 22.50494 25.87376
8 5 184.5135 12.0233 6.492580047 3 42.66375 49.15633
9 4 347.5775 44.11268 23.82084704 3 73.69091 97.51175
10 3 489.4816 104.2709 56.30630785 3 108.9692 165.2755
11 2 584.7807 184.063 99.39404483 2 141.777 241.1711
12 2 642.1 270.8074 146.2360219 2 169.4948 315.7308
13 1 667.1148 353.7724 191.0371099 2 191.9786 383.0157
14 1 691.6672 426.9627 230.5598344 2 212.3297 442.8895
15 1 740.244 490.6466 264.9491856 1 234.5037 499.4529
16 1 539.2766 536.2479 289.5738576 1 223.9784 513.5523
17 1 295.5422 541.7615 292.5512223 1 190.7878 483.339
18 0 133.5741 501.2332 270.6659068 1 154.1289 424.7948
19 0 81.14881 431.8237 233.1848072 1 127.9136 361.0984
20 0 61.06845 355.9177 192.1955461 1 109.3418 301.5373
21 0 44.63907 287.5758 155.2909342 1 94.35689 249.6478
22 0 28.20968 230.1474 124.2795973 0 81.0969 205.3765
23 0 15.43128 183.854 99.28117202 0 70.04558 169.3268
24 0 2.652866 145.982 78.83027476 0 60.1764 139.0067

Now the total wall cooling load at 3 PM is calculated as:

77
 Qwall = Qc + Q r,15 = 264.9+234.5 = 499.45 W

[Link] Roof cooling load using sol-air temperature conduction time series and radiant time
series

Similar to wall cooling load the roof cooling load has been calculated. Conduction time series
(CTS) has been adopted for 6 inch lightweight concrete from the handbook. The radiant time series
(RTS) for roof has been considered from the handbook for medium construction without carpet.
The hourly cooling load from roof has been presented in Table 11. To understand the calculation,
the load at 3 PM has been discussed.

At 3PM the, heat gain can be calculated using the conductive time series as,

q15 = 987.546 W

Now the total cooling load for the roof can be calculated by summing the convective and radiative
portions. The convective and radiative portion has been considered according to ASHRAE
handbook of fundamentals. For roof, convective fraction is 0.46. Convective fraction Qc =
987.546*0.54 = 533.275 W

The radiant cooling load,

Qr,15= 561.568 W

Now the total roof cooling load at 3 PM is calculated as:

Qroof = Qc + Qr,15 = 533.275+561.568 = 1094.84 W

[Link] Window cooling load using radiant time series: The incident radiation over the wall
with windows has already been calculated and tabulated in the previous sections. Referring the
Table 8 we can have:

Incident beam radiation on window, Et,b = 73.25 W/m2

Incident diffuse radiation on window, Et,d = 159.67 W/m2

Reflected component of radiation, Er = 51.51 W/m2

At 3PM, Incidence angle, Ɵ = 81.47 ⁰

78
 Table 11. Hourly heat input profile for the roof using the sol-air temperature with indoor
temperature 25⁰C
wall
Radiant Total
Conductive heat Convective RTS
conduction heat roof
Hour heat gain gain heat gain, for
time factors gain cooling
qi,n using Qconvec roof
qr,15 load
CTS qi
1 -61.958 2 386.419 208.666 29 95.3872 304.053
2 -69.395 8 325.109 175.559 15 78.8781 254.437
3 -74.972 11 269.941 145.768 10 64.9637 210.732
4 -80.55 11 222.254 120.017 7 52.7823 172.799
5 -84.216 10 181.575 98.0504 6 40.916 138.966
6 -71.766 9 147.164 79.4687 5 31.1663 110.635
7 136.502 7 122.692 66.2537 4 49.0636 115.317
8 578.173 6 123.139 66.4951 3 112.857 179.353
9 1056.16 5 167.28 90.3313 3 207.131 297.463
10 1462.34 5 262.651 141.831 3 311.988 453.82
11 1749.97 4 401.766 216.954 2 411.866 628.82
12 1890.39 3 566.745 306.042 2 494.486 800.528
13 1879.94 3 735.688 397.272 2 551.202 948.474
14 1718.6 3 887.13 479.05 2 575.023 1054.07
15 1416.13 2 987.546 533.275 1 561.568 1094.84
16 1000.07 2 1070.09 577.85 1 510.492 1088.34
17 538.103 2 1080.68 583.569 1 429.14 1012.71
18 160.933 1 1032.94 557.789 1 337.859 895.648
19 29.1463 1 938.877 506.993 1 269.086 776.079
20 8.6944 1 825.585 445.816 1 223.35 669.167
21 -8.039 1 714.529 385.846 1 188.887 574.733
22 -24.772 1 614.377 331.764 0 160.098 491.862
23 -37.787 1 527.9 285.066 0 135.581 420.646
24 -50.802 1 453.429 244.852 0 114.241 359.092
For calculation of heat gain, solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) values for beam and
diffuse components of radiation are required. From ASHRAE handbook, the value of SHGC and
indoor attenuation coefficient (IAC) have been considered for uncoated, single glazing (ID 1a)
with sheer louver.

SHGC(Ɵ) = 0.42
SHGCd = 0.78
IAC = 0.7 & U = 5.9 W/m2 -⁰C
Now, solar beam heat input at 15 hours,
qb15 = A * Et ,b * SHGC (θ ) *(IAC)

79
 = 13*73.25*0.42*0.7
= 280 W
Solar diffuse heat input at 15 hours,
qd15 = A*(Et,d+Er)*SHGCd*(IAC)D
= 13*(159.67+65.5)*0.78*0.7
= 1598.3 W
Conductive heat gain at 15 hours,
qc15 = UA*(tout-tin)
= 5.9*13*(36.6-25)
= 889.72 W

Table 12. Window hourly cooling load calculation

incident beam diffuse Solar Solar

reflected
angle component component beam diffuse Conductive Total
beam component
hour on on on heat heat heat input, window
SHGC on
window windows window input, input, qci cooling
window Er
Ɵ Et,b Et,d qbi qdi load
1.0 144.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -48.5 -48.5
2.0 146.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -91.1 -91.1
3.0 145.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -123.1 -123.1
4.0 141.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -155.1 -155.1
5.0 135.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -176.4 -176.4
6.0 127.4 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.0 4.0 -155.1 -151.1
7.0 119.3 0.0 0.0 15.4 10.2 0.0 181.3 -80.5 100.8
8.0 111.2 0.0 0.0 54.3 30.6 0.0 602.6 100.8 703.4
9.0 103.4 0.0 0.0 97.4 52.7 0.0 1065.2 303.3 1368.6
10.0 99.5 0.0 0.0 135.0 71.3 0.0 1464.7 484.6 1949.3
11.0 99.4 0.0 0.0 156.5 84.3 0.0 1709.4 644.5 2353.9
12.0 97.3 0.0 0.0 170.3 90.4 0.0 1850.2 751.1 2601.3
13.0 93.4 0.0 0.0 176.9 89.1 0.0 1887.7 836.4 2724.1
14.0 88.0 18.5 0.4 174.7 80.6 70.6 1812.1 889.7 2772.5
15.0 81.5 73.3 0.4 159.7 65.5 280.0 1598.3 889.7 2768.0
16.0 83.5 47.6 0.4 109.1 45.3 181.8 1095.9 825.8 2103.5
17.0 87.7 12.2 0.4 50.4 23.1 46.6 521.6 740.5 1308.6
18.0 93.4 0.0 0.0 7.5 5.2 0.0 90.2 633.8 724.1
19.0 100.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 473.9 473.9
20.0 107.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 356.7 356.7
21.0 115.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 260.7 260.7
22.0 124.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 164.8 164.8
23.0 131.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 90.1 90.1
24.0 138.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 15.5 15.5

80
 According to ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals, if there is any kind of inside shading in
the window/fenestration, the window cooling load can be calculated by adding the direct beam,
diffuse and conductive heat gains together. In present case, the windows are provided with the
sheer louver.

So, the total window cooling load at 3 PM, Qwindow = 2768 W

4.4.2 Lighting/appliances cooling load

In the computer lab the internal heat gain is by lighting, computers, fan motors, all-in-one
printer, and scanners and occupants. The heat gains from the appliances in the lab can be calculated
by knowing their wattage or rating or the average power consumed. The ASHRAE Handbook of
Fundamentals 2013 gives the guidelines to calculate the heat gain from appliances.
 1 − Em 
Heat gain from the fan motor is calculated as, qem = P   FUM FLM where;
 Em 
qem is the heat gain, P is the rating of the motor, Em is the efficiency of the motor, FUM is the

utilization factor and FLM is the motor load factor. The present calculations have been done
considering an efficiency of 90% and the load and utilization factor as 1.

Table 13. Heat gain from lighting and appliances

S. Appliance Quantity Wattage/rating/Average Heat
No. (Nos.) power (W) Gain (W)
1. Fan (Motor) 4 70 28
2. Fluorescent tubes 12 36 518.4
3. Computer (2.3 GHz, 3 14 97+19=116 1624
GB Ram) + LCD Screen
(380mm)
4 Printer/Copier 1 1350 775
5 Scanner 1 60 15
Total 2960.4

Heat Gain from lighting has been calculated as qel = WFul Fsa ; where W is the wattage of

the lighting and Fsa is the special allowance factor which considers the ballast in the fluorescent
lights. Here, the ballast factor considered is 1.2 and utilization factor as 1. The average power for

81
computer has been referred from the ASHRAE handbook of fundamentals. The heat gains from
printer and scanner have been calculated directly by multiplying the wattage to the utilization
factor. Utilization factor for printer and scanner are 0.5 and 0.25 respectively. The hourly heat
gain profile has been presented in the Table 14. Using non solar RTS, the hourly load has been
calculated for 24 hours and tabulated in Table 14.

Table 14. Lighting/Appliances heat gain profile based on occupancy schedule and hourly load

Total lighting
Lighting Convective Radiative Radiant
Hour RTS load by
heat gain portion portion load
lighting
1 0 0 0 16 203.972 203.97156
2 0 0 0 10 188.281 188.28144
3 0 0 0 7 172.591 172.59132
4 0 0 0 5 156.901 156.9012
5 0 0 0 4 141.211 141.21108
6 0 0 0 3 125.521 125.52096
7 0 0 0 3 627.605 627.6048
8 2960.4 1391.388 1569.012 2 862.957 2254.3446
9 2960.4 1391.388 1569.012 2 1004.17 2395.55568
10 2960.4 1391.388 1569.012 2 1098.31 2489.6964
11 2960.4 1391.388 1569.012 2 1161.07 2552.45688
12 2960.4 1391.388 1569.012 1 1208.14 2599.52724
13 2960.4 1391.388 1569.012 1 1239.52 2630.90748
14 2960.4 1391.388 1569.012 1 1270.9 2662.28772
15 2960.4 1391.388 1569.012 1 1302.28 2693.66796
16 2960.4 1391.388 1569.012 1 1333.66 2725.0482
17 2960.4 1391.388 1569.012 1 847.266 2238.65448
18 0 0 0 1 627.605 627.6048
19 0 0 0 1 486.394 486.39372
20 0 0 0 1 392.253 392.253
21 0 0 0 1 329.493 329.49252
22 0 0 0 0 282.422 282.42216
23 0 0 0 0 251.042 251.04192
24 0 0 0 33 219.662 219.66168
The convective portion of load can be calculated by simply multiplying the heat gain with
the convective fraction.

82
 From the handbook, for non-in-ceiling fluorescent luminaire the radiative fraction can be
taken as 0.53 which implies the convective fraction to be 0.47. At 3 PM, the convective portion,
Qc = 2960.4*0.47= 1391.4 W. The radiant portion of the cooling load is calculated using lighting
heat gains for the current hour and past 23 h. The radiant time series (RTS) for medium-weight
construction, 50% glass and non-carpeted floors can be referred from the handbook. Thus, the
radiant cooling load for lighting is:
=Qr r1 (0.53)q15 + r2 (0.53)q14 + r3 (0.53)q13 + ... + r24 (0.53)q16
where
r1, r2, r3….etc. are the RTS or radiant factor coefficients.
The radiant portion, Qr =1302 W
The total lighting and appliances cooling load, Qlight+app = Q c+Qr = 1391.4+1302 = 2693 W

4.4.3 Internal/occupants cooling load

Table 15. Hourly lighting/appliances heat gain and cooling load
Total
Lighting Convective Radiant Radiant occupant
Hour RTS
heat gain portion portion load cooling
load
1 0 0 0 16 81.9 81.9
2 0 0 0 10 75.6 75.6
3 0 0 0 7 69.3 69.3
4 0 0 0 5 63 63
5 0 0 0 4 56.7 56.7
6 0 0 0 3 50.4 50.4
7 0 0 0 3 252 252
8 2960.4 1190 630 2 346.5 1536.5
9 2960.4 1190 630 2 403.2 1593.2
10 2960.4 1190 630 2 441 1631
11 2960.4 1190 630 2 466.2 1656.2
12 2960.4 1190 630 1 485.1 1675.1
13 2960.4 1190 630 1 497.7 1687.7
14 2960.4 1190 630 1 510.3 1700.3
15 2960.4 1190 630 1 522.9 1712.9
16 2960.4 1190 630 1 535.5 1725.5
17 2960.4 1190 630 1 340.2 1530.2
18 0 0 0 1 252 252
19 0 0 0 1 195.3 195.3
20 0 0 0 1 157.5 157.5
21 0 0 0 1 132.3 132.3
22 0 0 0 0 113.4 113.4
23 0 0 0 0 100.8 100.8
24 0 0 0 33 88.2 88.2

83
Human body continuously emits sensible and latent heat in different states of activity. The
occupants inside the space add significantly to the cooling load.

For moderately active work a human emits 75 W of sensible and 55 W of latent heat.

No of occupants, N: 14 Nos.
Sensible heat gain, qs = qs,per*N= 75*14 = 1050 W
Latent heat gain, ql = ql,per *N = 55*14 = 770 W

As per the ASHRAE Handbook fundamentals, 60% of the sensible load adds to the radiant load.
So, Convective portion of heat gain can be calculated as,

Qconv = 770+1050*0.4 = 1190 W and the Radiant portion can be obtained as,

Qrad = 1050*0.6 = 630 W. The radiant cooling load can be found out using the RTS from
handbook. The hourly heat gain schedule and the cooling load due to lighting and appliances has
been calculated and tabulated in Table 15.

4.4.4 Total cooling load

The total load can thus be found by adding the hourly loads from all the sources i.e. wall
cooling load, roof cooling load, window cooling load, lighting cooling load and the occupants
cooling load. The 24 hour cooling load profile can be obtained by adding the hourly loads from
all sources. Table 16 summarizes the cooling loads for 24 hours in hourly basis.

From Table 16, the peak cooling demand on the hottest day is 8767 Watts or 8.77 kW. In
terms of refrigeration ton (RT), the peak cooling load is 2.5 Ton. The cooling demand has an
increasing trend in the morning hours from 6AM till 3PM in the afternoon. The peak cooling
demand occurs at 3 PM and minimum cooling demand is 161 W at 6 AM. There is a sharp increase
in demand at 8 AM and the demand declines significantly at 6 PM. The hourly cooling demand
has been plotted in the fig. 47.

84
 Table 16. Total cooling load hourly profile for 24hrs on June 21

Total
Window Wall Roof
Lighting Occupant hourly
cooling cooling cooling
Hour load load cooling
load load load
(W) (W) load
(W) (W) (W)
(W)

1 -48.47 112.25 304.05 203.97 81.90 653.70

2 -91.12 89.64 254.44 188.28 75.60 516.84
3 -123.10 70.25 210.73 172.59 69.30 399.77
4 -155.09 53.62 172.80 156.90 63.00 291.23
5 -176.41 38.47 138.97 141.21 56.70 198.93
6 -151.11 26.37 110.64 125.52 50.40 161.82
7 100.79 25.87 115.32 627.60 252.00 1121.59
8 703.43 49.16 179.35 2254.34 1536.50 4722.79
9 1368.57 97.51 297.46 2395.56 1593.20 5752.30
10 1949.29 165.28 453.82 2489.70 1631.00 6689.08
11 2353.93 241.17 628.82 2552.46 1656.20 7432.57
12 2601.29 315.73 800.53 2599.53 1675.10 7992.18
13 2724.09 383.02 948.47 2630.91 1687.70 8374.19
14 2772.47 442.89 1054.07 2662.29 1700.30 8632.02
15 2768.03 499.45 1094.84 2693.67 1712.90 8768.89
16 2103.53 513.55 1088.34 2725.05 1725.50 8155.97
17 1308.60 483.34 1012.71 2238.65 1530.20 6573.50
18 724.08 424.79 895.65 627.60 252.00 2924.13
19 473.93 361.10 776.08 486.39 195.30 2292.80
20 356.66 301.54 669.17 392.25 157.50 1877.11
21 260.70 249.65 574.73 329.49 132.30 1546.88
22 164.75 205.38 491.86 282.42 113.40 1257.81
23 90.12 169.33 420.65 251.04 100.80 1031.94
24 15.49 139.01 359.09 219.66 88.20 821.45

85
 Hourly Total Cooling Load
10000.00

9000.00

8000.00

7000.00
Cooling load in Watts

6000.00

5000.00

4000.00

3000.00

2000.00

1000.00

0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour

Fig. 47. Hourly cooling load on June 21

4.5 Heating load

Space heating load is determined by computing the heat transfer rate through building envelop
elements plus heat required because of outside air infiltration. For the coldest month, January the
99.6 % design temperature for heating is 5.3 ⁰C from the data available from ASHRAE handbook
of fundamentals. The 99.6% design condition can be considered for peak design as only for 0.4%
occurrences the temperature falls below 5.3 ⁰C. Heat transfer from the space to the surroundings
= UA∆T . The overall heat transfer
can simply be calculated from the heat transfer equation, Q
coefficients (U) can be obtained from the handbook according to the build, as already done in the
previous sections.

Window heating load, Qheating, window = 5.9*12.75*(25-5.3) = 1482 W

Wall heating load, Qheating, wall = 0.514*10.25*(25-5.3) = 104 W

Roof heating load, Qheating, roof = 0.834*44*(25-5.3) = 723 W

Heat lost due to infiltration air also needs to be taken into account. Considering the air infiltration
rate to be 55l/s/100sq-m plus 3.5 l/s/occupant, for 14 occupants, the net infiltration rate can be
44
calculated=
as ma 15* + 3.5*14 = 55.6 l/s.
100

86
 =
Now, net heat loss due to infiltration, Q a ma C ∆T ; where, heat capacity of air, C =1.23 J/l-⁰C
and temperature difference, ∆T = 25-5.3 ⁰C.

So, heat loss due to infiltration Qa = 55.6*1.23*(25-5.3) = 1347.24 W

Also, contribution of lighting and appliances to the heat addition in the space by factor of 0.5,

Qlight, heat = 0.5*2960 = 1480 W

Now, net heating load, Q heat =Qheating, window + Qheating, wall + Qheating, roof + Qa - Qlight, heat
= 2176.24 W

4.6 CLOSURE
Selected site for the design of the system, Students’ Computer Lab, Alternate Hydro Energy
Centre at IIT Roorkee, India has been introduced. Various required details for the design purpose
have been collected and presented in the chapter.

The chapter starts with a brief information of the location of the site. The construction details are
very important for the building cooling and heating load evaluation, hence, have been detailed.
The meteorological data for the location have been listed. The heating and cooling load are
governed by solar radiation available at the by a large extent, hence hourly solar data have been
extensively calculated and tabulated for each exposed surface (wall and roof). The cooling load
was calculated using the RTS method as explained in the chapter after calculating the lighting and
electronic appliances contribution to it. An hourly cooling load profile was generated using the
radiant time series (RTS) method. The peak cooling load was 2.5 Ton at 3PM on June 21. A peak
heating load of 2176.24 W was calculated in a typical coldest day in January.

The following chapter will deal with the analysis of the absorption cycle and design of the system
based on the calculated cooling load calculated in the present chapter.

87
 CHAPTER 5 DESIGN OF SOLAR BASED LiBr-WATER
ABSORPTION COOLING SYSTEM

5.1 Design of Absorption Chiller

The cooling load has been calculated in Chapter 4 as 8.77 kW. Once the load is known the
different component of the absorption chiller must be sized and different parameters need to be
found out. An absorption cooling system can be plotted in a Pressure – Temperature (P-T) diagram
as follows:

Fig. 48. LiBr-Water Absorption Cooling System

At the evaporator, Qg amount of heat flows in from the surroundings to evaporate the refrigerant
water. The refrigerant vapor gets absorbed by the LiBr solution at the absorber releasing Qa
amount of heat. The weak solution (Point 1) gets then pumped generator at higher pressure through
the heat exchanger. The solution gives off the refrigerant vapor by absorbing the Qg amount of

88
heat from some external source, here by the solar hot water. The refrigerant vapor gets condensed
at the condenser by releasing the Qc amount of heat. The pressure of the condensed refrigerant
water is reduced by passing it through the throttle valve before it reaches to the evaporator to again
extract heat from the conditioned space.
Once the refrigerant vapor is given off by the solution at the generator, LiBr solution
becomes stronger i.e. the concentration of LiBr is more (Point 4). This strong solution is passed
through the solution heat exchanger to lose some heat. The solution is passed through the throttle
valve to decrease its pressure before it reaches to the absorber to again absorb the refrigerant vapor
coming from the evaporator. To size the chiller components and to evaluate the various parameters
some assumptions and input values need to be considered.
Assumptions:
1. The steady state conditions exist.
2. The refrigerant is pure water.
3. There are no pressure changes except through the throttle valve and the pump i.e.
P=
9 P10= P=
1 P6 and P=
8 P=
7 P=
4 P=
3 P=
2 P5
4. Referring to fig.1, at points 1, 4, 8 and 11, there is only saturated liquid.
5. At point 10, there is only saturated vapor.
6. Throttling is isenthalpic.
7. Pumping is an isentropic process.

For designing the components, mathematical modeling has been performed for each component.
Before the mathematical modeling, design parameters are defined as in Table 15.
Table 17. Design parameters for absorption chiller

Parameter Value

Evaporator temperature, T10 10 ⁰C

Generator solution exit temperature, T4 75 ⁰C
Weak solution concentration (refrigerant laden), X1 55% LiBr
Strong solution concentration, X4 60% LiBr
Solution temperature at the inlet of generator, T3 65 ⁰C
Generator vapor exit temperature, T7 70 ⁰C

89
5.1.1 Mathematical Modeling of different chiller components
Evaporator
m9 = m10 (i)

Q=
e m10 (h10 − h9=
) m9 (h10 − h9 ) (ii)

Absorber
=
m1 m10 + m6 (iii)

x1m1 = x1m6 (iv)

Qa = m10 h10 + m6 h6 − m1h1 (v)

Pump
=
W p m1v1 ( P1 − P2 ) (vi)

Heat Exchanger

m2 h2 + m4 h4 = m3 h3 + m5 h5 (vii)

Generator

m=
3 m4 + m7 (viii)

m3 x3 = m4 x4 (ix)

Qg = m4 h4 + m7 h7 − m3 h3 (x)

Condenser

=
Qc m7 h7 − m8 h8 (xi)

90
 Throttle Valve

h5 = h6 (xii)

h8 = h9 (xiii)
Here, m is the mass flow rate, Q is the heat, h is the enthalpy, x is the mass fraction of LiBr, Wp is
the pump work, P is the pressure and v is the specific volume.

5.2 Parameters calculations

Using the assumptions and the input values the parameters can be calculated from the
mathematical equations. At the evaporator the temperature T10 taken as input is 10 °C. The

refrigerant vapor in the evaporator is in saturated state. The pressure and the enthalpy can be known
using the steam tables.
P10 = 1.228 kPa and h10 =2619 kJ/kg

The cooling load, Qe = 8.77 kW

Once the value h9 is known, the required refrigerant mass flow m9 rate can be calculated from
equation (i). At point (8), the condensed water (refrigerant) is saturated liquid. The enthalpy at this
point can be known from the steam tables, if the pressure is known. The pressures at point (4) and
point (8) can be assumed to be equal for present study. At generator, the solution (55% LiBr)
leaves at 75 ⁰C ( T4 =75). Referring the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals [82] we have;

h4 = 183.23 kJ/kg and T ' = 31.46 ⁰C = 304.46 K

Using the empirical method to find the pressure;
log P =
C + D / T '+ E / T '2 ; Where C = 7.05, D = -1596.49 and E = -104095.5
P4 = 4.824 kPa

Now corresponding to pressure P8 = 4.824 kPa, the enthalpy at point 8 can be evaluated from
steam tables as
h8 = 135.1136 kJ/kg and as h8 = h9 ; h9 = 135.1136 kJ/kg.
Using the equations (i) and (ii) we get;
Mass flow rate of refrigerant, m=
7 m=
8 m=
9 m10 = 3.679x10-3 kg/s

91
 m1 = 44.14x10-3 kg/s and m6 = 40.46x10-3 kg/s
Following the ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals [82], the enthalpy of the solution at point
(1) can be calculated empirically knowing the pressure level and concentration.

Using the steam tables (2), corresponding to 10 ⁰C saturated water, we have

P1 = 1.228 kPa.

From pressure P1 = 1.228 kPa, the refrigerant saturation temperature is calculated as,

T1 ' = 9.325 ⁰C and solution temperature T1 = 39.40 ⁰C

Solution temperature and concentration are input to calculate the enthalpy, h1 and same has been

calculated as;

h1 = 92.41kJ / kg

The pump takes the solution from the absorber, point (1) and delivers at the heat exchanger inlet,
point (2) increasing the pressure from 1.228 kPa to 4.824 kPa. The electrical input power to the

pump can be calculated using the equation (vi). The specific volume v1 does not possess
considerable change with change in pressure. The specific volume can be calculated as presented
by Stankus, S .V. et. al.[83].
ρ1 = 1568.28kg / m3 or v1 = 6.376 x10−4 m3 / kg
Now using the equation (vi):

W p = 0.0981W

Now, h2 =
h1 + W p / m1 =
92.418kJ / kg

It’s evident that there is no appreciable change in the enthalpy of the solution due to pump
since the required electrical input is very minimal. Hence, there is no noticeable change in the
solution temperature before and after the pump.

92
So, =
T2 39.4°C
Corresponding to pressure P3 the temperature T3 is less than the saturation temperature, so the
solution is sub-cooled. In sub-cooled conditions pressure doesn’t affect the enthalpy of the solution

considerably. Hence, at point 3 the temperature ( T3 ) and the mass fraction of the solution ( x3 ) can

be used as inputs to get the enthalpy ( h3 ).

Calculated enthalpy at point 3 is:

h3 = 145.38kJ / kg
Now from the equation (vii), enthalpy at point 5 can be calculated as:

h5 = 125.46kJ / kg

Throttling model gives:

h=
5 h=
6 125.46kJ / kg

The solution temperature at point 5 is calculated from the empirical relation given in ASHRAE
Handbook of fundamentals [82] using the enthalpy value.

=
T5 45.05°C

Now the temperature at point 6 can be calculated as:

=
T6 49.15°C

Now, using the equation (v)

Qa = 8.61kJ / kg

At point 7, the refrigerant vapor is at temperature (T7) 70 ⁰C and pressure (P7) 4.824 kPa.
Referring the steam tables (2) the enthalpy for this superheated vapor can be found out as:

h7 = 2631.247kJ / kg
Using (x), heat added at the generator, Qg can be calculated as:

93
 Qg = 10.67 kW

The amount of heat rejected at the condenser, Q c is calculated from equation (xi) as:

Qc = 9.18kW

All the parameters of LiBr-water absorption chiller are tabulated in Table 16

Table 18. All calculated parameters of the absorption chiller

Point h(kJ/kg) m(kg/s) P(kPa) T(⁰C)

92.41863 0.037045 1.228184 39.40458144

1

2 92.41871 0.037045 4.824532 39.40458144

3 145.3803 0.037045 4.824532 65

4 183.2322 0.033958 4.824532 75

5 125.4559 0.033958 4.824532 45.05422587

6 125.4559 0.033958 1.228184 49.15158446

7 2631.247 0.003087 4.824532 70

8 135.1136 0.003087 4.824532 32.24113675

9 135.1136 0.003087 1.228184 10

10 2519.23 0.003087 1.228184 10

All the energy flows are listed in Table 17.

A COP of 0.82 was achieved for the present considered parameters.

94
 Table 19. Energy Flows in the absorption chiller

Particulars Quantity

Cooling load, Qe 8.77 kW

Heat rejected at absorber, Qa 10.26 kW

Pump work, Wp 0.0981 W

Heat supplied at generator, Qg 10.67 kW

Heat rejected at condenser, Qc 9.18 kW

5.3 Solar Collector area

The heat required at the generator needs to be supplied from the hot water coming from the
solar collector. The quantity of heat required to be absorbed by the solar collector and the average
radiation incident on the collector need to be known to calculate the total area of the collector field.

For solar collectors, optimum tilt angle is latitude plus 10 degrees in the northern hemisphere of
earth. So, tilt angle at Roorkee;

Ɵt = 29.9+10 = 39.9 = 40 ⁰

Now, solar radiation at any surface with tilt angle of 40 ⁰ at Roorkee can be calculated hourly as
shown in Table 18. Considering average radiation incident on collector between the sunshine hour
from 0800 hours to 1700 hours, Etotal,avg = 246.2 W/m2. As in the present study the hot water is
supplied from the flat plate solar collector. Considering the efficiency of the solar collector to be
80%, to supply the 8.959 kW of heat to the generator, the amount of solar heat required to be
absorbed by the collector can be calculated as:

10.67/0.8 = 13.33 kW.

The area of collector required can be calculated as:

13330 W/246.2 W/m2 = 54 m2

95
 Table 20. Radiation components over the collector at an angle of 40 ⁰

Ground
Beam Diffuse
Reflected Total Radiation
Component Component
Time(Hrs) Component Et,R incident on the
Incident On The Incident On
( For Vertical collector
Collector Solar Collector
Exposed Wall)

8 51.51329 72.79092 29.68802806 153.9922

9 22.04417 117.8294 51.80702348 191.6806

10 16.1639 155.1596 70.64914538 241.9726

11 48.1764 188.8559 83.81640341 320.8487

12 64.84681 205.4392 90.12770094 360.4137

13 62.08251 202.7244 89.10203644 353.9089

14 40.537 181.0676 80.81403542 302.4186

15 5.658417 143.3295 65.91639009 214.9043

16 31.89286 106.8487 45.84748868 184.589

17 55.41687 58.16302 23.55496223 137.1348

5.4 Flow rate of hot water

The solution enters and leaves the generator at the temperatures 65 C and 75 C respectively.
Let the hot water coming from the solar collector is at 80 C. Consider the water enters the solar
collector at a temperature of 25 C. The mass flow rate of the water through the collector can be
calculated using simple energy balance.

Heat carried by the hot water, Qw = mwC p (80 − 25) =Qg ;

Where; mw is the mass flow rate of water and Cp is the heat capacity of the water.

Now, mw = 10670/(4200*55) = 0.0462 kg/s = 2.77 kg/m

96
5.5 Volume of hot water storage tank

Literature review [65] concluded that optimum specific hot water storage tank volume
should be 0.01 to 0.08 m3/m2. For heating and cooling system the higher value should be chosen
for design. Taking specific volume of the storage tank as 0.08 m3/m2 , the volume of hot water
storage tank can be calculated as, V = 0.08*45 = 4.32 m3.

5.6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The cooling load was calculated for each hour on June 21 using the radiant time series
method (RTS) which includes the effect of heat gains in last 24 hours by convection and radiation.
The obtained cooling load profile for 24 hours shows that the maximum load is 8.77 kW at 3PM
while minimum cooling demand occurs at 6 PM. The chiller was simulated and other parameters
of the chiller were obtained using the spreadsheet program using the Macros feature. The
simulation of the program also gave the related heat transfers at various points in the absorption
chiller.

For a peak cooling load of 8.77 kW, the heat input required at the generator was found as
10.67 kW. This demand of thermal energy can be fulfilled by a solar collector field of 54 m2 which
supplies the water at 80 C with a flow rate of 2.77 kg/min. For Roorkee, optimum collector tilt
angle was taken as 40⁰. The optimum volume of the storage tank was calculated using the results
available in the literature, which is 4.32 m3 . Total heat rejected from the chiller i.e. at condenser
and absorber, has been calculated as 19.44 kW.

It can be noticed that to meet the cooling requirement of 8.77 kW, the electricity required
is 0.0981 W. This proves that solar absorption systems can save the electricity significantly and
thus save the environment. Also, the heating requirement can be fulfilled by direct use of hot water
from the solar collector or the hot water storage tank. The hot water can also be fed to the fan coil
unit bypassing the absorption chiller to heat the cold air in winter.

97
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATION

6.1 Conclusion
The study shows that the solar absorption cooling and heating system prove to be best
among all the other alternative options. For the selected site, Students’ Computer Lab, Alternate
Hydro Energy Centre, IIT Roorkee, the LiBr-water based absorption cooling and heating system
is proposed which can be powered by the hot water from flat plate collector field. A theoretical
design has been presented in this dissertation. The design procedure was performed for the peak
cooling load condition.

The cooling load was calculated following the ASHRAE guidelines and Radiant Time
Series Method and accordingly the various design parameters were calculated. The cooling and
heating loads were 8.77 kW and 2.18 kW respectively. For the design equilibrium generator
temperature of 80 C, the thermal energy required at the generator was 10.67 kW. For an 80%
efficient flat plate collector the required collector field comes out to be 54 m2 according to the
calculated average radiation available at the site. The rate of flow of the hot water was calculated
as 2.77 kg/m. For continuous and efficient operation, the hot water storage tank volume has been
included and its volume came out to be 4.32 m3.

The use of flat collector in the present work which gives hot water at 80 C proves that the
chiller can be integrated with the domestic solar hot water systems. The integration can fulfill the
cooling demand as well. This technology can thus save electricity and thus the CO 2 emission by
large quantity as cooling and heating systems constitute a large portion in electricity consumption.
The use of solar thermal energy thus can reduce the burden of fossil fuel import and can help
improve the economy of the country. The use of this technique is the novel step towards the
sustainable energy development and in saving the environment.

98
6.2 Recommendations

According to the literature and the present dissertation following recommendations can be
made.

1. The study can be continued with the design for the complete AHEC building at IIT
Roorkee.
2. An experimental setup can be developed and tested.
3. A detailed cost analysis can be performed for such systems.
4. The change in the performance of the cycle can be studied with the change in cooling
medium (water to air).
5. The system can be tested for innovative heat rejection systems like geothermal sink as
mentioned in the literatures.
6. The design can be done by considering the annual energy consumption and nominal
loads.
7. The system can be evaluated by integrating it with the biomass plants.
8. A tri-generation plant producing heating, cooling and electricity simultaneously can
also be designed.
9. The performance and the cost analysis can be done for the proposed site for different
solar collection systems.
10. The design can be continued with the transient analysis at the solar thermal storage tank
and the chiller.

99
List of Publications

1. Arvind Gupta, R P Saini, ‘Solar Absorption Cooling and Heating Systems: A Review’,
National Conference on Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering - 2014, 28-29 June
2014, GB Pant Engineering College, Pauri Garhwal, (UK), India (Accepted).
2. Arvind Gupta, R P Saini, ‘Design of LiBr-water based solar absorption cooling and
heating system’, International Conference on Energy Technology, Power Engineering
and Environmental Sustainability’ 28 June 2014, JNU, New Delhi, India (Communicated).

100
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