 Define “Research”.

Research is a systematic, logical, and objective process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting
information to answer a question, solve a problem, or generate new knowledge.

 Characteristics of research
1. Systematic
Research follows an orderly and structured process with clear steps such as defining a problem,
collecting data, analyzing it, and drawing conclusions.
2. Logical
It uses valid reasoning—both inductive (from specific to general) and deductive (from general to
specific)—to interpret data.
3. Empirical
Research is based on observable and measurable evidence, not opinions or assumptions.
4. Objective
Findings are free from personal bias. The results depend on data and evidence, not the researcher's
beliefs.
5. Replicable / Verifiable
Other researchers should be able to repeat the study and obtain similar results, ensuring reliability.

 Criteria of Good Research (Characteristics)

• Clearly stated objectives:

Research is incomplete unless the objectives or purpose of the study are clearly defined at the
beginning.
• Detailed explanation of procedures:
Every step in the research process should be fully explained.
This helps other researchers repeat the study, verify results, or improve upon the work—ensuring the
validity of the research.
• Appropriate research design:
The research design must be clear and should match the objectives of the study.
• Honest reporting:
A good researcher must report facts truthfully and also reveal any weaknesses or flaws in the study.
• Use of suitable analytical tools:
The study should be based on carefully selected and appropriate analytical or statistical tools.
• Inclusion of relevant data:
Research is incomplete without acknowledging all necessary data or facts related to the study.
• Clear disclosure of limitations:
Limitations or constraints of the research should be stated openly and honestly.

 Research Methodology
The term ‘Methodology’ is frequently used in research projects, and it gives a complete overview of the
rationality of the research. Research Methodology refers how scientific research is carried out. It involves
rationally adopting several methods to tackle research challenges in a systematic manner. Methodology aids
in comprehending not just the results of scientific investigation, but also the method itself. In a broader way,
methodology entails searching/linking methods and studying specific theories used in research field areas,
designing the best strategy according to research goals and objectives. Practically say ‘research
methodology’ answer “how” of any piece of research is related to the research technique and how a
researcher plans a study in a structured way to ensure reliable outcomes that address the study’s goals and
objectives. Apart from that, research methodology should explain the design decisions by
illustrating that the approaches and techniques chosen match the study objectives and goals and provide
valid and accurate results. A suitable research methodology yields scientifically solid results, whereas a
lousy methodology yields none. Hence, it should highlight some basic (What, How, Why) questions of our
research. Such as:
1. What was the purpose of your research?
2. What types of ‘research method’ can we use and why?
3. What types of data should we consider for your research analysis purpose?
4. What were the data collecting methods?
5. How did you analyze the collected data?
6. What kind of resources has been used in your research?
In addition, methodologies encompass all approaches, strategies, and instruments used by a researcher to
finish the experiment and solve the study challenge. While methods display the entire study framework,
explaining its various research design [Link] all, ‘methodology’ enables researchers to verify a
study’s accuracy and helps them identify the research method’s credibility, validity, and dependability.
Another way, we can say that methodology will justify choosing the proper methods. On the other side,’
research methods’ give detailed information on the research design, participants, materials, equipment,
variables, and processes.

 Step-by-Step Research Process

1. Define the Research Problem
o State the problem or question clearly and precisely.
o Specify scope, context, and why it is important.
2. Review of Literature (continuous step)
o Review concepts and theories: understand theoretical background and key concepts.
o Review previous research findings: examine past studies to find gaps and build on existing
knowledge.
o Use the literature review to refine the problem and shape objectives.
3. Formulate Objectives and Hypotheses
o Convert the problem into specific research objectives (what you want to find out).
o If appropriate, state testable hypotheses (expected relationships or outcomes).
4. Design the Research (Research Design)
o Choose overall approach: qualitative, quantitative, or mixed.
o Decide methods of data collection (survey, experiment, observation, secondary data).
o Plan sampling design (population, sample size, sampling technique).
o Define variables, instruments, and procedures.
5. Collect Data
o Implement the planned methods to gather primary or secondary data.
o Ensure data quality: follow protocols, obtain consent, keep records.
6. Process and Analyse Data
o Clean, code, and tabulate data.
o Apply appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis techniques.
o Test hypotheses or identify themes/patterns.
7. Interpret Findings
o Explain what the results mean in context of the objectives and literature.
o Consider alternative explanations and the implications of the findings.
8. Report Writing and Presentation
o Prepare a structured report (introduction, methods, results, discussion, conclusions,
references).
o Present results clearly using tables, figures, and concise text.
9. Verification / Re-evaluation (Feedback Loop)
o Discuss limitations and reliability.
o Suggest future research or improvements.
o Other researchers may replicate or build on the study — the results may lead you to redefine
the problem and repeat parts of the process.
 Aims and Objectives of a Research Programme

Aims of Research

• Aims are broad, general statements that describe the overall purpose or intention of the research.
• They indicate what the study ultimately wants to achieve.
• They provide direction and set the long-term goal of the research.

Example:
“To examine the impact of urbanization on groundwater resources.”

Objectives of Research

• Objectives are specific, precise, and measurable steps that guide how the aim will be achieved.
• They break the aim into smaller, actionable components.
• They help in designing methodology, data collection, and analysis.

Example:

• To measure the change in groundwater levels from 2010–2025.

• To assess land-use change using GIS techniques.
• To identify areas of high depletion.

Difference Between Aims and Objectives

Aims Objectives
Broad statements Narrow and specific
General intention Measurable steps
Long-term goal Action plan
Describes purpose Describes tasks

 Differentiate research methods from research techniques.

• Research methods are the overall approaches, strategies, or procedures used to conduct research.
They describe how a researcher plans to collect, analyze, and interpret data. Examples: Survey method,
Observation method, Experimental method, Case study method, Historical method.
• Research techniques are the specific tools, instruments, or practical steps used to carry out a research
method. They are the operational procedures used to collect or analyze data.
 Examples: Using a questionnaire or interview schedule (survey method), Random or stratified
sampling, Laboratory experiment steps, Content analysis, Statistical tests like correlation, regression,
t-test.
Basis of Research Methods Research Techniques
Difference
Meaning Broad, overall approaches or strategies Specific tools, procedures, or operations used
used to conduct research to implement a method
Scope Wider in scope Narrow and limited in scope
Level Conceptual level (framework or plan) Operational level (practical steps)
Purpose Explains how research will be Explains how a particular task within the
conducted method is carried out
Nature Theoretical and systematic Practical and applied
Dependency Depends on the research design Depends on the chosen method
Examples Survey method, case study method, Questionnaire, interview schedule, sampling
experimental method, observation techniques, statistical tests (t-test, chi-square)
method
Role in Guides the overall research process Helps in executing specific parts of the
Research research

 Research problem
A research problem is a specific issue, difficulty, gap, or question that a researcher wants to investigate and
find answers to through a systematic study.
Key Points
• It identifies what is to be studied.
• It highlights a gap in existing knowledge, a practical issue, or a theoretical question.
• It guides the direction of the research.
• It is the foundation of the entire research process.

Example
o “What are the factors influencing groundwater depletion in urban areas?”
o “How does online learning affect student performance?”

 The sources for research problem identification and selection are diverse and generally fall into the
following major categories:
1. Academic and Professional Sources

• Theory and Existing Knowledge: Gaps, contradictions, or inconsistencies in current theories,

concepts, or models often serve as a prime source for new research problems. Problems can arise
from a need to test a theory in a new context, reconcile conflicting findings, or refine an existing
theoretical framework.
• Literature Review: A thorough review of published research (journals, books, dissertations) is
perhaps the most common source. It helps identify:
o Gaps: Areas where little or no research has been conducted.
o Unanswered Questions: Specific suggestions for future research mentioned by authors.
o Methodological Limitations: Flaws in previous studies that need to be addressed or
improved upon.
• Previous Research Findings: Problems may be extensions or direct follow-ups of the conclusions
or recommendations of prior studies. Researchers often suggest areas for future exploration.

2. Practical and Societal Sources

 • Practical Problems/Real-World Issues: Problems encountered in practice within a specific setting
(e.g., industry, healthcare, education, government) are rich sources. Research is often initiated to find
a solution to an immediate, pressing issue.
o Examples: Low employee morale in a company, poor student performance, the spread of a
disease, or traffic congestion in a city.
• Social and Community Concerns: Broad issues affecting society or a specific community, such as
poverty, inequality, climate change, or political unrest, are frequently the focus of research to
understand their causes, effects, and potential solutions.
• Policy and Legislative Changes: New government policies, laws, or regulatory changes often
create a need for research to study their impact, effectiveness, or implementation challenges.

3. Personal and Creative Sources

• Personal Experience and Observation: A researcher's personal observations, experiences, or

curiosity about the world around them can spark a research question. This is particularly true for
professionals who have firsthand experience with a specific problem.
• Brainstorming and Discussion: Interactions with colleagues, experts, supervisors, or peers can
generate ideas, refine vague notions, and help formulate a researchable problem.
• Intuition and Intellectual Stimuli: Sometimes, a problem is identified through sheer intuition or a
sudden insight—a flash of understanding that highlights a crucial, unexamined aspect of a
phenomenon.

The selection process usually involves cross-referencing a potential problem identified from these sources
against criteria like relevance, feasibility, ethical acceptability, and potential significance to ensure it's a
worthwhile endeavor.

 Steps in formulating a research problem

The following steps will help those researchers who does not even decided their research area, topic, and
questions. The following process will help researchers narrow down their vast research area into subareas
that could become your research problem.
i) Identification of broad/subject areas according to your interest.
ii) Separate the broad area into sub-areas.
iii) Select one sub-topic or sub-areas that is perceived most in interest.
iv) Raise a question and list out all possible questions that comes to mind and if the listed question is too
many for a manageable perspective, then follow step i-iii.
v) Formulate research objectives and sub-objectives, which depend on research questions.
vi) Evaluate objective viability in light of human, time, and financial resources.
This task of formulating or defining, a research problem is a step of greatest importance in the entire
research process. The above steps in formulating a research problem can be divided into two activities:
i) Identification/Selection of the Research Problem
ii) Formulation of the Research Problem
i) Identification / Selection of the Research Problem
This step involves identification of a few problems and selection of one out of them, after evaluating the
alternatives against certain selection criteria. There are different source from which the researcher can find
the research problem. The sources of research problems can be Reading, academic experience, daily
experience, and exposure to field situations, consultations, brainstorming and intuition.
❖ Criteria of Selection
The selection of one appropriate researchable problem out of the identified problems requires evaluation of
those alternatives against certain criteria. They are:
 Internal/Personal criteria – Researcher’s Interest, Researcher’s Competence, Researcher’s own
Resource: finance and time.
 External Criteria or Factors– Researchability of the problem, Importance and Urgency, Novelty of the
Problem, Feasibility, Facilities, Usefulness and Social Relevance, Research Personnel.
ii) Formulation of the Research Problem
Formulation is the process of refining the research ideas into research questions and objectives. Formulation
means translating and transforming the selected research problem/topic/idea into a scientifically
researchable question. It is concerned with specifying exactly what the research problem is. Essentially, two
steps are involved in formulating research problems:
a) Understanding the problem thoroughly. The most important way of understanding the problem is
discussion with colleagues or persons who are expert in knowledge or skill. The problem is also studied
using literature survey. After understanding the problem, it is expressed, in more specific terms to make the
problem, clear.
b) Expressing the problem in more specifies terms or, more clear. Problem definition or problem statement is
a clear, precise and concise statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of
finding an answer or solution.
There are two ways of stating a problem:
 Posting question / questions
 Making declarative statement / statements
Hence, the steps involve in the process of defining the problem as below:
1. Statement of the problem in a general way
2. Understanding the nature of problem
3. Surveying the available literature
4. Developing ideas through discussions
5. Rephrasing the research problem
The good research problem should meet the criteria of clear and unambiguous, empirically possible to solve,
should be able to verify with facts, interesting to pursue finding the solution, and should be able to check the
availability of supervision.

 What do you mean by 'literature' for any research activities?

In research, “literature” refers to all the existing written or published information related to your research
topic. It includes any material that helps you understand what is already known, what gaps exist, and how
your study can contribute new knowledge.

❖ Meaning of Literature in Research

“Literature” includes all forms of scholarly and credible sources that discuss, explain, analyze, or provide
data related to your research problem.
Literature can include: Research articles (journal papers), Books and book chapters, Theses and
dissertations, Government reports and policy documents.

 Literature Review
A literature review is a comprehensive overview of previously published scholarly work on a specific topic,
which summarizes, synthesizes, and critically evaluates existing research to provide context and identify
gaps.

 Explain how the review of related literature is more useful for any researcher.

A Review of Related Literature (RRL) is one of the most powerful and essential steps in any research. It
guides the researcher from the very beginning of the study to the end. Here is a clear and complete
explanation of why RRL is so useful:

1. Helps Identify the Research Gap

• By reading previous studies, a researcher understands what has already been done.
• It becomes easier to see unanswered questions, limitations, or areas that need further
investigation.
• This helps the researcher develop a unique and relevant research problem.
2. Provides a Strong Theoretical Background

• RRL introduces important theories, models, and concepts.

• These help the researcher build a theoretical or conceptual framework for the study.
• It strengthens the scientific basis of the research.

3. Avoids Duplication of Work

• RRL ensures the researcher does not repeat the same method or study unnecessarily.
• It encourages innovation and improvement over existing work.

4. Guides the Research Methodology

• RRL shows:
o What methods other researchers used
o What tools or techniques worked well
o Which approaches had limitations
• This helps the researcher choose a suitable methodology and improve it.

5. Enhances Understanding of the Topic

• It broadens the researcher's knowledge of:

o Key issues
o Trends
o Debates
o Challenges
• It improves the depth and quality of the research.

6. Helps Develop Research Questions and Objectives

• RRL clarifies what needs to be studied.

• It helps refine:
o Research questions
o Hypotheses
o Objectives
• This makes the research focused and precise.

 Place the importance of 'literature' review while selecting the aim and methodology of a research
problem. Or, Explain the importance of ‘literature review’ while selecting the aim and
methodology of a research problem citing an example.

Importance of Literature Review in Selecting the Aim and Methodology of a Research Problem
A literature review is a critical step in research because it provides the foundation for deciding what to
study (aim) and how to study it (methodology). It helps the researcher build a scientifically sound and
relevant study.

I. Importance of Literature Review in Selecting the Aim

1. Helps identify research gaps
By reviewing previous studies, the researcher understands what has been explored and what areas need
further investigation.
→ The aim can target a gap that adds new knowledge.
2. Ensures relevance and significance
Aims selected from existing issues, recommendations, or trends become more meaningful for society and
the academic field.
3. Helps refine a broad topic into a clear aim
The literature review narrows down a wide area into a precise and manageable research aim.
4. Provides justification for the aim
A literature-supported aim is easier to defend because it is grounded in previous findings and needs.

II. Importance of Literature Review in Selecting the Methodology

1. Reveals suitable methods used in earlier studies
The LR shows which research designs, tools, sampling techniques, and data sources were effective.
→ The researcher can adopt proven methods.
2. Helps avoid methodological weaknesses
By understanding limitations in earlier studies, the researcher can improve the current methodology.
3. Guides the selection of data types and analytical techniques
It helps determine:
• Qualitative or quantitative approach
• Data collection tools
• Software or models
• Statistical tests or spatial analysis techniques
4. Ensures scientific validity and standardization
Using methods supported by literature makes the study more reliable and comparable to previous research.

Example (Simple and Clear)

Topic: Flood mapping using satellite data.
Role of Literature Review in Selecting the Aim
Suppose previous studies mapped floods using Sentinel-1 but did not analyze changes in flooded area over
10 years.
→ The aim may become:
“To examine the temporal change in flood-inundated areas in District X using multi-year Sentinel-1 data.”
Role of Literature Review in Selecting the Methodology
The literature shows:
• SAR imagery works best during cloudy or rainy conditions
• Change detection and thresholding are effective
• Accuracy assessment using ground truth improves reliability
→ The methodology is formed using these techniques.
 Meaning of Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative, testable statement or assumption about the relationship between two or more
variables. It predicts an outcome that can be verified through observation, data collection, or
experimentation.
Simple definition:
A hypothesis is a logical guess or proposed explanation that the researcher tests through scientific
investigation.

 Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

1. Testable and Verifiable
A hypothesis must be capable of being tested through experiments, observations, or data analysis.
Example: “Higher rainfall increases crop yield.” (Can be tested with data)

2. Clear and Precise

The statement should be simple, specific, and free from ambiguity.
Example: “Urban green cover reduces surface temperature by at least 2°C.”

3. Based on Existing Knowledge (Logical)

It should be derived from theory, previous studies, or scientific reasoning.
Example: Studies show plants reduce heat; hence the hypothesis above is logical.

4. Specific and Limited in Scope

A hypothesis should define the variables clearly and stay within a manageable boundary.
Example: “NDVI and LST have a negative correlation in City X during summer 2023.”

 Important Uses of Hypothesis

1. Guides the Research Direction
A hypothesis helps the researcher decide what data to collect, what relationships to test, and what methods to
use.
2. Helps Formulate Research Design
It influences sampling, tools, analysis techniques, and the overall structure of the research.
3. Provides a Basis for Interpretation
Findings are interpreted by comparing them with the hypothesis—whether it is supported or rejected.
4. Helps in Developing Theories
When hypotheses are repeatedly tested and supported, they contribute to building scientific theories or
models.

 Types of Hypothesis with Examples

A hypothesis may take different forms depending on how it is stated and what it predicts. The major types
are:

1. Null Hypothesis (H₀)

This hypothesis states that there is no relationship or no significant difference between variables.
It is the hypothesis that statistical tests try to reject.
Example:
H₀: There is no difference in crop yield between irrigated and non-irrigated fields.
(Meaning → yield remains same)

2. Alternative Hypothesis (H₁ or Hₐ)

This states that a relationship or significant difference exists.
It is the opposite of the null hypothesis.
Example:
H₁: Irrigated fields produce significantly higher crop yield than non-irrigated fields.

3. Directional (One-Tailed) Hypothesis

Predicts the specific direction of the relationship—whether it increases, decreases, is positive, or negative.
Example:
Higher NDVI values are associated with lower Land Surface Temperature (LST).
(Direction = negative relationship)

4. Non-Directional (Two-Tailed) Hypothesis

States that a relationship exists, but does not specify the direction.
Example:
There is a relationship between NDVI and LST.
(Does not say whether positive or negative)

5. Simple Hypothesis
Predicts a relationship between one independent variable and one dependent variable.
Example:
Increasing rainfall (IV) increases rice yield (DV).

6. Complex Hypothesis
Involves more than two variables—multiple independent or dependent variables.
Example:
Rainfall and soil fertility (IVs) together influence rice yield and grain quality (DVs).

7. Associative Hypothesis
States that variables change together but does not imply cause and effect.
Example:
Urban population and waste generation are positively associated.
(One increases as the other increases)

8. Causal (Cause–Effect) Hypothesis

States that one variable directly affects or causes a change in another.
Example:
Urbanization causes an increase in surface temperature.

9. Working Hypothesis
A temporary, initial explanation used at the early stage of research.
It may change as new data emerges.
Example:
The decline in groundwater may be due to excessive tube-well pumping.

10. Statistical Hypothesis

A hypothesis that can be tested using quantitative data and statistical methods.
Example:
H₀: Mean air pollution level in 2020 = Mean level in 2023.
(t-test or ANOVA can test this)

 Distinguish between Null and Alternative Hypo-thesis.

Basis Null Hypothesis (H₀) Alternative Hypothesis (H₁ / Hₐ)
Meaning States no relationship or no significant States a relationship or significant
difference exists between variables. difference exists.
Nature Conservative statement; assumes no effect. Opposes the null; assumes an effect
or difference.
Purpose To be tested and possibly rejected. Accepted when the null is rejected.
Direction Always non-directional. Can be directional or non-
directional.
Symbol H₀ H₁ or Hₐ
 Example H₀: There is no difference in temperature H₁: Urban areas have higher
between urban and rural areas. temperatures than rural areas.

 Research Process from Identification of the Problem to Formulating Hypothesis

The research process begins with recognizing a problem and proceeds through several logical steps until
a testable hypothesis is formulated. Each step builds a foundation for the next.

1. Identification of the Research Problem

This is the first and most crucial step. Here, the researcher identifies a real-world issue, gap, or
unanswered question that needs investigation.
Sources include: observation, literature review, social issues, expert opinion, past research, and practical
experience.
Example:
Increasing urban temperatures in a city.

2. Understanding the Nature and Scope of the Problem

Once the problem is identified, the researcher studies it in detail to understand:
• Its causes
• Its significance
• Its boundaries
• The variables involved
This helps in avoiding vague or overly broad problems.
Example:
Urban Heat Island (UHI) is increasing due to loss of vegetation and rapid construction.

3. Review of Related Literature (RRL)

A detailed survey of existing books, research articles, reports, and previous studies is done to understand:
• What is already known
• What methods were used
• What gaps still exist
• What theories or models apply
This step refines the research direction and supports future decisions.
Example:
Studies show NDVI (vegetation index) reduces LST (temperature), but recent data for the study area is
lacking.

4. Defining the Research Problem Clearly

After reviewing the literature, the researcher re-states the problem in a clear, specific, and researchable
form.
A well-defined problem guides the entire research.
Example:
“What is the relationship between vegetation loss and rising land surface temperature in City X?”

5. Setting the Aim and Objectives of the Study

The researcher now frames a broad aim (overall purpose) and specific objectives (steps to achieve the
aim).
Example:
Aim:
To study the impact of vegetation decline on urban land surface temperature.
Objectives:
• To map vegetation cover using NDVI.
• To analyze temperature variations using satellite LST.
• To examine the NDVI–LST relationship.

6. Conceptualizing Variables
 Before forming a hypothesis, the researcher identifies the main variables, such as:
• Independent variable (cause)
• Dependent variable (effect)
• Control variables
Example:
• Independent variable: NDVI (vegetation)
• Dependent variable: LST (temperature)

7. Formulating the Hypothesis

The final step is to propose a testable statement that predicts the relationship between variables.
A hypothesis must be logical, clear, and based on the literature review.
Example:
H₁ (Alternative Hypothesis):
Higher NDVI values significantly reduce land surface temperature in City X.
H₀ (Null Hypothesis):
NDVI has no significant effect on land surface temperature.

 Salient Characteristics of Hypothesis Testing (4 marks)

1. Scientific and Systematic Procedure
Hypothesis testing follows a logical sequence—formulating hypotheses, selecting a test, calculating
the statistic, and making a decision.
2. Based on Probability Theory
The decision to accept or reject a hypothesis depends on probability levels (significance levels such
as 0.05 or 0.01).
3. Tests the Null Hypothesis (H₀)
Hypothesis testing primarily evaluates whether the null hypothesis should be rejected in favour of the
alternative hypothesis.
4. Objective Decision-Making
Decisions are based on statistical evidence, not personal opinion; sample results are used to infer
conclusions about the population.
5. Requires a Representative Sample
The validity of hypothesis testing depends on using unbiased and adequate samples from the
population.
6. Uses Test Statistics
Appropriate statistical tests (t-test, chi-square, ANOVA, etc.) are selected depending on the type of
data and objectives.

 Two-tailed and One-tailed Test (3 marks)

Two-Tailed Test
• Tests the possibility of a relationship in both directions (greater or smaller).
• Used when the alternative hypothesis does not specify direction.
• Critical region is split at both ends of the distribution.
Example:
H₁: There is a difference in the average rainfall between Region A and Region B.
(Does not specify which region is higher)

One-Tailed Test
• Tests the relationship in only one direction (either greater or smaller).
• Used when the alternative hypothesis is directional.
• Entire critical region lies on one side.
Example:
H₁: Temperature in urban areas is higher than in rural areas.
(Direction is specified)

 Procedure of Testing Hypothesis Through Chi-square (χ²) Test (3 marks)

Use the chi-square test when comparing observed frequency (O) and expected frequency (E) in
categorical data.
Step 1: State Hypotheses
• H₀: No association or no significant difference between variables.
• H₁: There is an association or significant difference.

Step 2: Prepare the Contingency Table

Insert observed frequencies (O) into a table according to categories.

Step 3: Calculate Expected Frequencies (E)

Using:
(Row Total) × (Column Total)
𝐸=
Grand Total

Step 4: Compute Chi-square Statistic

2
(𝑂 − 𝐸)2
𝜒 =∑
𝐸

Step 5: Determine Degrees of Freedom

𝑑𝑓 = (𝑟 − 1)(𝑐 − 1)

Step 6: Compare Calculated χ² With Table Value

• If χ² calculated > χ² tabulated, reject H₀.
• If χ² calculated < χ² tabulated, accept H₀.

Step 7: Draw Conclusion

State whether there is a significant association/difference based on the comparison.