 What is sampling?

Sampling is the act, process or technique of selecting a suitable sample or representative part of a population
for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole population.
Sampling can be –
i. With replacement
ii. Without replacement

 Purpose / Importance of Sampling:

• Saves time: Data can be collected and analyzed much faster than studying the entire population.
• Reduces cost: Sampling lowers the financial resources needed for data collection.
• Makes research practical: Ideal for large or widely scattered populations.
• Improves accuracy: Smaller, well-managed samples reduce errors and allow for better supervision.
• Enables detailed study: Researchers can focus more on each participant, improving data quality.
• Supports generalization: Findings from a representative sample can be applied to the whole
population.
• Simplifies data analysis: Handling a smaller dataset makes interpretation easier and more
manageable.

 Sampling vs Population
Aspect Population Sample (Sampling)
Meaning The entire group of individuals or items that A smaller group selected from the
a researcher wants to study. population to represent it.
Size Usually large, sometimes impossible to Smaller and manageable.
study fully.
Data Involves collecting information from every Information is collected only from selected
Collection member (census). units.
Cost & Very expensive and time-consuming. Less expensive and faster.
Time
Accuracy High accuracy but higher chances of non- Can produce accurate results if the sample
sampling errors (e.g., measurement is well-selected; may have sampling errors.
mistakes).
Usefulness Suitable when population is small and Suitable when population is large or widely
resources are available. spread.
Purpose To know the characteristics of every To estimate or generalize characteristics of
member. the population.

 Sampling vs. Census

Factor Sampling Census
Budget Lower cost; suitable when funds are limited. Very expensive; requires large
financial resources.
Time Available Requires less time; ideal when time is Time-consuming; requires a long
limited. period to gather complete data.
Population Size Suitable for large populations. Suitable only for small and
manageable populations.
Variance in the If population has high variance, larger High population variance is fully
Characteristics samples are needed; may reduce precision. captured since entire population is
studied.
Cost of Sampling Sampling errors may occur; cost is low Sampling errors do not occur since
Errors because not everyone is studied. every member is included.
Cost of Non- Non-sampling errors (e.g., measurement or Higher chances of non-sampling
Sampling Errors data entry mistakes) may still occur but are errors due to handling large
easier to control. amounts of data.
Nature of Useful when measurements require Difficult when complex, expensive,
Measurement specialized equipment or detailed work that or time-intensive measurements are
cannot be done for everyone. required.
 Attention to Allows detailed attention to selected Hard to give detailed attention to
Individual Areas respondents or regions. individuals due to the large
workload.

 Reasons for Using a Sample Survey Instead of a Census

1. Economy: Sample surveys cost less than conducting a full census.
2. Timeliness: They take less time to collect and analyze data.
3. Large Population Size: Many populations are too large to study fully, making samples more
practical.
4. Accuracy: Smaller samples allow better supervision and reduce errors, often giving more reliable
results.

 Steps in Sampling Design (Broad Explanation)

1. Define the Population
The first step is to clearly identify the group of individuals or items that the researcher wants to
study. This includes specifying who is included and who is excluded. A well-defined population
ensures that the sample truly represents the target group.
2. Decide Whether to Take a Sample or a Census
The researcher must determine if data should be collected from every member of the population
(census) or only from a portion of it (sample). This decision depends on factors such as the size of
the population, available time, budget, and the purpose of the study.
3. Prepare a Sampling Frame
A sampling frame is a complete list of all units in the population from which the sample will be
selected. It may include names, numbers, locations, or any identifying information. A good sampling
frame ensures accurate and unbiased selection.
4. Decide Whether to Use Probability or Non-Probability Sampling
The researcher must choose between:
o Probability sampling, where every unit has a known chance of being selected, or
o Non-probability sampling, where selection depends on judgment, convenience, or other non-
random factors.
This choice depends on the research objectives, required accuracy, and available resources.
5. Select the Sampling Method
Once the type of sampling is decided, the specific method must be chosen. This could include simple
random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, convenience sampling, purposive sampling,
etc. The method selected should provide a representative and reliable sample.

 Steps in a sample survey in research work

Step Original Step Easy Explanation
No.
1 Objectives of the survey What you want to find out. (Your goal.)
2 Identify the Population Decide who you need to ask. (The total group of interest.)
3 Key parameters of the Know the main features or numbers of that group.
population
4 Sampling frame and sampling Get a list of the people you can pick from, and decide if you're
unit interviewing individuals or households.
5 Degree of precision sought, Decide how accurate the results need to be, and manage your
cost, and timing budget and time.
6 Sampling design and Choose how you will select a smaller group (sample) from the
implementation population, and then actually pick them.
7 Data to be collected; what is to Decide exactly what questions to ask and what information
be measured you need.
8 Data collection agents or Train the people who will collect the information (e.g.,
interviewers interviewers).
9 Methods of measurement Decide how you will get the answers (e.g., online survey,
phone call, in-person interview).
 10 Data collection operations Go out and collect the information from the sample group.
11 Analysis of data Review, check, and calculate the numbers to find the results.
12 Delivery of data, analysis, and Share the results and main conclusions with others.
reports

 Explain probability sampling

Probability sampling is a sampling technique in which every member of the population has a known,
non-zero, and usually equal chance of being selected. It relies on random selection, which helps produce a
sample that accurately represents the population.

Key Features of Probability Sampling

• Random selection: Units are chosen using random methods (e.g., random numbers, lotteries).
• Known probability: Each individual’s chance of being selected is known and measurable.
• Less bias: Since selection is random, researcher influence is minimized.
• Allows generalization: Results can be generalized from the sample to the population with statistical
confidence.
• Suitable for large populations: Works best when the population is large and diverse.

Types of Probability Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling
Every member has an equal chance of being selected. Example: lottery method.
2. Systematic Sampling
Selecting every kᵗʰ member from a list after a random start.
3. Stratified Sampling
The population is divided into subgroups (strata), and samples are taken from each stratum.
4. Cluster Sampling
The population is divided into groups (clusters), some clusters are randomly chosen, and all or some
units within them are studied.

Advantages
• Produces more accurate and representative results.
• Reduces selection bias.
• Suitable for statistical analysis and generalization.
Disadvantages
• More time-consuming and expensive than non-probability sampling.
• Requires a complete sampling frame.
• Complex to design for large or scattered populations.
1. Simple random sampling
In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Your
sampling frame should include the whole population.
To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or other techniques that
are based entirely on chance.
Example: Simple random samplingYou want to select a simple random sample of 1000 employees of a
social media marketing company. You assign a number to every employee in the company database from 1
to 1000, and use a random number generator to select 100 numbers.
2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to conduct. Every
member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals
are chosen at regular intervals.
Example: Systematic samplingAll employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From the first
10 numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on
the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100 people.
If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern in the list that might
skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups employees by team, and team members are listed
in order of seniority, there is a risk that your interval might skip over people in junior roles, resulting in a
sample that is skewed towards senior employees.
3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in important ways.
It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is properly represented in the
sample.
To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant
characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range, income bracket, job role).
Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people should be sampled from
each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.
Example: Stratified samplingThe company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees. You want to
ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort the population into two strata
based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each group, selecting 80 women and 20 men, which
gives you a representative sample of 100 people.
4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should have
similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you
randomly select entire subgroups.
If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster. If the clusters
themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each cluster using one of the techniques
above. This is called multistage sampling.
This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is more risk of error in the
sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled
clusters are really representative of the whole population.
Example: Cluster samplingThe company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly the
same number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to every office to collect
your data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your clusters.
Non-probability sampling methods
In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and not every individual
has a chance of being included.
This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling bias. That means the
inferences you can make about the population are weaker than with probability samples, and your
conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-probability sample, you should still aim to make it as
representative of the population as possible.
Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative research. In these types of
research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to develop an initial understanding
of a small or under-researched population.
1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the researcher.
This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the sample is
representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results. Convenience samples are at risk
for both sampling bias and selection bias.
Example: Convenience samplingYou are researching opinions about student support services in your
university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the topic. This
is a convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking the same classes as you at the
same level, the sample is not representative of all the students at your university.
2. Voluntary response sampling
Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of access. Instead of
the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by
responding to a public online survey).
Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people will inherently be more
likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-selection bias.
Example: Voluntary response samplingYou send out the survey to all students at your university and a lot of
students decide to complete it. This can certainly give you some insight into the topic, but the people who
responded are more likely to be those who have strong opinions about the student support services, so you
can’t be sure that their opinions are representative of all students.
3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using their expertise to
select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.
It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge about a
specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where the population is very small and
specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion. Always make
sure to describe your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware of observer bias affecting your arguments.

Example: Purposive samplingYou want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled
students at your university, so you purposefully select a number of students with different support needs in
order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student services.
4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via other
participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with more people.
The downside here is also representativeness, as you have no way of knowing how representative your
sample is due to the reliance on participants recruiting others. This can lead to sampling bias.
Example: Snowball samplingYou are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since there is
no list of all homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person who
agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact with other homeless people that she knows
in the area.
5. Quota sampling
Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number or proportion of units. This is
called a quota.
You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called strata) and then recruit sample
units until you reach your quota. These units share specific characteristics, determined by you prior to
forming your strata. The aim of quota sampling is to control what or who makes up your sample.

Example: Quota samplingYou want to gauge consumer interest in a new produce delivery service in
Boston, focused on dietary preferences. You divide the population into meat eaters, vegetarians, and vegans,
drawing a sample of 1000 people. Since the company wants to cater to all consumers, you set a quota of 200
people for each dietary group. In this way, all dietary preferences are equally represented in your research,
and you can easily compare these [Link] continue recruiting until you reach the quota of 200
participants for each subgroup.

1. Probability sampling
(used when you want statistically valid inferences)
A. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)
Definition: Every unit has an equal chance of being chosen.
How: Use a random number table or computer RNG on a sampling frame.
Example: From a university list of 2,000 students choose 200 by random number generator.
Pro: Unbiased and easy to analyze. Con: Needs a complete sampling frame.
B. Systematic Sampling
Definition: Select every _k_th unit after a random start.
How: k = population size / sample size; pick a random start between 1 and k.
Example: In a file of 1,000 records pick every 10th record (k=10) after a random start.
Pro: Simple and spread evenly. Con: Periodicity in frame can bias results.
C. Stratified Sampling
Definition: Divide population into homogeneous strata, then sample from each stratum (proportionally or
equally).
How: Create strata (e.g., gender, grade), then apply SRS within each.
Example: For 1,000 voters (600 urban, 400 rural) take 60 from urban and 40 from rural.
Pro: More precise estimates for subgroup comparisons. Con: Requires stratification variables.
D. Cluster Sampling
Definition: Divide population into clusters (usually naturally occurring), randomly select clusters, then
survey all or a sample inside chosen clusters.
How: Stage 1: choose clusters; Stage 2: sample units within clusters (one- or two-stage).
Example: Randomly select 10 schools (clusters) and survey all students in those schools.
Pro: Cost-effective for large geographically spread populations. Con: Higher sampling error if clusters are
similar.
E. Multi-stage Sampling
Definition: Combine methods in stages (e.g., cluster then SRS within clusters).
Example: Choose districts (cluster), then schools (cluster), then students (SRS).
Pro: Flexible and practical for large surveys. Con: Complex design and analysis.

2. Non-probability sampling
(used for exploratory research, qualitative studies or when a sampling frame is unavailable)
A. Convenience Sampling
Definition: Select whoever is easiest to reach.
Example: Survey students in the library because they are available.
Pro: Quick and cheap. Con: High bias; not generalizable.
B. Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling
Definition: Researcher selects units based on purpose/knowledge.
Example: Interviewing only department heads to study management issues.
Pro: Good for expert or targeted insights. Con: Subjective selection.
C. Quota Sampling
Definition: Select sample to meet quotas for certain characteristics (like strata) but without random
selection.
Example: Interview 50 males and 50 females—even if chosen conveniently.
Pro: Ensures subgroup representation. Con: Selection bias within quotas.
D. Snowball Sampling
Definition: Existing participants recruit future participants (useful for hidden populations).
Example: Ask drug-rehab clients to refer other clients for interviews.
Pro: Works for hard-to-reach groups. Con: Network bias; not representative.
E. Expert Sampling
Definition: Choose experts in a field for detailed information.
Example: Survey climate scientists for technical assessments.
Pro: High-quality specialized data. Con: Not generalizable.