POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN GUIDANCE AND

COUNSELLING (Session 2023-2024)

PROJECT FILE

SUBMITTED BY: Sanaa Batra

ROLE NO.: DO23DGC-1733

ENROLLMENT NO: 23-57761

SUPERVISOR: Mrs. Shalini Khanna Shah, Prudence School

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is a matter of pleasure to acknowledge the indebtedness to my teachers of

JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA for their great co-operation in the completion of this project of
PGDGC (POST GRADUATION DIPLOMA IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING), I
express my thanks and gratitude to them. They helped me and provided their valuable
guidance at each and every step.

I also thank to my Supervisor Ms. Shalini Khanna Shah from Prudence School and Co-
ordinator Dr Dayal Sandhu of Centre for Distance and Online Education, JMI for her deep
interest, valuable guidance, encouragement and the facilities provided to me during the course
of my project.

2
 DECLARATION

I, Sanaa Batra, Roll No. DO23DGC-1733, hereby declare that this activity file is a
beneficial work carried out by me under the guidance and supervision of Ms Shalini Khanna
Shah.

This activity file is submitted for the award of POST GRADUATION DIPLOMA IN
GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING to JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA UNIVERSITY.

The results embodied in this activity file have not been submitted to any other
University/Institute for the award of any Diploma or Degree.

(Sanaa Batra)

Date: 12/08/24

3
 SUPERVISOR CERTIFICATE

I hereby certify that the project report submitted for the partial fulfilment of degree in Post
Graduation Diploma in Guidance and Counselling is an original project work conceived
• by
Ms. Sanaa Batra, under my supervision.

4
mPRUDENCE.
--SC HOO L--
Educate•1 nnovate•c reate

TO WHOM SO EVER IT MAY CONCERN

This is to certify that Ms. Sanaa Batra bearing Roll No. DO23DGC1733 and Enrollment
No. 23-57761 of PGDGC (Session 2023-2024) from Jamia Milia Islamia has done few
activities during internship period for submission of the Project, from 18.07.2024 to

.
31.07.2024 under the .
aegis of this school.

She also participated in the following school activities:

Activity l: Planning/Preparing Guidance Programme for School

Activity 2: Psychological Assessment I-Intelligence/Learning Disability

Activity 3: Group Discussion/Career Talk

Activity 4: Individual Counseling/Role, Play

Activity 5: bepression Rating Scale/Adjustment Inventory

Her participation in school activities is satisfactory and appreciable.

We wish her success in her future endeavours.

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• ~~-j 4 '\
. :,\ :\ "'

www. prudenccschool [Link]

5
 INDEX

[Link]. Activity Name of the Activity Page No.

Planning and Preparation of

1. Activity 1 Guidance Programme for School 7-17

Psychological Assessment I:
2. Activity 2 Intelligence (CFIT) 18-28

3. Activity 3 Group Discussion/Career Talk 29-37

4. Activity 4 Individual Counselling 38-45

5. Activity 5 Depression Rating Scale 46-59

(Beck’s Depression Inventory II)

6. Conclusion & References 60

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 ACTIVITY 1
PLANNING AND PREPARATION OF GUIDANCE PROGRAMME FOR SCHOOL

About the School: Prudence School, Ashok Vihar

Prudence School Ashok Vihar is one of the leading institution in North West Delhi, dedicated
to providing quality education and fostering holistic development in students. With a state of
the art infrastructure and a sprawling campus in the midst of the city, Prudence School, Ashok
Vihar has a rich legacy of educational excellence. The school strives to create an environment
where every student can thrive, learn, and grow into confident and responsible individuals.

Under the spirited and distinguished guidance of its Chairman, Dr. G. S. Matharoo and Vice
Chairperson, Dr. Shalu Matharoo, Prudence School Ashok Vihar offers a comprehensive
curriculum that is designed to meet the highest academic standards. Its experienced and
dedicated faculty members are committed to nurturing the intellectual curiosity and critical
thinking skills of students through innovative teaching methods, advanced learning resources,
and a strong focus on individualized attention.

The Ashok Vihar campus provides a wide range of co-curricular activities, sports, and cultural
programs that foster creativity, teamwork, and leadership skills. Our students have been
winning laurels in State and Zonal Level Competitions conducted by CBSE. The state-of-the-

7
art facilities, well-equipped laboratories, library, and sports facilities, provide ample
opportunities for students to explore their interests and talents.

Further, the Ashok Vihar Campus is equipped with modern technology infrastructure to provide
a seamless integration of technology into the learning process. We are proud to be a part of the
Prudence School family. Come and join us in our mission of creating a vibrant learning
community where every student can thrive and achieve their dreams.

School Philosophy

The school's philosophy is centred around the tenets of Educate, Innovate, and Create.
Prudence believes that education is a transformative process that empowers individuals to
realise their greatest potential so as to enable them to make positive contributions to the society.
By fostering an environment that encourages innovation and creativity, the school aims to equip
our students with the necessary skills, knowledge, and mindset to thrive in a rapidly changing
world.

Educate: At Prudence, the believe is in holistic education, nurturing intellectual, emotional,

physical, and social development. Educators inspire curiosity and critical thinking, fostering a
growth mind-set. With personalized instruction and a diverse curriculum, they empower
students with knowledge and real-world application skills.

Innovate: Innovation is at the heart of the educational philosophy. They inspire creative
thinking, challenge norms, and promote problem-solving. The curriculum integrates
technology and interdisciplinary learning, nurturing inventive minds ready to tackle 21st-
century challenges.

Create: The school strongly believes that creativity is the most paramount of the 21st century
skills. They foster diverse creative expressions in art, music, drama, and writing, promoting
self-expression and imagination. The inclusive environment values unique talents and
perspectives, building confidence and effective communication. They instill lifelong learning,
innovation, and creativity, preparing students for a changing world and empathetic
contributions to society.

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Chairman’s Message

Dr. G.S. MATHAROO

Chairman, Prudence Schools
Dr. G.S. Matharoo, Chairman, Prudence Group of Schools has a great passion for providing
the right education system especially for the school going students. There was a deep sense of
disquiet about several aspects of our educational system, particularly the school system, which
he sincerely wished to set it right. His ardent desire drove him to voluntarily retire from his
successful career in the Indian Civil Service when it was at its peak, and take upon himself the
responsibility to set up schools on the lines of his principles and beliefs. He was so enamoured
with the inclination to serve the nation with his contribution towards facilitating a good
education system, that nothing could thwart him from starting a new chain of school by the
name of Prudence. With his unparalleled commitment to the cause of education and a dream
for a truly educated and self-sufficient nation, he started reforming and practising in his
schools, those essential areas that needed urgent attention. He has been pioneering far reaching
transformation in the field of School Education through his dynamic and visionary leadership.

Dr Matharoo’s ways are very refreshing as he relates from real life situations sharing instances
from his own life and leading by examples. He dwells on the overall development of the
students and emphasizes on personalized attention to be given to each student. He inspires his
school heads and team members to focus on the present grooming and nurturing of the students
so that their future is taken care of. For more than a decade now, he has successfully delivered
amongst others- attainment based learning; personal learning plans; performance-based
learning; advanced technologies as tools; and teachers as facilitators.

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Introduction to Guidance

Guidance covers the whole process of education which starts from the birth of the child. As the
individuals need help throughout their lives, it is not wrong to say that guidance is needed from
cradle to grave. If we consider the literal meaning, to guide means to indicate, to point out, to
show the way. It means more than to assist.

If an individual slips on the road we assist him/her to get up but we do not guide him unless
we help him/her to go in a certain direction. The term guidance is related to all types of
education – formal, non-formal, vocational, etc. wherein the aim is to help the individual to
adjust to his/her environment in an affective way. It can also be said that guidance is given to
individuals in making appropriate choices and adjustments.

Need for Guidance

During the earlier days, when the society was less complex, if any family member or anyone
in the local community faced any kind of problems, there was always a head of the family or
community leader to guide, though such a guidance was an off hand advice, without a deep
and thorough understanding of the problem.

Or, it used to be the domain of the teachers and the parents to guide their children without the
assistance of any professional training, which many a times resulted in misleading rather than
helping them out. But now it is no longer possible because of various changes in the society
and the individual needs assistance of professionally trained persons.

According to Mathewson (1954), educational personnel work is a professional process which

provides assistance to individuals in four areas:
(1) appraisal and understanding of the self
(2) adjustment of the self to personal-social realities
(3) orientation to current and future conditions
(4) development of individual potentialities.
It may, therefore, be said that guidance is needed for the following reasons:

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1. Growing awareness towards education: Due to increase in population and limited job
opportunities there is an increase in educated unemployed. By providing proper guidance
the educated unemployed youth can be helped to identify work situation suited to their
potentialities.

2. Schools facing serious problems at the primary, middle and higher levels: Guidance
services can help the educational authorities by developing curriculum according to the
needs and abilities of the students.

3. Increased number of conflicts: Due to changes in society, there are increased number of
conflicts within the family, and adolescents are passing through stressful situations which
result in growing frustrations. Problems of discipline and delinquency also arise during this
stage.

4. Increased demands: As the life pattern is changing fast and becoming complex, there are
increased demands of society on parents, which has reduced the personal contact between
the parents and children. Such developments have resulted in problems of maladjusted
children that are becoming very common.

5. Different Job opportunities: Earlier, there was not much consciousness as well as
awareness about various job opportunities. A farmer’s son would opt for a farming
occupation and a lawyer’s son for the law profession, irrespective of their aptitude/interest
for that profession. Through guidance, students can be helped to select courses according
to their abilities, interests and aptitudes.

6. Selecting the right path: With the values changing and religious and moral exploitations
by people with vested interests on therise, need for guidance for students has become
necessary to enable them to select a right path so that they develop independent
understanding of religion and morality, rather than being misled by others.

Guidance Programme for the School: Inclusive Education Club: Enhancing School
Inclusivity and Support

An Inclusive Education Club for schools, particularly focused on learning disabilities, is a

specialized group dedicated to promoting inclusivity, understanding, and support for students
with learning disabilities. This club operates under the fundamental principle that all students,

11
regardless of their abilities or disabilities, have the right to receive education in a supportive
and accommodating environment. Inclusive education is more than just integrating students
with learning disabilities into regular classrooms; it is about creating a holistic environment
that supports the unique needs of each student and ensures their academic, social, and
emotional well-being.

The concept of inclusive education is rooted in the belief that diversity enriches the learning
experience for all students. When students with learning disabilities are included in mainstream
classrooms, it not only benefits them but also fosters a culture of empathy, respect, and mutual
understanding among their peers. This environment encourages students to appreciate
differences and understand the challenges that others might face, thereby promoting a more
inclusive and compassionate school community.

The Inclusive Education Club serves as a crucial platform within schools to address the specific
needs of students with learning disabilities. One of its primary roles is to raise awareness about
learning disabilities among students, teachers, and parents. Many people still hold
misconceptions about learning disabilities, viewing them as indicators of lower intelligence or
laziness. The club works to dispel these myths by providing accurate information about the
nature of learning disabilities, how they affect students, and the strategies that can help these
students succeed. Awareness campaigns, informational sessions, and workshops are organized
to educate the school community and foster a more understanding and supportive atmosphere.

The creation of an Inclusive Education Club as part of the school's guidance program is a
forward-thinking initiative designed to foster an environment of inclusivity, support, and
awareness. This club aims to transform the school culture into one that embraces diversity and
provides equal opportunities for all students, particularly those with disabilities.

Activities to be undertaken by the Inclusive Club

Under the guidance of the Counsellor and the teachers, we have planned a diverse range of
activities for the 2024-2025 academic year to be undertaken by the Inclusive Club, designed to
promote inclusivity, raise awareness about learning disabilities, and foster a supportive
environment for all students. Each month, the club will undertake specific activities aimed at

12
 engaging students, teachers, and the broader school community in meaningful and educational
experiences.

i. July
• Workshop for Teachers and Staff on Disability: Kicking off the year, the Inclusive
Education Club will organize a workshop for teachers and other staff members. A resource
person with expertise in disability and inclusive education will lead the session. This
workshop aims to equip educators with the knowledge and skills needed to support students
with learning disabilities effectively. Topics will include understanding different types of
disabilities, implementing inclusive teaching strategies, and creating a supportive
classroom environment.
• Vanmahotsav Celebration: Vanmahotsav, or the Festival of Trees, will be celebrated to
promote environmental awareness and the importance of trees. The Inclusive Club will
involve all students, including those with learning disabilities, in tree-planting activities.
This event not only fosters a sense of environmental stewardship but also encourages
teamwork and collaboration among students.
• Good and Bad Touches Awareness: To ensure the safety and well-being of all students,
the club will organize an awareness session on recognizing and understanding good and
bad touches. This activity is crucial for educating students about personal boundaries and
safety, helping to create a secure school environment where all students feel protected and
respected.

ii. August
• International Youth Day: On International Youth Day, the Inclusive Education Club will
host a series of events celebrating the contributions and potential of young people.
Activities will include motivational talks, interactive workshops, and exhibitions
showcasing the talents of students with and without disabilities. This day will emphasize
the importance of inclusivity and the role of youth in shaping a better future.
• Cultural and Recreational Activities: August will also feature a variety of cultural and
recreational activities such as dance, music, gardening, fireless cooking, and a fashion
show. These activities provide an opportunity for students with learning disabilities to
showcase their talents and engage with their peers in a fun and supportive environment. By

13
 participating in these events, students develop confidence, creativity, and a sense of
belonging.

iii. September
• Visit to Renowned NGO: Active club members will visit a renowned or nearby NGO that
works with individuals with disabilities. This visit aims to provide students with insights
into the work being done to support people with disabilities and inspire them to contribute
to similar causes. It also offers an opportunity for students to learn from real-life examples
and understand the broader context of disability advocacy.
• Assembly for CWSN on Hindi Diwas / International Day of Peace: To celebrate Hindi
Diwas and the International Day of Peace, the club will organize a special assembly focused
on Children With Special Needs (CWSN). The assembly will include performances,
speeches, and activities highlighting the importance of linguistic diversity and peace. This
event will promote inclusivity and encourage students to appreciate and respect differences.

iv. October
• World Dyslexia Awareness Day: In recognition of World Dyslexia Awareness Day, the
Inclusive Education Club will conduct activities to raise awareness about dyslexia and other
learning disabilities. The event will include informative sessions, interactive activities, and
testimonials from students with dyslexia, providing valuable insights into their experiences
and challenges.
• Quiz Competition: A quiz competition will be held to engage students in a fun and
educational activity. The quiz will cover topics related to inclusivity, learning disabilities,
and general knowledge. This activity encourages teamwork, critical thinking, and a deeper
understanding of disability-related issues among students.
• National Unity Day: On National Unity Day, the club will organize events to promote
unity and inclusivity within the school community. Activities may include group
discussions, collaborative projects, and cultural performances that celebrate the diversity
and unity of the school. This day serves to strengthen the sense of community and foster a
spirit of togetherness.

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v. November
• Special Awareness Drive on Para Sport Athletes and Achievements of PWD: In
November, the club will launch a special awareness drive focusing on the achievements of
para sport athletes and individuals with disabilities in various fields. Activities will include
poster making, essay writing, and talks during morning assemblies. This drive aims to
highlight the remarkable accomplishments of people with disabilities, inspiring students
and promoting a culture of inclusivity and respect.
• Children's Day: Children's Day will be celebrated with a range of fun and engaging
activities designed to bring joy and happiness to all students. The Inclusive Education Club
will ensure that all activities are accessible and inclusive, allowing every student to
participate and enjoy the celebrations. This day will reinforce the importance of celebrating
childhood and recognizing the potential of every child.

vi. December
• Inclusive Sports Activities: To promote physical activity and inclusivity, the club will
organize inclusive sports activities at the school level. These activities will be designed to
accommodate students of all abilities, ensuring that everyone can participate and have fun.
Inclusive sports foster teamwork, physical fitness, and a sense of accomplishment among
students.
• Wall Magazine Competition: A wall magazine competition will be held to encourage
creativity and self-expression among students. Each class will create a wall magazine on
themes related to inclusivity, learning disabilities, or any other relevant topic. This
competition allows students to collaborate, showcase their talents, and spread awareness
about important issues within the school community.
• Christmas Day Celebration: The Inclusive Education Club will conclude the year with a
festive Christmas Day celebration. Activities will include decorating the school, organizing
a Christmas fair, and holding performances such as carol singing and skits. The celebration
will be inclusive, ensuring that all students can participate and enjoy the festivities. This
event promotes a sense of joy, togetherness, and community spirit.

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Discussion

The primary objectives of the Inclusive Education Club are multifaceted. Firstly, the club aims
to promote awareness by educating the entire school community about the rights, needs, and
capabilities of students with disabilities. This involves disseminating information that
challenges misconceptions and highlights the contributions of these students. Secondly, the
club seeks to foster inclusivity by creating an environment where every student feels welcomed
and valued, irrespective of their abilities. This is achieved by implementing policies and
practices that support an inclusive ethos. Thirdly, the club is dedicated to providing support
through resources and assistance to students with disabilities, their families, and educators,
ensuring they have the tools needed for success. Fourthly, the club aims to encourage
participation by ensuring that all students have the opportunity to engage in school activities,
events, and programs, thereby promoting a sense of belonging. Finally, the club strives to
enhance empathy among students by developing their understanding and encouraging peer
support and collaboration.

The establishment of the Inclusive Education Club promises numerous benefits. It will improve
the school climate by creating a more inclusive, respectful, and supportive environment, which
is beneficial for all students. Additionally, the club will support student success by enhancing
the academic and social achievements of students with disabilities through tailored support and
resources. Another significant benefit is the increase in awareness of disability issues, which
will help reduce stigma and promote acceptance within the school community. Moreover, the
club will help strengthen the community by building a more united school environment that
values diversity and inclusion. Furthermore, the club will develop leadership by providing
opportunities for students to take active roles in promoting and supporting inclusivity, thereby
fostering a new generation of leaders who are empathetic and socially conscious.

The Inclusive Education Club will undertake several key responsibilities. It will organize
workshops and training sessions for students, teachers, and parents on inclusive education and
disability awareness, ensuring everyone is well-informed and equipped to support inclusivity.
The club will also create peer support programs to establish mentoring and support systems
that help students with disabilities integrate and thrive in the school environment. Additionally,
the club will launch awareness campaigns to educate the school community about inclusivity
and the challenges faced by students with disabilities. To enhance its impact, the club will seek

16
collaborations with local organizations and experts in inclusive education. Finally, the club will
plan and execute inclusive events, such as sports days, cultural festivals, and educational fairs,
that are accessible and enjoyable for all students.

The Inclusive Education Club will have a structured organizational framework to ensure its
effective functioning. At the helm will be a Coordinator, a dedicated teacher responsible for
overseeing the club's activities and ensuring compliance with school policies and the Right of
Persons with Disability Act. The club will also comprise Student Members, a diverse group of
students representing different grades and abilities who are passionate about promoting
inclusivity. Additionally, there will be an Advisory Committee made up of school staff, parents,
and external experts to provide guidance, support, and oversight.
Expected Outcomes

The establishment of the Inclusive Education Club is expected to yield several positive
outcomes. It will enhance inclusivity by creating a more supportive school environment for all
students. The club will also positively impact the academic and social experiences of students
with disabilities, helping them to succeed and feel valued. By increasing awareness and
understanding of disability-related issues, the club will promote greater acceptance within the
school community. Furthermore, the club will develop a culture of empathy, respect, and
mutual support among students, fostering a more harmonious school environment. Lastly, the
club will strengthen the sense of community and belonging, making the school a more cohesive
and supportive place for everyone.

In summary, the Inclusive Education Club is a vital addition to the school's guidance program,
aimed at fostering a culture of inclusivity, support, and awareness. Its comprehensive approach
will not only benefit students with disabilities but will also enrich the entire school community
by promoting diversity, empathy, and mutual respect.

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 ACTIVITY 2

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT I-INTELLIGENCE

Understanding Intelligence

While intelligence is one of the most important subjects in psychology, there is no standard
definition of what exactly constitutes intelligence. At various points throughout the history,
researchers have proposed some different definitions of Intelligence.

Alfred Binet defined, “Intelligence is the ability to judge well, understand well and reason
well.”

Sternberg defined, “Intelligence is the ability to adapt, to shape and to select environment to
accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture.”

Thus, it can be said that Intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge, to think and reason
effectively, and to deal adaptively with the environment. In matters of definition, different
psychologists present different definitions. Nevertheless, some definitions are clearly more
concise, precise and general than others.

The modern intelligence-testing movement began at the turn of the 20th century, when the
French psychologist Alfred Binet was commissioned by France’s Ministry of Public Education
to develop the test that was to become the forerunner of all modern intelligence tests. In 1904,
when psychology was just emerging as an independent field, members of the Paris school board
approached Alfred Binet with an interesting request: Could he develop an objective method for
identifying the children who, in the language of that era, were described as being mentally
retarded, so that they could be given special education? Binet was already at work on related
topics, so he agreed, enlisting the aid of his colleague, Theodore Simon.

Intelligence: Interplay of Nature and Nurture

Human intelligence is clearly the result of the complex interplay between genetic factors and a
wide range of environmental conditions.

Evidence for the role of genetic factors in intelligence has been provided by research on
identical twins separated as infants who were then raised in different homes (e.g., Bouchard et
al., 1990). Because such persons have identical genetic inheritance but have been exposed to

18
different environmental conditions—in some cases, sharply contrasting conditions—studying
their IQs provides a powerful means for comparing the roles of genetic and environmental
factors in human intelligence.

Other findings point to the conclusion that environmental variables, too, are important. One
such finding is that performance on IQ tests has risen substantially around the world at all age
levels in recent decades. It seems unlikely that massive shifts in human heredity occur from
one generation to the next. A more reasonable explanation, therefore, focuses on changes in
environmental factors. Additional evidence provided by the findings of studies of
environmental deprivation and environmental enrichment. With respect to deprivation, some
findings suggest that intelligence can be reduced by the absence of key forms of environmental
stimulation early in life (Gottfried, 1984). In terms of enrichment, removing children from
sterile, restricted environments and placing them in more favourable settings seems to enhance
their intellectual growth.

In sum, therefore, many forms of evidence support the view that intelligence is determined, at
least in part, by environmental factors. Especially when these are extreme, they may slow—or
accelerate—children’s intellectual growth; and this effect, in turn, can have important
implications for the societies in which those children will become adults.

Hence, it can be said that Intelligence is a result of a complex interplay of nature (genetics) and
nurture (environment).

Theories of Intelligence

One Factor Theory: Alfred Binet’s theory of intelligence was rather simple as it arose from
his interest in differentiating more intelligent from less intelligent individuals. He, therefore,
conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which can be used for
solving any or every problem in an individual’s environment. His theory of intelligence is
called Uni or One Factor Theory of Intelligence. This theory came to be disputed when
psychologists started analysing data of individuals, which was collected using Binet’s test.

Two Factor Theory: Charles Spearman (1904) saw intelligence as two different abilities. The
ability to reason and solve problems was labelled ‘g factor’ for General intelligence, whereas
task-specific abilities in certain areas such as music, business, or art are labelled ‘s factor’ for

19
Specific intelligence. A traditional IQ test would most likely measure g factor, but Spearman
believed that superiority in one type of intelligence predicts superiority overall.

Cattell’s Theory of Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence: Cattell (1963) concluded that two
major clusters of mental abilities exist: what he termed Fluid and Crystallized intelligence.
Fluid Intelligence refers to the largely inherited abilities to think and reason—in a sense, the
hardware of brains that determines the limits of information-processing capabilities. In
contrast, Crystallized Intelligence refers to accumulated knowledge—information people store
over a lifetime of experience, plus the application of skills and knowledge to solving specific
problems. In a sense, then, crystallized intelligence is the outcome of experience acting on the
fluid intelligence.

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences: One of the later theorists to propose the
existence of several kinds of intelligence is Howard Gardner. Although many people use the
terms reason, logic, and knowledge as if they are the same ability, Gardner believes that they
are different aspects of intelligence, along with several other abilities. He originally listed seven
different kinds of Intelligence but later added an eighth type and then a ninth (Gardner, 1998).

PASS Model of Intelligence: Arguments against a general factor of intelligence arise both
from logical considerations and from clinical observations. A general ability view leads to
different questions and measures of ability than a view that intelligence is made up of multiple
and interdependent cognitive processes. Addressing these concerns, Das, Naglieri, and Kirby
(1994) proposed the Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive (PASS) theory which
refers to four kinds of competence. According to this model, intellectual activity involves the
interdependent functioning of three neurological systems, called the functional units of brain.
These units are responsible for arousal/attention, coding or processing, and planning
respectively.

Culture and Intelligence

A major characteristic of Intelligence is that it helps individuals to adapt to their environment.

The cultural environment provides a context for intelligence to develop. Many theorists have
regarded intelligence as attributes specific to the person without regard to their cultural
background. Vygotsky has argued that culture provides a social context in which people live,
grow, and understand the world around them. For example, in less technologically developed
societies, social and emotional skills in relating to people are valued, while in technologically

20
advanced societies, personal achievement founded on abilities of reasoning and judgment is
considered to represent intelligence. A person’s intelligence is likely to be tuned by these
cultural parameters. The unique features of culture now find some representation in theories of
intelligence.

Culture Fair Tests

The problem with trying to measure intelligence with a test that is based on an understanding
of the world and its resources is that not everyone comes from the same “world.” People raised
in a different culture, or even a different economic situation, from the one in which the designer
of an IQ test is raised are not likely to perform well on such a test.

Attempts have been made to create intelligence tests that are as free of cultural influences as is
humanly possible. Many test designers have come to the conclusion that it may be impossible
to create a test that is completely free of cultural bias. Instead, they are striving to create tests
that are at least culturally fair. These tests use questions that do not create a disadvantage for
people whose culture differs from that of the majority. Many items on a “culture-fair” test
require the use of nonverbal abilities, such as rotating objects, rather than items about verbal
knowledge that might be culturally specific.

Assessment of Intelligence

The measurement of intelligence by some kind of test is a concept that is less than a century
old.

Stanford Bennet Intelligence Test: Lewis Terman (1916), a researcher at Stanford University,
adopted German psychologist William Stern’s method of intelligence quotient, or IQ for use
with the translated and revised Binet test. Intelligence quotient (IQ) refers to a number
representing a measure of intelligence, resulting from the division of mental age by
chronological age and then multiplying that quotient by 100.

Wechsler’s Intelligence Test: David Wechsler was the first to devise a series of tests designed
for specific age groups. Originally dissatisfied with the fact that the Stanford-Binet was
designed for children but being administered to adults, he developed an IQ test specifically for
adults. He later designed tests specifically for older school-age children and preschool children,
as well as those in the early grades. In earlier editions, another way these tests differed from

21
the Stanford-Binet was by having both a verbal and performance (non- verbal) scale, as well
as providing an overall score of intelligence.

Cattell’s Culture Fair Intelligence Test: The Culture Free Intelligence Test was developed
by Raymond Cattell as a response to the culturally biased intelligence tests at the time. The test
aids in the identification of learning problems and helps in making more reliable and informed
decisions in relation to the special education needs of children. Other uses include selecting
students for accelerate educational programs, advising students as to probable success in
college, and increasing effectiveness of vocational guidance decisions, for both students and
adults.

History and Description of CFIT

Cattell in late 1920’s attempted to measure intelligence by precise scientific research on work
of spearman and other theorists. In 1930, this work resulted in publication of Cattell group and
individual intelligence test. 5 years later, the test was revised into a non-verbal form to diminish
the unwanted and unnecessary effects of socio-cultural influences. In 1940, another version of
test appeared. At this stage, items had become completely perceptual and were organized into
six subtests. Of the 159 items analyzed, 72 of satisfactory validity and reliability were retained
for the published edition. In 1949, the culture fair scales underwent another revision and
adopted the format which has been retained. It consisted of 4 subtests at each of two difficulty
levels. In 1961, another revision come out.

Format of the Test

There are three scales in culture- fair series.

Scale 1: was designed for children between age range 4-8 or with mentally handicapped
individuals. It differs in format from other tests in the series as it is not wholly group
administrable and in requiring examinee to understand and respond to verbal instructions.

Scale 2 and scale 3: are wholly group administerable. In special conditions can be administered
individually. It allows Brief rest period between forms to reduce fatigue and aid test-taking
morale. The item content and time required to administer the form are depicted below in the
table:

22
S. No. Types of Subtests No. Of Items Time Allotted

Test 1 Series 13 3 minutes

Test 2 Classification 14 4 minutes

Test 3 Matrices 13 3 minutes

Test 4 Conditions 10 2 ½ minutes

Table 1: Representing items and time allotted to each subject in scale 3

Description of Subtests:

Scale 2 and scale 3 consists of four subtests.

– In progressive series subtest: the individual is presented with an incomplete progressive

series. The task is to select from among the choices provided, the answer which best
continuous the series.

– The classification subtests: it is slightly different in scale 2 and scale 3. in scale 2, the
individual is presented with five figures and he must select one which is different from the
other four. In scale 3, the individual is presented with 5 figures and he must correctly
identify two figures which are in some way different from other three.

– In matrices subtest: the task is to correctly complete the design or matrix presented at left
of each row.

– The conditions or typology subtests requires the individual to select from the five choices
provided, the one which duplicates the conditions given in the left box.

Before each subtest, examples are given so that the task requirements are clear to the examinee.

Material Required

CFIT manual, test booklet, response sheet, scoring key, norm tables, stationary.

23
Demographic Details of Student 1

Name: CB

Age: 16

Gender: Female

Time: 11 am

Grade Level: Class 11

Demographic Details of Student 2

Name: AS

Age: 16

Time: 12:30 p.m.

Gender: Male

Grade Level: Class 11

Precautions

Following precautions were taken before and during the conduction of the experiment -

• Free from noise and other interference.

• Proper illuminations in lab.

• Clearly Read out instructions.

• All the examples should be clearly explained.

• The subject should strictly adhere to time limit as in the manual.

• Arrange material beforehand.

• Scoring key should be used properly.

24
• No marks should be made on test booklet.

Reliability

Reliability indicates that a test is consistent. Since no single index of consistency is likely to
satisfy all possible uses of which the test will be put, three separate methods of evaluation are
given. The first method evaluates consistency across two parts of each test. The second
measures consistency in item content. The third method evaluates consistency in test scores
over time. All coefficients are quite respectably high and have been evaluated across large and
widely diverse samples. The difference in level of the reliability between the short form and
full test (Form A+ form B) are sufficiently high. Sachaie (1967) found a test-retest
dependability coefficient of .80 ( on a preliminary sample of 57) for total test scores and for
subtests ranged between .57-.71. Further, Knapp (1960) has reported even-odd spilt half
coefficients between .90-.92 on American and Mexican samples.

Validity

There are two approaches to validation. The first evaluates how well the test measures the
variable that it is designed to measure. The second shows the average correlation of the culture
fair scale with other measures of general intelligence. Domino (1964) reported a correlation of
.56 (p<.01) with the non-language form of the califoria test of mental maturity, .64 (p<.01) with
SAT mathematics score , and .55 (p<.01)with gottschaldt figures test.

Norms

Coefficient was taken in Britain, Pakistan Mexico and Germany. The coefficients are based
upon representative sample taken from American population. A sample of 202 high school
students were taken when a measure of intellectual abilities was used for production, decision
or guidance.

Scoring

Once the test was completed by the subject, raw scores were calculated for each

subtest with help of stencil.

25
 Scores of Student 1

Total raw score 25

Standard Score (as per Table 5 of the 96

manual)

Percentile Rank (as per Table 7 of the 40

manual)

Scores of Student 2

Total raw score 26

Standard Score (as per Table 5 of the 98

manual)

Percentile Rank (as per Table 7 of the 45

manual)

Interpretation and Discussion

The American Psychological Association defines Intelligence as “the ability to derive

information, learn from experience, adapt to the environment, understand, and correctly utilize
thought and reason.” Defining and classifying Intelligence is extremely complicated.

Raymond Cattell (1963) first proposed the concepts of Fluid and Crystallized and further
developed the theory with John Horn. Fluid intelligence is the ability to solve problems in novel
situations without referencing prior knowledge, but rather through the use of logic and abstract
thinking. Fluid intelligence can be applied to any novel problem because no specific prior

26
knowledge is required. Crystallized intelligence refers to the use of previously-acquired
knowledge, such as specific facts learned in school or specific motor skills or muscle memory.

The Cattell-Horn (1966) theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence suggests that intelligence
is composed of a number of different abilities that interact and work together to produce overall
individual intelligence.

Several culture fair intelligence tests have been developed over the years. Culture fair test is a
test that is equally fair to all cultural groups. They contain less verbal instructions and the
questions relate to images or puzzles. As they focus more on logical reasoning, they are better
suited for people from different cultures. Fairness is related to a lack of bias in the interpretation
or use of a test to classify or diagnose. Most Culture Fair test, like Cattell’s Culture Fair
Intelligence Tests, are non-verbal and require the subjects to perceive the relationships between
given figures or images.

For administering this test, the Scale 3 Form B is used. The test consists of four subtests. The
first subtest requires the subject to select a figure which continues the given series. The second
subtest, the subject is required to identify two correct figures to complete the classification. In
the third subtest, the subject has to complete the design or matrix given by choosing the correct
figure. Lastly, in the fourth subtest, the subject has to choose the option which duplicates the
conditions present in the given figure.

Student 1:

The raw score of the subject, In the first ‘Series’ subtest was 6 out of 13. In the second
‘Classification’ subtest the subject scored 8 out of 14. In the third ‘Matrices’ subtest, the subject
scored 6 out of 13 and in the last ‘Conditions’ subtest, the subject scored 5 out of 10. The total
raw score of the subject, after combining the scores on all the subtests was 25 out of 50.

The raw score was then converted into standard score, using Table 5 of the test manual. The
standard score or IQ score of the subject was 96. Then the standard score was converted into
percentile rank using Table 7 of the test manual. The percentile rank of the subject was 40. The
percentile rank indicates that 60% of people on whom the test was administered are above the
subject in terms of IQ.

27
Student 2:

The raw score of the subject in the first subtest was 6 out of 13. In second subtest, the subject
got a raw score of 8 out of 14. In the third subtest, the raw score of the subject was 5 out of 13
and in the last subtest, the raw score was 7 out of [Link] total raw score obtained by the subject
was 26 out of 50 items. After obtaining the total raw score, it was converted into standard score
using Table 5 provided in CFIT Manual. The standard score of the subject was 98 which comes
under the category of average Intelligence according to classification of IQ range.

The standard score was then converted to percentile using the table 7 from the manual. The
percentile obtained by the subject is 45. An IQ score of 98 lies in the range 90-109 which
indicates average intelligence. People having average intelligence are capable of performing
daily-life and basic cognitive abilities easily. But they may face some problems in performing
tasks which demands high cognitive abilities.

Most tests of intelligence follow a normal curve, or a distribution in which the scores are the
most frequent around the mean, or average, and become less and less frequent the further from
the mean they occur. According to the Normal Curve, the subject’s IQ score falls under the
Average Category. Most people fall under this category, with few exceptions falling under very
superior IQ.

Fig 1: Frequency Distribution of IQ Scores/The Normal Curve

Picture from Atkinson, R. L., Atkinson, R. C., Smith, E. E., Bem, D. J. & Hilgard, E. R.
(2013). Introduction to Psychology (15th Edition).

28
 ACTIVITY 3
GROUP DISCUSSION/CAREER TALK

"Choose a job you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life." – Confucius

Career planning is a lifelong process, which includes choosing an occupation, getting a job,
growing in our job, possibly changing careers, and eventually retiring. We will focus on
career choice and the process one goes through in selecting an occupation. This may happen
once in our lifetimes, but it is more likely to happen several times as we first define and then
redefine ourselves and our goals.

Career development and the career planning process include a number of specific steps that
help to identify personal skills and attributes. Finding out how those skills can be utilised in
the job market is accomplished by researching a number of career fields that are of interest to
you and then by gaining experience in those fields and/or speaking to people currently
working in the field. Career planning means know about yourself, explore your options, make
decisions and move towards your goal.

Career planning is a process in which an individual decides and chooses an occupation of his
/ her interests with the help of counselor. Counsellor helps the individual to realise, explore
and analyse within themselves, their interest and their capability. Career counseling is an
interactive process by which counselors and clients exchange and explore information
concerning clients’ backgrounds, experiences, interests, abilities, self esteem, and other
personal characteristics that help or inhibit their work readiness and career planning. Career

29
counseling is a systematic approach to providing information and advice to clients in such
areas as outreach programs, training, internships, apprenticeships, and job placement.
Although the career counselor’s primary concern is the client’s career development,
counselors also may provide screening and referral services to employers.

Counselors use information gathered through assessment to understand and respond to

clients’ needs and concerns. Clients use this information to understand themselves better,
clarify their goals and perspectives, and make plans for the future. Counselors provide
individuals and groups with career and educational counseling. Counselors use interviews,
counseling sessions, interest and aptitude assessment tests, and other methods to evaluate and
advise their clients. They also operate career information centers and career education
programs. Often, counselors work with students who have academic and social development
problems or other special needs.

Choosing the right career can be a very daunting task especially in a world which offers an
array of paths, all of which seem to be leading to a golden goal. Careers can actually make or
break one’s life, so it is important to make the right choice. Career guidance can help you in
pursuing the right courses, in the right colleges or institutes and can guide you in choosing a
suitable career. Career planning is an exercise that is well worth the time invested in it
because it sets you going on the path that leads to where you would like to go. This exercise
provides you with a lot of clarity regarding your career objectives as well and it best done
before you embark on your job search.

CAREER TALK ON PSYCHOLOGY (HUMANITIES STREAM)

Psychologists frequently are innovators, evolving new approaches from established

knowledge to meet the changing needs of people, organizations, and societies. They develop
theories and test them through their research. As this research yields new information, these
findings become part of the body of knowledge that practitioners call on in their work with
clients and patients, as well as with organizations and communities. Psychology is a
tremendously varied field. Psychologists conduct both basic and applied research, serve as
consultants to communities and organizations, diagnose and treat people, and teach future
psychologists and those who will pursue other disciplines. They test intelligence and
personality.

30
Many psychologists work as health care providers. They assess behavioral and mental
function and well-being, study how human beings relate to each other and also to machines,
and work to improve these relationships. And because the United States is undergoing sizable
change in its population makeup, psychologists provide important knowledge and skills to
help better understand diverse cultures. Many psychologists work independently and also
team up with other professionals—for example, with other scientists, physicians, lawyers,
school personnel, computer experts, engineers, policymakers, and managers—to contribute to
every area of society. Thus, we find them in laboratories, hospitals, courtrooms, schools and
universities, community health centers, prisons, and corporate offices.

Subfields in Psychology

The field of psychology encompasses both research, through which we learn fundamental
things about human and nonhuman animal behavior, and practice, through which that
knowledge is applied to solving problems and promoting healthy human development. In
each of the subfields, there are psychologists who work primarily as researchers, others who
work primarily as practitioners, and many who do both (scientist–practitioners).

• Clinical psychologists assess and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders.
These range from short-term crises, such as difficulties resulting from adolescent
conflicts, to more severe, chronic conditions, such as schizophrenia

• Community psychologists work to strengthen the abilities of communities, settings,

organizations, and broader social systems to meet people’s needs.

• Counseling psychologists help people recognize their strengths and resources to cope
with everyday problems and serious adversity. They do counseling/psychotherapy,
teaching, and scientific research with individuals of all ages, families, and organizations
(e.g., schools, hospitals, businesses).

31
 • Developmental psychologists study the psychological development of the human being
that takes place throughout life. Until recently, the primary focus was on childhood and
adolescence, the most formative years.

• Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychologists apply psychological principles and

research methods to the workplace in the interest of improving productivity, health, and
the quality of work life. Many serve as human resources specialists, helping organizations
with staffing, training, and employee development

• Health psychologists specialize in how biological, psychological, and social factors

affect health and illness.

• Neuropsychologists (and behavioral neuropsychologists) explore the relationships

between brain systems and behavior.

• Rehabilitation psychologists work with stroke and accident victims, people with
intellectual disabilities, and those with developmental disabilities caused by such
conditions as cerebral palsy, epilepsy, and autism

• School psychologists are engaged in the delivery of comprehensive psychological

services to children, adolescents, and families in schools and other applied settings.

Degrees in Psychology

I. Undergraduate Degree (Bachelor's)

B.A. or [Link]. in Psychology
• Duration: 3 years
• Eligibility: Completion of 10+2 (high school) in any stream, though some colleges may
prefer a background in science.
• Curriculum: Introduction to basic psychological theories, principles, and practices.
Subjects typically include general psychology, developmental psychology, social
psychology, and research methods.

II. Postgraduate Degree (Master's)

32
 M.A. or [Link]. in Psychology:
• Duration: 2 years
• Eligibility: A bachelor's degree in psychology or a related field. Some programs may
accept graduates from other fields but may require additional coursework.
• Specializations: Clinical psychology, counseling psychology, industrial/organizational
psychology, educational psychology, and more.
• Curriculum: Advanced study in specialized areas, research methods, and practical
applications. Often includes internships or practical training.

III. [Link]. in Psychology

[Link]. (Master of Philosophy) in Psychology:
• Duration: 1-2 years
• Eligibility: A master's degree in psychology with a minimum required percentage
(often around 55-60%).
• Focus: Research-oriented program that prepares students for doctoral studies. It
involves coursework and a dissertation.

IV. Doctoral Degree (Ph.D.)

Ph.D. in Psychology:
• Duration: 3-5 years
• Eligibility: A master's or [Link]. degree in psychology. Entrance exams and
interviews are usually required.
• Focus: Original research leading to a dissertation. It prepares individuals for careers in
academia, advanced research, or specialized clinical practice.

V. Specialized Training and Certification/Diploma or Certification Courses

• These can be pursued alongside or after formal degrees to gain specific skills or
specializations, such as in counseling, psychotherapy, or clinical assessment.

Additional Requirements and Considerations

33
• Entrance Exams: Most undergraduate and postgraduate programs require entrance
exams like DUET (Delhi University Entrance Test), JNUEE (Jawaharlal Nehru
University Entrance Exam), or university-specific tests.

• Licensure and Registration: To practice as a clinical psychologist in India, registration

with the Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) is mandatory. This typically requires an
[Link]. in Clinical Psychology from an RCI-recognized institution.

• Internships and Practical Training: Practical experience is crucial. Internships or

supervised training are often required during postgraduate programs, especially for
clinical specializations.

• Continuing Education: Psychology professionals often engage in ongoing education and

training to keep up with new developments in the field and maintain their licensure.

List of Top Psychology Colleges in India

1. University of Delhi (DU): B.A. (Hons) in Psychology, M.A. in Psychology.

2. Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), Mumbai: M.A. in Applied Psychology (Clinical
and Counseling Practice), [Link]., Ph.D. in Psychology.

3. University of Calcutta, Kolkata: [Link]. in Psychology, [Link]. in Psychology, [Link].,

Ph.D. in Psychology.

4. Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi: B.A. (Hons) in Psychology, M.A. in

Psychology, [Link]., Ph.D. in Psychology.

5. Amity University, Noida: B.A. (Hons) in Psychology, M.A. in Psychology, [Link]., Ph.D.
in Psychology.

6. Jamia Millia Islamia (JMI), New Delhi: B.A. (Hons) in Psychology, M.A. in Applied
Psychology, [Link]., Ph.D. in Psychology.

7. Christ University, Bengaluru: B.A. in Psychology, [Link]. in Psychology (Clinical,

Counseling, Educational), [Link]., Ph.D. in Psychology.

8. Fergusson College, Pune: B.A. in Psychology, M.A. in Psychology.

34
9. Presidency College, Chennai: [Link]. in Psychology, [Link]. in Psychology, Ph.D. in
Psychology.

10. St. Xavier’s College, Mumbai: B.A. in Psychology, M.A. in Psychology.

11. Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Manipal: B.A. in Psychology, [Link]. in
Clinical Psychology, [Link]. in Counseling Psychology, [Link]., Ph.D. in Psychology.

12. Ambedkar University, Delhi: B.A. in Psychology, M.A. in Psychology (Psychosocial

Clinical Studies), [Link]., Ph.D. in Psychology.

13. Panjab University, Chandigarh: B.A. in Psychology, M.A. in Psychology, [Link]., Ph.D.
in Psychology.

14. NIMHANS (National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences), Bengaluru: [Link].
in Clinical Psychology, Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology.

15. University of Mumbai, Mumbai: Programs: B.A. in Psychology, M.A. in Psychology.

CAREER TALK ON MARKETING (COMMERCE STREAM)

Marketing is a dynamic and multifaceted field focused on promoting and selling products or
services. It plays a crucial role in shaping the perception of a brand, creating demand, and
ultimately driving sales. Marketing encompasses a wide range of activities, from
understanding consumer behavior and market research to developing branding strategies and
executing advertising campaigns. Each of these elements is interconnected and essential in
crafting effective marketing plans that resonate with target audiences. By leveraging insights
into consumer preferences and market trends, marketers can design strategies that not only
attract but also retain customers, ensuring long-term business success.

In the commerce stream, marketing is integral to businesses, driving growth, customer

engagement, and competitive advantage. Effective marketing strategies can lead to increased
sales, higher market share, and improved profitability. By engaging customers through
various channels, such as social media, content marketing, and personalized campaigns,
businesses can foster stronger relationships and enhance customer satisfaction. Furthermore,
marketing helps companies stay ahead of the competition by continuously innovating and
adapting to changing market conditions. In a rapidly evolving business landscape, the ability

35
 to anticipate and respond to market shifts is crucial, and a well-executed marketing strategy
provides the agility needed to thrive.

Subfields in Marketing
Marketing encompasses several subfields, each with its specialized focus:

• Digital Marketing: Leveraging online platforms to promote products and services.

• Market Research: Analyzing market trends, consumer behavior, and competitor

activities.

• Brand Management: Building and maintaining a brand's image and reputation.

• Advertising: Creating and distributing promotional content across various media.

• Sales Management: Overseeing and optimizing a company's sales operations.

• Public Relations: Managing communication between a company and its public.

Degrees in Marketing

I. Bachelor’s Degree: A Bachelor of Commerce ([Link]) with a specialization in

Marketing, Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) in Marketing, or a similar
undergraduate degree.

II. Master’s Degree: A Master of Business Administration (MBA) with a concentration in

Marketing, Master of Commerce ([Link]) in Marketing, or equivalent postgraduate
degree.

III. Diploma/Certification Courses: Short-term courses in digital marketing, content

marketing, social media marketing, etc.

IV. Additional certifications from recognized institutions (e.g., Google, HubSpot) can also
enhance your qualifications and skills.

List of Top Marketing Colleges in India

1. Indian Institute of Management (IIM) – Ahmedabad: Offers PGP, FPM, and executive
programs with a strong focus on marketing.

36
2. Indian Institute of Management (IIM) – Bangalore: Known for its comprehensive MBA
program with specialized marketing courses.

3. Indian Institute of Management (IIM) – Calcutta: Provides an MBA with a rich

curriculum in marketing management.

4. Faculty of Management Studies (FMS), Delhi University: Offers MBA and Executive
MBA programs with a focus on marketing.

5. XLRI - Xavier School of Management, Jamshedpur: Known for its PGDM in Business
Management with marketing specializations.

6. SP Jain Institute of Management and Research (SPJIMR), Mumbai: Offers a PGDM

program with a strong marketing curriculum.

7. Management Development Institute (MDI), Gurgaon: Known for its PGPM program with
marketing electives.

8. Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies (NMIMS), Mumbai: Offers MBA and
specialized marketing programs.

9. Indian School of Business (ISB), Hyderabad and Mohali: Provides PGP with a strong
emphasis on marketing strategies.

10. Symbiosis Institute of Business Management (SIBM), Pune: Known for its MBA
program with a robust marketing specialization.

37
 ACTIVITY 4
INDIVIDUAL COUNSELLING

Counseling is a process that involves interpersonal relationships and helps the clients to
become more self-directive and self-responsible. Though Counseling began as a person to
person relationship, group counseling too has a long and distinguished history. Joseph Hersey
Pratt is generally credited for starting the first counseling group with tuberculosis patients in
1905. With over 200 approaches to counseling, counselors have a wide variety of theories to
choose. Effective counselors scrutinise theories for its effectiveness and match them to
personal beliefs about nature of people and change.

Tolbert (1972) defined “Individual counseling as a personal, face to face relationship between
counselor and his special competencies, provides a learning situation in which the counselee,
a normal sort of person, is helped to know himself and his present and possible future
situations so that he can make use of characteristics and potentials in a way that is both
himself and beneficial to society, and further, can how to solve future problems and meet
future needs.”

Individual counseling, also known as one-on-one therapy, is a personalized approach to

mental health care where a client works directly with a trained therapist. This form of
counseling offers a private and safe space for individuals to explore their thoughts, emotions,
and behaviors. Through a collaborative process, the therapist helps the client gain insight into
their issues, develop coping strategies, and work towards personal growth and healing.
Whether dealing with stress, anxiety, depression, or other personal challenges, individual
counseling provides tailored support and interventions to meet each person's unique needs.

At the heart of individual counseling is the therapeutic relationship, which is built on trust,
empathy, and confidentiality. This relationship allows clients to openly discuss their concerns
without fear of judgment or stigma. Individual counseling can be beneficial at any stage of
life, from childhood through adulthood. It offers a structured environment where individuals
can work through life transitions, relationship issues, trauma, and other significant life events.
The goal of individual counseling is not only to alleviate distress but also to empower clients
to make positive changes, improve their quality of life, and foster resilience. By engaging in

38
this therapeutic journey, individuals can gain a deeper understanding of themselves and
develop the tools needed to navigate life's challenges with greater confidence and clarity.

Approaches to Counselling

Counseling encompasses a variety of approaches, each with its own theoretical framework
and techniques. Here are some of the main approaches to counseling:

1. Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Therapy: Psychoanalytic therapy, founded by Sigmund

Freud, delves into the unconscious mind to uncover deep-seated emotions and conflicts that
often originate in early childhood. This approach emphasizes the significance of unconscious
processes and past experiences in shaping present behavior. Techniques such as free
association, where clients speak freely about whatever comes to mind, and dream analysis,
where dreams are interpreted to reveal unconscious desires, are commonly used. The goal is
to bring unconscious material to consciousness, allowing clients to understand their internal
conflicts and how these impact their current behavior and relationships.

2. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), developed

by Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis, is grounded in the idea that thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
are interconnected. CBT aims to identify and challenge negative thought patterns and beliefs
that contribute to emotional distress and maladaptive behaviors. Techniques include cognitive
restructuring, which involves changing distorted thinking patterns, and behavioral
experiments that test the validity of these thoughts. The primary goal is to develop healthier
thinking patterns and coping mechanisms, thereby improving emotional regulation and
reducing symptoms of anxiety, depression, and other psychological disorders.

3. Humanistic Therapy: Humanistic therapy, influenced by Carl Rogers and Abraham

Maslow, focuses on the individual's capacity for self-growth and self-actualization. This
approach emphasizes personal responsibility, free will, and the inherent potential for self-
healing. Client-centered therapy, a prominent humanistic technique, involves providing a
supportive and non-judgmental environment where clients can explore their feelings and
thoughts openly. The therapist offers unconditional positive regard, empathy, and
genuineness, facilitating self-discovery and self-acceptance. The goal is to help clients
achieve a greater sense of self-awareness and realize their full potential.

39
4. Behavioral Therapy: Behavioral therapy is based on principles of learning theory,
particularly those proposed by B.F. Skinner. This approach focuses on modifying maladaptive
behaviors through techniques such as systematic desensitization, operant conditioning, and
social skills training. Systematic desensitization gradually exposes clients to feared situations
to reduce anxiety, while operant conditioning uses reinforcement to increase desired
behaviors and decrease undesired ones. The goal is to replace harmful behaviors with
healthier ones, improving overall functioning and quality of life.

5. Existential Therapy: Existential therapy draws on existential philosophy, exploring

themes such as meaning, freedom, and the human condition. This approach helps clients
confront existential anxieties related to issues like mortality, isolation, and the search for
meaning. Techniques involve deep exploration of existential themes and encouraging clients
to take responsibility for their choices. The goal is to help clients find meaning and purpose
in their lives, fostering authentic living and personal growth despite life's inherent
uncertainties.

6. Gestalt Therapy: Gestalt therapy, developed by Fritz Perls, emphasizes present moment
awareness and the integration of thoughts, feelings, and actions. This approach encourages
clients to experience and express their emotions in the here and now, rather than focusing on
past events. Techniques such as the empty chair, where clients engage in dialogues with
different parts of themselves, and role-playing are used to enhance self-awareness. The goal
is to help clients resolve unfinished business from the past and achieve a greater sense of
wholeness and integration.

7. Solution-Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT): Solution-Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT),

created by Steve de Shazer and Insoo Kim Berg, centers on finding solutions rather than
analyzing problems. This approach focuses on the client’s strengths and resources to achieve
their goals quickly. Techniques include the miracle question, which helps clients envision
their desired future, and scaling questions, which measure progress and motivation. The goal
is to identify and amplify solutions that have worked in the past, empowering clients to
achieve positive changes efficiently.

8. Narrative Therapy: Narrative therapy, developed by Michael White and David Epston,
views problems as separate from individuals and focuses on the stories people tell about their
lives. This approach helps clients re-author their life narratives in ways that align with their

40
values and aspirations. Techniques include externalizing the problem, which separates the
issue from the person, and re-authoring, which involves creating alternative, empowering
stories. The goal is to empower clients by helping them construct narratives that reflect their
strengths and potentials, fostering a more positive self-identity.

9. Integrative Therapy: Integrative therapy combines elements from different therapeutic

models to create a tailored approach for each client. Therapists using this approach draw on
various techniques and theories to address the unique needs of the individual. This flexibility
allows for a more personalized treatment plan that can adapt to the client's changing
circumstances. The goal is to provide a comprehensive and holistic treatment that leverages
the strengths of multiple therapeutic approaches, promoting overall well-being.

10. Mindfulness-Based Therapies: Mindfulness-based therapies, influenced by Buddhist

meditation practices and contemporary psychology, focus on cultivating present moment
awareness and acceptance. Techniques include mindfulness meditation, body scan, and
mindful breathing exercises. These practices help clients develop a non-judgmental
awareness of their thoughts, emotions, and sensations. The goal is to reduce symptoms of
stress, anxiety, and depression by promoting a greater acceptance of one’s experiences and
enhancing emotional regulation.

11. Eclectic Therapy: Eclectic therapy is a therapeutic approach that incorporates a variety
of therapeutic principles and philosophies in order to create the ideal treatment program to
meet the specific needs of the patient or client. Instead of insisting upon strict adherence to
one particular approach or school of thought, eclectic therapists employ elements from a
range of therapeutic techniques, with the goal of establishing a course that is personally
tailored to the patient or client. After all, the key here is to help the patient as quickly and as
effectively as possible. Eclectic counselling is defined as the synthesis and combination of
directive and nondirective counselling. It represents a middle status between the two
extremes represented by the ‘nondirective’ technique on one hand and the ‘directive’
technique on the other. In eclectic counselling, the counsellor is neither too active as in the
directive counselling nor too passive as in the nondirective counselling. Counsellor just
follows the middle path between these two.

Each of these counseling approaches offers unique benefits and can be selected based on the
client’s preferences, the therapist’s expertise, and the specific issues being addressed. This

41
 diversity in therapeutic methods ensures that clients can receive the most effective and
personalized care possible.

Process of Individual Counselling

I. Establishing Relationship with the Client: The core of the counseling process is the
relationship established between the counselor and the client. The Counselor takes the
initiative in the initial interview to establish a climate conducive to develop mutual
respect, trust, free and open communication and understanding in general of what the
counseling process involves. Counselors main responsibility always remains to meet the
clients need as much and possible. The counseling relationship seeks to assist the clients
in assuming the responsibilities for his or her problem and its solution. This is facilitated
by the counselor’s communication skills, the ability to identify and reflect clients’ feeling
and the ability to identify and gain insight into the clients concerns and needs.

II. Problem Identification and Exploration: After the establishment of an adequate

relationship, the clients become more receptive for in depth discussion and exploration of
their concern. Counselor with the cooperation of client tries to identify the problem as
specifically and objectively as possible and begins to explore the changes that are
required and obstacles that exist for these changes to materialise.

III. Planning for Problem Solving: Once the counselor determines that all relevant
information regarding the client has been gathered and understood in proper perspective
and client has also developed awareness and has gained insight into the fact that
something needs to be done about a specific problem, counselor moves on to develop a
plan in collaboration with client to remediate the concern of the client.

IV. Solution Application and Termination: In this final stage the counselor encourages the
client to act upon his or her determined solution of the problem. During the time the client
actively involves in implementing the problem solution, the counselor maintains contact
as a source of follow up, support and encouragement as the client may need the
counselor’s assistance in the event things do not go according to plan. Once it is
determined that the counselor and the client has dealt with the client’s concern to the
maximum possible extent, the counseling process is terminated.

42
COUNSELLING CASE

Demographic Details

Name: Arahna Khanna

Age: 17
Sex: Female
Religion: Hindu
Class: 12 A
Name of Class Teacher: Mrs. Nalminder Kaur
Place of Residence: Shalimar Bagh

Additional Information

Date of Referral: 20rd July, 2024

Source of Referral: Class Teacher
Time of Session: 12:00 pm
Informant: Mother and Self

Area of Concern/Chief Complaints

• Low academic performance
• New admission in 11th grade, so she doesn’t have many friends
• Doesn’t participate much in school activities
• Low attendance
• Career confusion

History of Present Complaint

Arahna was recommended to seek guidance from the school counsellor by her class teacher.
Her mother was informed and consent was obtained for the same. Arahna is the youngest of
two elder sisters, living with her grandfather and parents. Being the youngest, she is very
attached to her sisters. She expressed she is very loved and pampered in her family. She is
encouraged to follow her heart and doesn’t have a lot of restrictions on her. Regarding school,

43
she used to study in JKPS, Shalimar Bagh till class 10th. She shifted schools as she had a lot
of fights and issues with the academic staff and teachers in the older school. She was
wrongfully accused by her peers for things she didn’t do and her reputation suffered damage.
She also felt Prudence had better exposure in academics and extracurriculars. On coming to
this school, she found that students already had their groups well established. It was difficult
to be accepted and fit in. She only has one friend in her class with whom she’s close. She
complains of other students rejecting to accept someone new in. She also feels the teachers
already have their pick of students for various activities and do not allow new students to
participate. She loves to dance yet is never selected for the dance performances. She feels
bored and has no purpose to come to school, hence she has low attendance. All of this takes a
toll on her academic performance as well.

Regarding her career, Arahna wishes to become a DJ and has expressed a desire not to attend
college. Her mother does not support this career choice, adding to Arahna's confusion and
stress about her future.

Observation

I observed Arahna enter the room with a noticeable timidity. I warmly offered her a seat and
ensured she felt comfortable, creating a safe space for our session. Building rapport with
Arahna was a priority, so I engaged in gentle conversation to help her feel at ease.
Arahna appeared well-dressed and groomed in her school uniform, with her hair neatly pulled
up in a ponytail. Despite her tidy appearance, her grim expression and evident distress
suggested underlying emotional turmoil.

As Arahna began to speak, it became clear that she had a lot on her mind. She talked for an
extended period, seemingly trying to convey something important. Her tone and body
language indicated a deep-seated anxiety and frustration.

Partway through the session, Arahna's mother joined us via a phone call. This introduction of
a third party shifted the dynamic. The conversation quickly escalated into arguments,
revealing tension between Arahna and her mother. Both were evidently troubled, but the
added stress from the confrontation seemed to weigh more heavily on Arahna. Her distress
became more pronounced, highlighting the complex nature of the issues she was facing.

44
As a counsellor, it was crucial to navigate this interaction delicately. I aimed to mediate the
conversation, allowing both Arahna and her mother to express their perspectives while
ensuring the focus remained on understanding and resolving the underlying concerns. My
goal was to support Arahna in managing her stress and to facilitate a more constructive
dialogue between her and her mother.

Intervention
• An Interest Inventory was done to figure out Arahna’s area of interest. It came out to
be in Management field.
• The point of view of both of them were actively listened and they were made aware of
each other’s emotional states and were asked to empathise with each other.
• Mother was explained to be a little more supportive of her daughter’s hopes and
dreams.
• Arahna was made to understand that her mother felt responsible for her future
• Conduct a comprehensive assessment to identify specific academic challenges Arahna
was be facing. This involved discussing her study habits, reviewing her coursework,
and identifying any subjects where she struggles the most.
• Provide Arahna with resources and training on effective study techniques, time
management, and organizational skills. This included creating a study schedule,
setting realistic academic goals, and using learning aids.
• Connected Arahna with a peer mentor who can help her navigate the new school
environment, introduce her to other students, and offer support.
• Provided guidance on building social skills, including initiating conversations, active
listening, and joining group activities.
• Encouraged gradual participation in school activities, starting with low-pressure roles
or events. Build her confidence by celebrating small achievements.

A weekly follow up was done with Arahna in school including a call with her mother. She
seemed more settled. She also had full attendance that week and had auditioned for the dance
society of the school. She was trying to focus better on the upcoming examinations and
studied in the library as well. She was trying to talk things through with her mother and
decided she will pursue a bachelors degree in business management from VIPS.

45
 ACTIVITY 5
DEPRESSION RATING SCALE

Depression

Although depression is often thought of being in an extreme state of sadness, there is a vast
difference between clinical depression and sadness. Sadness is a part of being human, a
natural reaction to painful circumstances. All of us will experience sadness at some point in
our lives. Depression, however, is a physical illness with many more symptoms than an
unhappy mood. The person with clinical depression finds that there is not always a logical
reason for his dark feelings. Exhortations from well meaning friends and family for him to
“snap out of it” provide only frustration, for he can no more “snap out of it” than a diabetic
can will his pancreas to produce more insulin. Sadness is a transient feeling that passes as a
person comes to term with his troubles. Depression can linger for weeks, months or even
years. The sad person feels bad, but continues to cope with living. A person with clinical
depression may feel overwhelmed and hopeless. To clarify the differences between normal
sadness and depression, there are specific, defined criteria for the diagnosis of major
depression: A person who suffers from a major depressive disorder must either have a
depressed mood or a loss of interest or pleasure in daily activities consistently for at least a
two week period. This mood must represent a change from the person’s normal mood and
impair his functioning in his daily life.

Signs And Symptoms Of Depression

• Loss of interest in formerly pleasurable activities
• Dissatisfaction with life
• Withdrawal from social activities
• Loss of energy
• Feeling useless or hopeless
• Irritability
• Great concern with health problems
• Sadness or crying
• Worry and/or self-criticism
• Difficulty concentrating and/or making decisions

46
 • Loss of appetite and weight

DSM 5-TR Criteria For Depressive Disorder

A. Five (or more) of the following symptoms have been present during the same 2-week
period and represent a change from previous functioning: at least one of the symptoms is
either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure.
Note: Do not include symptoms that are clearly attributable to another medical condition.

1. Depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day, as indicated by either subjective
report (e.g., feels sad, empty, and hopeless) or observation made by others (e.g., appears
tearful). (Note: In children and adolescents, can be irritable mood.)

2. Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all, activities most of the day,
nearly every day (as indicated by either subjective account or observation).

3. Significant weight loss when not dieting or weight gain (e.g., a change of more than 5%
of body weight in a month), or decrease or increase in appetite nearly every day. (Note:
In children, consider failure to make expected weight gain.)

4. Insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day.

5. Psychomotor agitation or retardation nearly every day (observable by others, not merely
subjective feelings of restlessness or being slowed down).

6. Fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day.

7. Feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt (which may be delusional)

nearly every day (not merely self-reproach or guilt about being sick).

8. Diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness, nearly every day (either by

subjective account or as observed by others).

9. Recurrent thoughts of death (not just fear of dying), recurrent suicidal ideation without a
specific plan, or a suicide attempt or a specific plan for committing suicide.

B. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational,

or other important areas of functioning.

47
C. The episode is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance or another
medical condition.

Note: Criteria A–C represent a major depressive episode.

D. At least one major depressive episode is not better explained by schizoaffective disorder
and is not superimposed on schizophrenia, schizophreniform disorder, delusional
disorder, or other specified and unspecified schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic
disorders.

E. There has never been a manic episode or a hypomanic episode.

Note: This exclusion does not apply if all of the manic-like or hypomanic-like episodes are
substance-induced or are attributable to the physiological effects of another medical
condition.

Aetiology of Depression

Interpersonal and social factors that might affect the development of depression include
social isolation and either separation from a partner or divorce. Biological factors that might
influence the development of depression include changes in neurotransmitter levels within
the brain. Neurotransmitters carry chemical messages between neurons and can influence
mood and behaviour. Three types of neurotransmitters – serotonin, dopamine and
norepinephrine assist in the regulation of emotions including stress, sleep functions and
appetite. All three are often found at lower levels in depressed people than in nonsufferers.

• Genetic Factors

Researches indicate that people are between one and a half and three times more likely to
develop depression if one of their parents or brothers or sisters has the disorder. Twin studies
also have shown that if one identical twin develops depression, the chances of the other twin
developing the disorder can be as high as 75%. This provides the evidence of the role of
genetics in the development of the disorder. Researchers also considered the possibility that
the combination of genes might be involved in the development of a vulnerability to
depression, which increases a person’s chances of developing depression. Vulnerability to
depression does not mean that they will develop the disorder but it means that they develop
depression if other factors or situations also occur. Examples include growing up with parents

48
who are overly critical or rejecting, losing friends or jobs or being placed in stressful or
traumatic situations

• Psychological Factors

Factors which influence the possibility of developing depression include medical illnesses,
traumatic experiences such as abuse, war or accidents, job stress, substance abuse and the
adjustment required following serious injury. Psychological theories of depression consider
these factors as important in the development of the disorder. They focus on sufferer’s
subjective experiences and how they interpret the vents that occur in their lives. The three
main theories are psychoanalytic, interpersonal and cognitive.

• Psychoanalytical Theories

Sigmund Freud suggested that depression occurs as a result of anger being turned inward,
especially after the loss of a valued family member or friend. This loss can be either real such
as after the end of a relationship or imagined, for example, people who feel that they will
never be loved again. Freud stated that this internally directed anger leads to self-criticism
and blame and that the aim of this treatment is to release this anger. A consistent feature of
major depression can be irritability often directed toward family members or close friends.
The criticism levelled against this view is that depression can affect people who have not
suffered the loss of a loved one. Freud’s theory that depressed people have internalised anger
is also not supported by dream analysis research.

• Interpersonal Theories

Theories suggest that depressed people have poorer social skills than people not experiencing
depression. Social skills include the ability to relate to other people by making appropriate
eye contact, being able to communicate clearly, being able to show empathy and having a
positive regard for others. People experiencing depression have also been observed to have
poor problem solving skills and make poor day –day decisions. It is also found that people
who experience recurrent depression make poor decisions between depressive episodes.
Depressed people are more likely to be rejected by their friends or peers as they have an
aversive interpersonal style.

• Cognitive Theories

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According to these theories depression is caused by the misinterpretations or errors people
make about themselves, their world and the future. These errors are negatively focussed. For
example, sufferers might see themselves as useless, the world as uncaring and the future as
hopeless despite being successful in their jobs and having devoted families.

• Helplessness Theories

These theories explore the specific thoughts of an individual when depressed. The concept of
learned helplessness was demonstrated by Seligman. He believed that sufferers believe or
find that they have little control over their lives and become passive. Theories also use the
concept of attribution. Attribution refers to people’s explanation of a particular event and
their response to it. For example, depressed people might attribute failure to themselves when
faced with a situation they have difficulty controlling such as a difficult science test.

Depression Rating Scales

Rating scales for depression are tools used by clinicians and researchers to assess the severity
and presence of depressive symptoms in individuals. These scales typically consist of a series
of questions or statements that patients respond to, with the results helping to guide diagnosis
and treatment decisions.

Here are some commonly used depression rating scales with brief descriptions:

1. Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS or HAM-D): A clinician-administered

questionnaire used to assess the severity of depression in patients already diagnosed with
the disorder.

2. Beck Depression Inventory (BDI): A self-reported inventory consisting of 21 items,

measuring the intensity of depression in clinical and non-clinical populations.

3. Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9): A self-administered tool that screens for

depression and measures its severity, with each of the 9 items corresponding to the DSM-
IV criteria for depression.

4. Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS): A clinician-rated scale that

evaluates the severity of depressive episodes in patients with mood disorders.

50
5. Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS): A short self-administered survey to assess the
level of depression for patients in a clinical setting.

6. Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS): A self-report scale designed specifically to screen for
depression in older adults.

7. Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS): A 10-item self-report scale used to

identify postnatal depression in new mothers.

8. Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI): A self-report scale for assessing depression in

children and adolescents aged 7 to 17.

These scales vary in length, method of administration (self-report vs. clinician-administered),

and specific focus (e.g., general depression, postpartum depression, geriatric depression),
making them suitable for different clinical and research settings.

Beck’s Depression Inventory II

The Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) is a widely used self-report instrument designed
to assess the severity of depressive symptoms in individuals aged 13 and older. Developed by
Aaron T. Beck and his colleagues, the BDI-II is an updated version of the original Beck
Depression Inventory (BDI), which was first introduced in 1961. The BDI-II was revised to
be more consistent with the diagnostic criteria for depression outlined in the DSM-IV
(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition).

Structure and Content

The BDI-II consists of 21 items, each representing a specific symptom or attitude related to
depression. These items cover a wide range of depressive symptoms, including mood,
cognitive, behavioral, and physical aspects. Each item is a statement that describes a specific
symptom, and respondents are asked to rate how much they have experienced that symptom
in the past two weeks.

Response Format

Each item on the BDI-II is scored on a 4-point scale ranging from 0 to 3, with higher scores
indicating more severe symptoms. The response options for each item are:

51
 • 0: I do not feel sad.

• 1: I feel sad.

• 2: I am sad all the time and I can't snap out of it.

• 3: I am so sad or unhappy that I can't stand it.

Scoring

The total score is calculated by summing the ratings for all 21 items. The possible range of
scores is from 0 to 63. The scores are then interpreted as follows:

• 0-13: Minimal depression

• 14-19: Mild depression

• 20-28: Moderate depression

• 29-63: Severe depression

Psychometric Properties

• Reliability

The BDI-II has demonstrated high internal consistency, with Cronbach's alpha coefficients
typically ranging from 0.85 to 0.92, indicating that the items are highly correlated with each
other and measure a common construct. Test-retest reliability is also strong, suggesting that
the BDI-II produces stable scores over time in the absence of significant changes in the
individual's condition.

• Validity

The BDI-II has shown good construct validity, meaning it accurately measures the construct
of depression. It correlates well with other established measures of depression, such as the
Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D) and the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-
9). It also demonstrates sensitivity to changes in depressive symptoms over time, making it
useful for tracking the progress of treatment.

52
Clinical and Research Applications

The BDI-II is widely used in both clinical and research settings. Clinicians use it to assess the
severity of depressive symptoms in patients and to monitor changes in symptoms over time.
In research, the BDI-II is used to measure depression in studies examining the efficacy of
various treatments, the epidemiology of depression, and the relationship between depression
and other psychological or medical conditions.

Advantages

• Ease of Use: The BDI-II is straightforward and easy to administer, taking only about
5-10 minutes to complete.

• Sensitivity: It is sensitive to changes in depressive symptoms, making it useful for

monitoring treatment progress.

• Broad Applicability: The BDI-II is suitable for a wide range of populations,

including adolescents and adults, and can be used in various settings.

Beck Depression Inventory-II is a highly regarded tool for assessing the severity of
depressive symptoms. Its strong psychometric properties and ease of use have made it a
staple in both clinical practice and research. However, clinicians should be mindful of its
limitations and use it as part of a comprehensive assessment strategy.

Demographic Details

Name: Chhavi Bhatia

Age: 16
Sex: Female
Religion: Hindu
Class: 11 A
Name of Class Teacher: Mrs. Chanchal
Place of Residence: Shalimar Bagh
Date: 19th July, 2024

53
Response Sheet

Sadness
0 I do not feel sad
1 I feel sad much of the time
2 I am sad all of the time and I can’t snap out of it
3 I am so sad and unhappy I can’t stand it
Pessimism
0 I am not discouraged about my future.
1 I feel more discouraged about my future than I used to.
2 I do not expect things to work out for me.
3 I feel my future is hopeless and will only get worse.
Past Failure
0 I do not feel like a failure
1 I feel I have failed more than the average person
2 As I look back on my life, all I can see is a lot of failures
3 I feel I am a complete failure as a person
Loss of Pleasure
0 I get as much pleasure as I ever did from the things I enjoy.
1 I don't enjoy things the way I used to
2 I get very little pleasure from the things I used to enjoy.
3 I can’t get any pleasure from the things I used to enjoy.
Guilty Feelings
0 I don't feel particularly guilty
1 I feel guilty over many things I have done or should have done.
2 I feel quite guilty most of the time
3 I feel guilty all of the time
Punishment Feelings
0 I don't feel I am being punished
1 I feel I may be punished
2 I expect to be punished
3 I feel I am being punished

54
Self Dislike
0 I feel the same about myself as ever.
1 I have lost confidence in myself
2 I am disappointed in myself
3 I dislike myself
Self Criticalness
0 I don't criticize or blame myself more than usual.
1 I am more critical of myself than I used to be.
2 I criticize myself for all of my faults
3 I blame myself for everything bad that happens
Suicidal Thoughts and Wishes
0 I don't have any thoughts of killing myself
1 I have thoughts of killing myself, but I would not carry them out
2 I would like to kill myself
3 I would kill myself if I had the chance
Crying
0 I don't cry any more than usual
1 I cry more than I used to
2 I cry over every little thing.
3 I feel like crying , but I can’t
Agitation
0 I am no more restless or wound up than usual.
1 I feel more restless or wound up than usual
2 I am so restless or agitated that it’s hard to stay still.
3 I am so restless or agitated that I have to keep moving or doing
something
Loss of Interest
0 I have not lost interest in other people or activities
1 I am less interested in other people or things than before.
2 I have lost most of my interest in other people or things
3 It’s hard to get interested in anything.
Indecisiveness
0 I make decisions about as well as ever

55
 1 I find it more difficult to make decisions than usual.
2 I have much greater difficulty in making decisions than I used to
3 I have trouble making any decisions.
Worthlessness
0 I do not feel I am worthless.
1 I don’t consider myself as worthwhile and useful as I used to.
2 I feel more worthless as compared to other people.
3 I feel utterly worthless.
Loss of Energy
0 I have as much energy as ever.
1 I have less energy than I used to have.
2 I don’t have enough energy to do very much.
3 I don’t have enough energy to do anything.
Changes in Sleeping Pattern
0 I have not experienced any change in my sleeping pattern.
1a I sleep somewhat more than usual.
1b I sleep somewhat less than usual.
2a I sleep a lot more than usual.
2b I sleep a lot less than usual.
3a I sleep most of the day.
3b I wake up 1-2 hours early and can’t get back to sleep.
Irritability
0 I am no more irritable than usual.
1 I am more irritable than usual.
2 I am much more irritable than usual.
3 I am irritable all the time
Changes in Appetite
0 I have not experienced any change in my appetite
1a My appetite is somewhat less than usual.
1b My appetite is somewhat greater than usual.
2a My appetite is much less than before.
2b My appetite is much greater than usual.
3a I have no appetite at all

56
 3b I crave food all the time.
Concentration Difficulty
0 I can concentrate as well as ever.
1 I can’t concentrate as well as usual.
2 It’s hard to keep my mind on anything for very long.
3 I find I can’t concentrate on anything.
Tiredness or Fatigue
0 I am no more tired or fatigued than usual.
1 I get more tired or fatigued more easily than usual.
2 I am too tired or fatigued to do a lot of the things I used to do.
3 I am too tired or fatigued to do most of the things I used to do.
Loss of Interest in Sex
0 I have not noticed any recent change in my interest in sex
1 I am less interested in sex than I used to be
2 I am much less interested in sex now.
3 I have lost interest in sex completely
TOTAL SCORE 42

Discussion

The objective of the test was to evaluate the level of depression in a client using Beck's
Depression Inventory (BDI). This assessment was conducted on an 11th-grade Humanities
student who has recently reported experiencing feelings of depression.

The Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) is a prominent tool used in clinical psychology to
assess the presence and severity of depressive symptoms. Developed by Aaron T. Beck and
his colleagues, the BDI-II is an updated version of the original Beck Depression Inventory,
reflecting changes in the understanding of depression and the criteria for diagnosing it. This
version was introduced in 1996 and aligns with the diagnostic criteria for major depressive
disorder as outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth
Edition (DSM-IV), which has since evolved into DSM-5. The BDI-II is designed to evaluate
symptoms experienced over the past two weeks, providing a snapshot of the individual's
current depressive state rather than a retrospective view.

57
The BDI-II consists of 21 items, each representing a symptom or behavior associated with
depression. These items are organized into a self-report format where individuals are asked to
select responses that best describe their feelings and behaviors during the previous two
weeks. The responses are scaled from 0 to 3, with 0 indicating minimal or no symptoms and
3 indicating severe symptoms. This scaling allows for a range of responses that capture the
intensity of symptoms experienced. The items are grouped into different categories, including
mood, cognitive, physical, and motivational symptoms, reflecting the multifaceted nature of
depression.

The inventory is used across a broad age range, from adolescents to adults, making it a
versatile tool in various settings, including clinical, research, and educational environments.
It provides valuable insights for mental health professionals by quantifying the severity of
depressive symptoms, which can inform treatment decisions and track progress over time.
The BDI-II's psychometric properties, including its reliability and validity, have been
extensively researched, confirming its effectiveness as a diagnostic and assessment tool.
Reliability refers to the consistency of the results, ensuring that the BDI-II yields stable
scores across different administrations, while validity refers to its accuracy in measuring the
construct of depression as defined by clinical standards.

On scoring the statements chosen by the client, the client scored a score of 42, which lies in
the category of severe depression, indicating that the client is suffering from Major
Depressive Disorder. A score of 42 on the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) signifies a
high level of depressive symptoms, reflecting significant distress and impairment in the
individual's emotional and psychological functioning. The BDI-II is a widely used self-report
measure designed to assess the severity of depressive symptoms based on an individual's
experiences over the past two weeks. It consists of 21 items, each representing a specific
symptom of depression, with responses ranging from 0 to 3 for each item. The total score,
which can range from 0 to 63, provides an overall assessment of the severity of depression.

The scoring system of the BDI-II categorizes the total score into different levels of depression
severity: minimal, mild, moderate, and severe. A score of 42 falls within the "severe
depression" category, indicating that the individual is experiencing a high degree of
depressive symptoms. This score suggests that the person is likely struggling with a range of
symptoms that significantly impact their daily life and functioning.

58
To interpret what a score of 42 means in detail, it is essential to consider the individual items
on the BDI-II and their cumulative effect. Each item on the inventory assesses a specific
symptom or behavior associated with depression, such as mood disturbances, cognitive
impairments, physical changes, and motivational issues. With a score of 42, it is likely that
the individual is experiencing severe levels of symptoms across several of these categories.

In terms of mood, the person may be experiencing intense feelings of sadness, hopelessness,
and helplessness. They might report pervasive negative thoughts about their own worth or
future, feeling that life lacks meaning or purpose. Such pervasive negative emotions can lead
to a profound sense of despair and difficulty in maintaining a positive outlook on life.

Cognitive symptoms associated with severe depression often include persistent feelings of
worthlessness and excessive guilt. Individuals might have trouble concentrating or making
decisions, experiencing significant difficulties in managing day-to-day tasks. Their self-
esteem may be severely undermined, leading to pervasive self-criticism and a sense of
personal failure. These cognitive distortions can further exacerbate feelings of hopelessness
and contribute to a negative self-image.

Physical symptoms in severe depression can be quite debilitating. A person with a score of 42
might experience significant changes in sleep patterns, such as insomnia or hypersomnia
(sleeping too much). Their appetite may be severely altered, leading to substantial weight loss
or gain. They might also experience fatigue, a general sense of physical exhaustion, and a
lack of energy, which can interfere with their ability to perform daily activities and
responsibilities.

A score of 42 also suggests that the individual might be experiencing significant impairment
in their ability to function effectively in their personal and professional life. This level of
depression can affect their work performance, relationships, and overall quality of life. The
severity of symptoms may hinder their capacity to carry out routine tasks, meet
responsibilities, and maintain meaningful relationships.

Looking at the severity of her symptoms, she was referred to a Psychiatrist for further
treatment and rehabilition.

59
 CONCLUSION & REFERENCES

Conclusion

In conclusion, my internship at the school provided a comprehensive and enriching

experience, encompassing a variety of critical activities aimed at enhancing student well-
being and development. Through preparing a guidance program, conducting intelligence
testing, organizing career talks, providing individual counseling, and administering a
depression rating scale, I was able to contribute meaningfully to the students' academic and
personal growth. These activities not only deepened my understanding of educational
psychology and counseling but also reinforced the importance of tailored support systems in
fostering a positive and nurturing school environment.

References

Atkinson, R. L., Atkinson, R. C., Smith, E. E., Bem, D. J. & Hilgard, E. R. (2013).
Introduction to Psychology (15th edition).H.B.J. Inc., New York

Baron, R.A. & Misra, G.(2018). Psychology (5th Edition), Pearson Education, New Delhi

Ciccarelli, S.K. & White, J.N. (2017). Psychology (5th Edition), Pearson Education

Corey, G (2013). Theory and Practice of Counselling and Psychotherapy. (9th Edition, 2013).
Wadsworth

Gladding, S &Batra, P. (2018). Counselling: A comprehensive profession (8th Edition, 2018).

Pearson, New Delhi

Nelson, R,J. (2012). Theory and Practice of Counselling and Therapy (5th Edition, 2012).
Sage South Asia, New Delhi

Snyder, C.R., Lopez S. J., &Pedrotti, J. T. (2011). Positive psychology: The scientific and
practical explorations of human strengths (9th Edition). Sage, New Delhi

Taylor, S.E. (2012). Health psychology (9th Edition). Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi

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