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biology project [ 12th].pdf

1. To study Pollination :-
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2. Table of content [Link] 1. Introduction 2. Process of pollination 3. Types of

pollination 4. Mechanism 5. Pollen vectors 6. Conclusion 7. Bibliography
3. INTRODUCTION • Pollination isthe process by which Study pollenSuggests
is transferred to the
Lyrics Have Gotten Simpler O
female reproductive organs of a plant, thereby enabling fertilization to take place. • Like
all living organisms, seed plants have a single major purpose: to pass their genetic
information on to the next generation. • The reproductive unit is the seed, and pollination
is an essential step in the production of seeds in all spermatophytes (seed plants). • For
the process of pollination to be successful, a pollen grain produced by the anther, the
male part of a flower, must be transferred to a stigma, the female part of the flower, of a
plant of the same species. • The process is rather different in angiosperms (flowering
plants) from what it is in gymnosperms (other seed plants). • In angiosperms, after the
pollen grain has landed on the stigma, it creates a pollen tube which grows down the
style until it reaches the ovary. Sperm cells from the pollen grain then move along the
pollen tube enter the egg cell through the micropyle and fertilize it, resulting in the
production of a seed. • A successful angiosperm pollen grain (gametophyte) containing
the male gamete is transported to the stigma, where it germinates and its pollen tube
grows down the style to the ovary. Its two gametes travel down the tube to where the
gametophyte(s) containing the female gametes are held within the carpel. "Double
fertilization".
4. PROCESS OF POLLINATION •Pollen germination has three stages; hydration,
activation and pollen tube emergence. The pollen grain is severely dehydrated so that its
mass is reduced enabling it to be more easily transported from flower to flower. •
Germination only takes place after rehydration, ensuring that premature germination does
not take place in the anther. Hydration allows the plasma membrane of the pollen grain to
reform into its normal bilayer organization providing an effective osmotic membrane. •
Activation involves the development of actin filaments throughout the cytoplasm of the
cell, which eventually become concentrated at the point from which the pollen tube will
emerge. Hydration and activation continue as the pollen tube begins to grow. • In
conifers, the reproductive structures are borne on cones. The cones are either pollen
cones (male) or ovulate cones (female), but some species are monoecious and others
dioecious. • A pollen cone contains hundreds of microsporangia carried on (or borne on)
reproductive structures called sporophylls. Spore mother cells in the microsporangia
divide by meiosis to form haploid microspores that develop further by two mitotic
divisions into immature male gametophytes (pollen grains).
5. • The fourresulting cells consist of a large tube cell that forms the pollen tube, a
generative cell that will produce two sperm by mitosis, and two prothallial cells that
degenerate. • These cells comprise a very reduced microgametophyte, which is
contained within the resistant wall of the pollen grain. • The pollen grains are dispersed
by the wind to the female, ovulate cone that is made up of many overlapping scales
(sporophylls, and thus megasporophylls), each protecting two ovules, each of which
consists of a megasporangium (the nucellus) wrapped in two layers of tissue, the
6. integument and thecupule, that were derived from highly modified branches of
ancestral gymnosperms. • When a pollen grain lands close enough to the tip of an ovule,
it is drawn in through the micropyle ( a pore in the integuments covering the tip of the
ovule) often by means of a drop of liquid known as a pollination drop. • The pollen enters
a pollen chamber close to the nucellus, and there it may wait for a year before it
germinates and forms a pollen tube that grows through the wall of the megasporangium
(=nucellus) where fertilization takes place. During this time, the megaspore mother cell
divides by meiosis to form four haploid cells, three of which degenerate. • The surviving
one develops as a megaspore and divides repeatedly to form an immature female
gametophyte (egg sac). Two or three archegonia containing an egg then develop inside
the gametophyte. • Meanwhile, in the spring of the second year two sperm cells are
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produced by mitosis of the body cell of the male gametophyte. • The pollen tube
elongates and pierces and grows through the megasporangium wall and delivers the
sperm cells to the female gametophyte inside. • Fertilization takes place when the
nucleus of one of the sperm cells enters the egg cell in theStudy Suggests Lyrics Have Gotten Simpler O
mega gametophyte’
sarchegonium.
7. • In floweringplants, the anthers of the flower produce microspores by meiosis. These
undergo mitosis to form male gametophytes, each of which contains two haploid cells. •
Meanwhile, the ovules produce megaspores by meiosis, further division of these form
the female gametophytes, which are very strongly reduced, each consisting only of a few
cells, one of which is the egg. When a pollen grain adheres to the stigma of a carpel it
germinates, developing a pollen tube that grows through the tissues of the style, entering
the ovule through the micropyle. • When the tube reaches the egg sac, two sperm cells
pass through it into the female gametophyte and fertilization takes place.
8. TYPES OF POLLINATION Onthe Basis of Pollen Source Depending on the source of
pollen, pollination can be classified into 2 types – Self-pollination Cross Pollination
(Xenogamy) Self-Pollination Self-Pollination is the type of Pollination in which pollen
grains are transferred from anther to the stigma of the same flower (Autogamy) or pollen
grains are transferred from anther to the stigma of different flower of the same plant
(Geitonogamy). Cross Pollination Cross Pollination or Xenogamy is the type of pollination
in which pollen grains are transferred from anther to the stigma of a different plant. On
the Basis of Pollinating Agent Depending on agent of Pollination, pollination can be
classified into abiotic pollination and biotic pollination Abiotic Pollination • Abiotic
pollination refers to situations where pollination is mediated without the involvement of
other organisms. • The most common form of abiotic pollination, anemophily, is
pollination by wind. Wind pollination is very imprecise, with a minute proportion of
9. pollen grains landingby chance on a suitable receptive stigma, the rest being wasted
in the environment. • This form of pollination is used by grasses, most conifers, and
many deciduous trees. Hydrophily is pollination by water, and occurs in aquatic plants
which release their pollen directly into the surrounding water. • About 80% of all plant
pollination is biotic. In gymnosperms, biotic pollination is generally incidental when it
occurs, though some gymnosperms and their pollinators are mutually adapted for
pollination. • The best-known examples probably are members of the order Cycadales
and associated species of beetles. • Of the abiotically pollinated species of plant, 98%
are anemophilous and 2% hygrophilous, their pollen being transported by water. • It is
thought that among angiosperms, entomophily is the primitive state; this is indicated by
the vestigial nectarines in the wind pollinated Utica and other plants, and the presence of
fragrances in some of these plants. • Of the angiosperms, grasses, sedges, rushes and
catkin-bearing plants are in general wind pollinated. Other flowering plants are mostly
biotic, the pollen being carried by animal vectors. • However, a number of plants in
multiple families have secondarily adopted wind pollination in contrast to other members
of their groups. Some plants are intermediate between the two pollination methods.
10. • Common heatheris regularly pollinated by insects, but produce clouds of pollen and
some wind pollination is inevitable, and the hoary plantain is primarily wind pollinated, but
is also visited by insects which pollinate it. Biotic Pollination • More commonly, the
process of pollination requires pollinators: organisms that carry or move the pollen grains
from the anther of one flower to the receptive part of the carpel or pistil (stigma) of
another. This is biotic pollination. • The various flower traits (and combinations thereof)
that differentially attract one type of pollinator or another are known as pollination
syndromes. • At least 100,000 species of animal, and possibly as many as 200,000, act
as pollinators of the estimated 250,000 species of flowering plants in the world. • The
majority of these pollinators are insects, but about 1,500 species of birds and mammals
have been reported to visit flowers and may transfer pollen between them. • Besides

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birds and bats which are the most frequent visitors, these include monkeys, lemurs,
squirrels, rodents and possums. • Entomophily, pollination by insects, often occurs on
plants that have developed colored petals and a strong scent to attract insects such as,
Study Suggests Lyrics Have Gotten Simpler O
bees, wasps and occasionally ants (Hymenoptera), beetles (Coleoptera), moths and
butterflies (Lepidoptera), and flies (Diptera).
11. The existenceof insect pollination dates back to the dinosaur era. In zoophily,
pollination is performed by vertebrates such as birds and bats, particularly,
hummingbirds, sunbirds, spiderhunters, honeyeaters, and fruit bats. Ornithophily or
bird pollination is the pollination of flowering plants by birds. Chiropterophily or bat
pollination is the pollination of flowering plants by bats. Plants adapted to use bats or
moths as pollinators typically have white petals, strong scent and flower at night,
whereas plants that use birds as pollinators tend to produce copious nectar and have red
petals.
12. Insect pollinatorssuch as honey bees (Apismellifera), bumblebees
(Bombusterrestris), and butterflies (Thymelicusflavus) have been observed to engage in
flower constancy, which means they are more likely to transfer pollen to other
conspecific plants. This can be beneficial for the pollinators, as flower constancy
prevents the loss of pollen during interspecific flights and pollinators from clogging
stigmas with pollen of other flower species. It also improves the probability that the
pollinator will find productive flowers easily accessible and recognizable by familiar
clues.
13. MECHANISM Pollination can beaccomplished by cross-pollination or by self-
pollination: -pollination, also called allogamy, occurs when pollen is delivered from the
stamen of one flower to the stigma of a flower on another plant of the same species. -
pollination have several mechanisms to prevent self-pollination; the reproductive organs
may be arranged in such a way that self-fertilisation is unlikely, or the stamens and
carpels may mature at different times. Modes of Cross Pollination: stigma of different
flowers are as follows: WIND (Anemophily), WATER (Hydrophily), INSECTS (Entomophily),
BIRDS (Ornithophily)' and BATS (Chiropterophily).
14. (1) Anemophily: • Anemophilousplants produce enormous amount of. Pollen grains:
A single plant of Mercurialis annually has been estimated to produce 1,352,000,000
pollen grains. • Anemophilous plants bear small and inconspicuous flower. The pollen
grains are small, light, smooth and dry. • Pollen of some plants are said to be blown to
1,300 km. In some plants as Pinus, pollen grains are winged. • The flowers are usually
unisexual in some plants e.g. Mulberry is borne in independent catkins which can sway
freely and shake off their pollen in air. • The flowers may be borne on long axis (as in
grasses) much above the leaves. • The anther is versatile so as to oscillate in all
directions at the tip of filament. • In Urticaceae filaments are very long. • Anempohilous
flowers have adequate devices to catch the air-borne-pollen grains with utmost
efficiency. For this the stigma is usually large and feathery (as in grasses) and brush like
as in Typha. (2) Hydrophily: o Hypohydrogamy: Includes plants which are pollinated
inside the water, e.g. Ceratophyllum, Najas. o Epihydrogamy: Vallisneriaspiralis (ribbon
weed) is a submerged dioecious plant. s are borne under water. on the surface of water.
15. they are broughtto the surface by their long and slender stalks. pollination takes place.
rsion bringing the pollinated flower under water once more. (3) Entomophily: and beetles.
carry out 80% of all pollination done by insects. nectar. exine. (4) Ornithophily: on the
nectar of flower like Bignonia, Erythrina is visited by crows. (5) Chiropteriphily:
16. (6) Malcophily: snails. Mechanism ofSelf Pollination -pollination occurs when pollen
from one flower pollinates the same flower or other flowers of the same individual.
reliable vectors for pollen transport, and is most often seen in short-lived annual species
and plants that colonize new locations. -pollination may include autogamy, where pollen
is transferred to the female part of the same flower; or geitonogamy, when pollen is
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transferred to another flower on the same plant. -fertilize often have similar stamen and
carpel lengths. self-fertile. -sterile, a condition which mandates cross-pollination for the
production of offspring. Cleistogamy -pollination that occurs before the flower opens.
Study Suggests Lyrics Have Gotten Simpler O
anther grows a tube down the style to the ovules. apomixis. in contrast to
chasmogamous flowers that open and are then pollinated.
17. -compatible or self- fertileplants. resort to this strategy under adverse conditions.
flowers, sometimes on different parts of the plant and sometimes in mixed
inflorescences. round, and mixed cleistogamous and chasmogamous flowers above.
18. POLLEN VECTORS mammals, andsundry others, that routinely transport pollen and
play a role in pollination. breeding or shelter. hair, feathers, and moist spots; depending
on the particular vector. Such transport is vital to the pollination of many plant species.
pollen vector to some extent. moves on might carry pollen incidentally, but most pollen
vectors of significant interest are those that routinely visit the flowers for some functional
activity. nectar, and carry out acts of pollination on the way. Many plants bear flowers
that favor certain types of pollinator over all others. of such a shape that they favor
pollinators that pass by their anthers and stigmata on the way to the nectar, may get
robbed by ants that are small enough to bypass the normal channels, or by short-
tongued bees that bite through the bases of deep corolla tubes to extract nectar at the
end opposite to the anthers and stigma.
19. because their abilityto carry pollen is impacted by some morphological trait. -lined
sphinx moth, in which short-tongued morphs collect pollen on their heads but long-
tongued morphs do not carry any pollen. effectiveness. Other flowers will attract
pollinators by odor. cordata are attracted to orchids this way, and it has been suggested
that the bees will become intoxicated during these visits to the orchid flowers, which last
up to 90 minutes. to their particular type of vector, for example day-pollinated species
tend to be brightly colored, but if they are pollinated largely by birds or specialist
mammals, they tend to be larger and have larger nectar rewards than species that are
strictly insect-pollinated. flowering seasons; their specialist pollinators would be likely to
starve if the pollination season were too short.
20. CONCLUSIONS enhance present pollinatorsand often involves the culture and
addition of pollinators in monoculture situations, such as commercial fruit orchards. ation
event in the world is in Californian almond orchards, where nearly half (about one million
hives) of the US honey bees are trucked to the almond orchards each spring. uses about
50,000 hives each year. melons, strawberries, and many other crops. Honey bees are not
the only managed pollinators: a few other species of bees are also raised as pollinators.
The alfalfa leafcutter bee is an important pollinator for alfalfa seed in western United
States and Canada. tomatoes and other crops. agricultural crops, improving their quality
and quantity, becomes more and more appreciated and has given rise to new financial
opportunities. agricultural crops, such as apples, almonds or coffee can improve their
yield by about 20%.
21. wners demanding payment fortheir contribution in the improved crop results – a
simple example of the economic value of ecological services. species as shown with L.
vierecki in Delaware and L. leucozonium in southwest Virginia.
22. BIBLOGRAPHY Green (Author), G.W. Stout (Author), D. J. Taylor (Author), R. Soper
(Editor)

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