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1
CHAPTER 1
Carbon-based fuels

LESSONS

1A Fossil fuels
1B Biofuels
1C Fuel for the body
1D Enthalpy changes and combustion reactions
Chapter 1 review

KEY KNOWLEDGE

• the definition of a fuel, including the distinction between fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, petrol)
and biofuels (biogas, bioethanol, biodiesel) with reference to their renewability (ability of a
resource to be replaced by natural processes within a relatively short period of time)
• fuel sources for the body measured in kJ g−1: carbohydrates, proteins and lipids (fats and oils)
• photosynthesis as the process that converts light energy into chemical energy and as
a source of glucose and oxygen for respiration in living things: 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) →
C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)
• oxidation of glucose as the primary carbohydrate energy source, including the balanced
equation for cellular respiration: C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
• production of bioethanol by the fermentation of glucose and subsequent distillation to
produce a more sustainable transport fuel: C6H12O6(aq) → 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
• comparison of exothermic and endothermic reactions, with reference to bond making and
bond breaking, including enthalpy changes (∆H) measured in kJ, molar enthalpy changes
measured in kJ mol−1 and enthalpy changes for mixtures measured in kJ g−1, and their
representations in energy profile diagrams
• determination of limiting reactants or reagents in chemical reactions
• combustion (complete and incomplete) reactions of fuels as exothermic reactions: the
writing of balanced thermochemical equations, including states, for the complete and
incomplete combustion of organic molecules using experimental data and data tables

3
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1A Fossil fuels
STUDY DESIGN DOT POINT

• the definition of a fuel, including

the distinction between fossil
fuels (coal, natural gas, petrol)
and biofuels (biogas, bioethanol,
biodiesel) with reference to their
renewability (ability of a resource
to be replaced by natural processes
within a relatively short period
of time)

1A 1B 1C 1D

[Link] Definition of fuels Image: Mazur Travel Olivier Le Moal/[Link]

[Link] Non-renewability of fossil fuels For how many more years can we continue using coal and
natural gas?
ESSENTIAL PRIOR KNOWLEDGE Although fossil fuels remain, in most cases, the cheapest sources of energy,
• Molecules the over-reliance on them as our primary energy resource is no longer
• Hydrocarbons sustainable. In this lesson, we will learn about some of the different types
• Combustion of fossil fuels and why they are considered non-renewable.
See questions 1–3.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Chemical decomposition process in which larger chemical species are broken into
simpler molecules
Coal combustible fossil fuel formed by the partial decay of plant and animal matter
Coal seam gas natural gas sourced from coal deposits
Crude oil viscous black mixture of hydrocarbons
Enhanced greenhouse effect process of the warming of the Earth’s lower atmosphere
due to the increased concentration of gases like carbon dioxide, water vapour and
methane in the air
Fossil fuel natural fuel that is formed under the Earth's crust from the decomposition
of plant and/or animal remains over millions of years
Fuel substance that is used (usually combusted) to produce energy
Natural gas fossil fuel consisting of small hydrocarbon molecules
Non-renewable resource resource that cannot be replaced by natural processes
within a relatively short period of time
Petrol liquid hydrocarbon fossil fuel purified from crude oil
Petroleum complex mixture of hydrocarbons (often called crude oil) found under
Earth’s crust
Sustainable can be produced at a rate that is greater than or equal to the rate
of consumption without compromising future generations

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Definition of fuels [Link]

Fossil fuels are substances that have been formed by the chemical decomposition

1A THEORY
of organic matter over millions of years, and contain chemical energy that can
be converted into useful electrical, heat, and kinetic energy.

What is a fuel?
Fuels are incredibly useful substances that contain chemical energy, which can be
readily released through combustion reactions (i.e burning) to produce heat energy.
Energy is measured in the SI unit joule (J). A single joule is a relatively small amount
of energy; table 1 shows some more common units of energy used in VCE chemistry.

Table 1 List of common units of energy

Name Unit of energy USEFUL TIP
Kilojoules 1 kJ = 103 J
Mathematical prefixes (e.g. kilo)
Megajoules 1 MJ = 106 J can be found in the VCE Data Book.

Gigajoules 1 GJ = 109 J

Terajoules 1 TJ = 1012 J

A fossil fuel is a specific type of fuel that is named due to the way it is formed from
the remains of plants and/or animals. They can be extracted by various methods,
as shown in figure 1 (for information only, as the origin and methods of extraction
are outside the scope of the study design). Fossil fuels are currently the world’s
primary energy source – without them, we wouldn’t be able to provide most
of the energy required for fulfilling human needs.

Pumpjack Underground
coal mining
On-land Surface coal mining
oil rig
Offshore
Coal oil platform

Coal

Gas Gas
Coal
Oil Oil

Figure 1 Overview of different extraction methods of coal and gas

Common fossil fuels include coal, petrol and coal seam gas, each of which are
derived from the decomposition of plants and/or marine creatures and/or animals
over millions of years. Coal seam gas is a type of natural gas composed mainly of
methane (figure 2). All of these mentioned fossil fuels have a high carbon content,
making them excellent substances to burn. The amount of energy that is produced
from the combustion reactions of fuels is dependent on the type of fuel being burned.

Image: Mazur Travel/[Link]

Figure 2 Coal seam gas has been escaping through the bedrock of a mountain in Turkey, called the
‘Flames of Chimaera’, for over 2500 years.

1A Fossil fuels 5
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MISCONCEPTION

‘Natural gas only contains methane gas.’

1A THEORY

Natural gas is a mixture of gases including methane (~90%), ethane, propane, butane,
carbon dioxide and nitrogen. The exact composition varies depending on where
it is extracted from.

Petroleum, also known as crude oil, is a black and viscous mixture of hydrocarbons
Image: Kirill Gorshkov/[Link] (figure 3) that needs to be separated in a process known as fractional distillation
Figure 3 Crude oil is a very viscous (thick) and (figure 4). Fractional distillation utilises the different boiling points of the many
toxic mixture composed of around sixty species
of organic compounds. different compounds present in petroleum to separate them. The separated fractions
can then be used as fuel or can be treated to produce desired products. For the
context of this study design, it is not necessary to know this process in detail.

Gas 20 °C

150 °C
Gasoline (petrol)
200 °C
Kerosene
300 °C
Crude oil Diesel oil
370 °C
Fuel oil
400 °C

Lubricating oil,
Furnace paraffin wax, asphalt
Figure 4 Stages of fractional distillation of crude oil, with the common uses of each fraction

A useful product of the fractional distillation of crude oil is petrol.1 Petrol contains
KEEN TO INVESTIGATE?
a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules, including octane (figure 5), that range in length
1  hat fuel should you use
W from 5 to 12 carbon atoms. Whilst petrol itself consists purely of hydrocarbons,
in your car? implying that burning it should only release carbon dioxide and water, petroleum
Search YouTube: Fuel octane
deposits are often contaminated with hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and other sulfur and
rating explained
nitrogen compounds. When petrol contaminated with sulfur is burned, it produces
harmful sulfur dioxide, making it less desirable as a fuel due to its negative effects on
the environment.

Figure 5 Example of a common molecule that makes up petrol (octane, C8H18) (a) full structural
(b) skeletal

Coal seam gas (natural gas), like petroleum and coal, is formed from the remains
KEEN TO INVESTIGATE?
of plants and animal materials. It is found in deposits in the Earth’s crust and can
2  hy has fracking been banned
W
be accessed by drilling. It is then extracted from coal and shale deposits by a process
in Victoria?
known as fracking. Fracking involves injecting liquid at high pressure into coal and
Search: Victoria becomes first
Australian state to ban fracking shale rocks to force open fissures (cracks) to extract the gas. Materials used for
this process have harmful impacts on the surrounding environment as well as
water supplies.2
Coal is the most common source used to generate electricity, followed by
petroleum-powered and natural gas-powered plants. However, at the current rates
of consumption, coal, crude oil, and coal seam gas won’t be available indefinitely.
As these resources are limited, it is important to find alternative sources of energy
and to consider the impact of burning these fuels on the environment.

6 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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WORKED EXAMPLE 1

Select the set of fuels that contain the three major sources of energy currently used by society.

1A THEORY
A. Coal, wood, and oil
B. Nuclear, coal, and oil
C. Peat, coal seam gas, and natural gas
D. Coal, oil, and natural gas

What information is presented in the question?

Different types of fuels.

What is the question asking us to do?

Decide which fuels are the most commonly utilised by society.

What strategies do we need in order to answer the question?

1. Cross out the fuels that are not commonly used.
2. Confirm that the option remaining has commonly used sources.

Answer
Option A: Wood is not commonly used in society.
Option B: Nuclear energy is not commonly used in society.
Option C: Peat is not commonly used in society.
Option D: All three of coal, oil and natural gas are commonly used in society.

PROGRESS QUESTIONS

Question 1
Which of the following is not considered to be a fuel?
A. Petrol
B. Wood
C. Sand
D. LPG

Question 2
Chemical reactions caused by _ initiate the transformation
of decaying plant and marine creatures’ remains into hydrocarbons.
A. water vapour
B. decomposition
C. oxygen gas
D. solar energy

Question 3
Coal seam gas can be best described as
A. being formed from animals only.
B. being formed from plants only.
C. a single hydrocarbon compound.
D. a mixture of small hydrocarbon compounds.

1A Fossil fuels 7
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MISCONCEPTION Non-renewability of fossil fuels [Link]

‘Nuclear fuel is a fossil fuel Although fossil fuels are formed by natural processes, the resources that produce
1A THEORY

and is renewable.’ them are not quickly replenished, therefore making them non-renewable resources.
Nuclear fuel (e.g. uranium ore)
is not formed by the same processes
as fossil fuels, and once the nuclear
Why are fossil fuels non-renewable?
fuel is used, it cannot be replaced A non-renewable resource is a substance that cannot be replaced by natural
by natural processes in a short processes at the same rate, or faster than it is consumed. Coal, petroleum and coal
period of time.
seam gas are produced from organic material that has undergone complex natural
decomposition processes that take millions of years to occur. Therefore, they cannot
be replaced in the foreseeable future. These fuels (coal, petroleum and coal seam gas)
are classified as non-renewable because they are being used up faster than they can
be replaced.
This is a problem in our constantly growing world as the demand for fuel increases
with a rising population using fuel-dependent technology. Moreover, the extraction
methods of each of these fuels are harmful to the environment in different ways,
making finding alternative fuels more desirable. For example sulfur dioxide (SO2)
emissions from the burning of coal and contaminated petrol contribute to the
formation of acid rain. Fossil fuel-fired electric power stations emit a large amount
of carbon dioxide which accumulates in the atmosphere. This accumulation of gases
in the atmosphere contributes to what is known as the enhanced greenhouse effect,
where more thermal energy is trapped by the atmosphere, causing the planet
to become warmer than it would normally be.
The process of drilling and mining for coal, coal seam gas and crude oil disrupts the
natural landscape and can disrupt the water table if spills occur. Therefore, fuels from
resources that are renewable and less harmful to the environment are very desirable
alternatives. These alternative resources are known as biofuels and will be discussed
in lesson 1B.

PROGRESS QUESTIONS

Question 4
Which of the following is a correct statement regarding fossil fuels?
A. All fossil fuels are non-renewable resources.
B. All non-renewable energy sources are fossil fuels.
C. Fossil fuels are renewable resources.
D. All renewable energy sources are fossil fuels.

Question 5
Which statement(s) regarding petrol is/are correct?
Petrol is
I. extracted directly from the ground.
II. non-renewable.
III. separated from crude oil.
A. III only
B. II and III only
C. All of the above
D. None of the above Continues →

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Question 6
Which of the following problems could be a result of the combustion of coal?

1A QUESTIONS
A. Carbon dioxide emissions
B. Acid rain formation
C. Carbon smog
D. All of the above

Theory summary
• A fuel is a substance that is combusted to produce energy in the form of heat.
• Coal, which is mined from the ground and combusted in power plants
for electricity, is formed by the natural breakdown of organic materials.
• Crude oil, found in reservoirs in porous rocks, is separated by fractional
distillation to obtain petrol and other useful hydrocarbons.
• Petrol is a hydrocarbon obtained from crude oil.
• Coal seam gas (natural gas) is formed from the remains of plants and animals
and is combusted in power plants for electricity.
• Fossil fuels, such as natural gas, coal and petrol, are non-renewable energy
sources that are formed by natural processes over millions of years.
• A fuel is considered to be non-renewable if it cannot be replaced by natural
processes within a relatively short period of time.
• A fossil fuel is not sustainable as it cannot be produced at a rate that is greater
than its consumption.

1A Questions Mild Medium Spicy

Deconstructed
Use the following information to answer questions 7–9.

Methane gas may be obtained from a number of different sources. It is a major component of natural gas.
Methane trapped in coal is called coal seam gas and can be extracted by a process known as fracking.
Methane is also produced by the microbial decomposition of plant and animal materials. In addition,
large reserves of methane were trapped in ice as methane hydrate in the ocean depths long ago.

Question 7 (1 MARK)
When is a fuel considered a non-renewable resource?
A. If there is a surplus in the supplies of the fuel
B. If there is a greater demand than supply of the fuel
C. If it cannot be replaced by natural processes within a relatively short period of time
D. If it can be replaced by natural processes within a relatively short period of time

Question 8 (1 MARK)
Fossil fuels take approximately
A. 1 year to be replaced.
B. 10 years to be replaced.
C. 100 years to be replaced.
D. 1 000 000+ years to be replaced.

1A Fossil fuels 9
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Question 9 (3 MARKS)
Explain whether methane is a non-renewable energy source when it is obtained from each of the sources
1A QUESTIONS

outlined in the paragraph.

Adapted from VCAA 2014 exam Multiple choice Q24

Exam-style
Question 10 (1 MARK)
Crude oil is used as a fuel for transportation, heating and electricity. Which of the following best describes
crude oil?
A. A naturally occurring solid found in coal deposits
B. An artificial oil created in labs
C. A naturally occurring liquid composed of hydrocarbons
D. Liquid produced from anaerobically fermenting plant material

Question 11 (7 MARKS)
Natural gas and coal are both examples of fuel sources that can be used to produce energy.
a. Identify whether coal and natural gas are classified as fossil fuels, giving a justification for your response. 4 MARKS

b. Ethanol can be produced from coal. Identify whether ethanol produced using this method can be
considered non-renewable. 3 MARKS

Question 12 (3 MARKS)
Wood cannot be grown at the rate at which we are using it.
a. Why is wood not considered a fossil fuel? 2 MARKS

b. Identify why sourcing energy from wood is considered an unsustainable process, even though wood
can be replaced by natural processes within a relatively short period of time. 1 MARK

Key science skills

Use the following information to answer question 13.

Article 1
Whenever any global summits about climate change occur, fossil fuels are almost always at the centre
of the talks. The main three being oil, coal and natural gas. It is predicted that we will run out of certain
fossil fuels at some point during this century. Recent predictions are:
• oil ≈ 50 years
• natural gas ≈ 53 years
• coal ≈ 114 years.
Based on the targets set by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), some
recommendations are:
• Nations must make immediate and deep cuts in the production of all fossil fuels, including a rapid and
just phaseout of existing production.
• Coal production in developed nations (like Australia) needs to fall by 50% within five years and
be effectively eliminated by 2030.
• Output of oil and gas in developed nations needs to be cut by 74% by 2030, with a complete
phaseout by 2034.

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Article 2
As oil and gas become harder to access and renewable sources become more commonly used, it will

1A QUESTIONS
make more financial sense to leave fossil fuels in the ground and switch to cleaner, renewable sources
instead. Thinking we will simply switch to renewable energy sources when fossil fuels run low is hugely
naïve. To avoid the worst impacts of climate change, fossil fuel reserves need to be left in the ground.
Some people think that as we use more oil and gas, the reserves will run lower. They hadn’t realised that
as technology improves, it becomes possible to find and extract more fossil fuels.
Source: (2022). Fossil Fuel Reserves Aren’t Running Out. Gapminder. [Link]/lessons/fossil-fuel-
reserves-arent-running-out

Question 13 (6 MARKS)

a. Which of the articles would be considered opinion? Justify your answer. 2 MARKS

b. Give one factor that would prevent Australia from carrying out the recommendations outlined
in Article 1. Explain your reasoning. 2 MARKS

c. Give a different factor that would prevent Australia from carrying out the recommendations outlined
in Article 1. Explain your reasoning. 2 MARKS

FROM LESSONS 12B & 12C

1A Fossil fuels 11
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1B Biofuels
STUDY DESIGN DOT POINTS

• the definition of a fuel, including

the distinction between fossil fuels
(coal, natural gas, petrol) and biofuels
(biogas, bioethanol, biodiesel)
with reference to their renewability
(ability of a resource to be replaced
by natural processes within a
relatively short period of time)
• production of bioethanol by the
fermentation of glucose and
subsequent distillation to produce
a more sustainable transport fuel:
C6H12O6(aq) → 2C2H5OH(aq)
+ 2CO2(g)
Image: Jim Barber/[Link]

1A 1B 1C 1D
Why are biofuels not more commonly used?
The expenses are often greater for producing biofuels when compared
[Link] & Definition of biofuels &
to fossil fuels, and this is an area scientists are researching in order to make
[Link] renewability of biofuels biofuel production cheaper and more environmentally friendly. Biofuels are
a broad category of fuels sourced from organic matter and are an alternative
[Link] Production of bioethanol source of energy to fossil fuels. In this lesson, we will explore the renewability
and sustainability of different types of biofuels.
ESSENTIAL PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
1A Non-renewable resource
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
See question 4.
Biodiesel fuel produced by the transesterification of fats and oils in organic matter
Bioethanol fuel produced by the anaerobic fermentation of glucose from organic matter
Biofuel fuel sourced from organic matter
Biogas gaseous fuel produced by the anaerobic breakdown of organic matter
Biomass any organic material made of plant or animal matter
Carbon neutral describes a fuel that does not result in a net production of carbon
dioxide from sourcing and consumption
Distillation process involving the conversion of a liquid into vapour that is then
condensed back to liquid form
Feedstock raw material used for producing another product
Fermentation breakdown of a substance in the presence of microorganisms such
as yeast
Life cycle the management of the production, processing, storage, transportation, use,
and disposal of a chemical product
Renewable resource resource capable of being replaced by natural processes within
a relatively short period of time
Transesterification reaction a type of chemical reaction used to produce biodiesel
and glycerol
Triglyceride fat or oil composed of three fatty acid tails and a glycerol backbone
Yeast variety of microorganism which converts glucose into ethanol

12 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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Definition of biofuels & renewability

of biofuels [Link] & [Link]

1B THEORY
In light of our changing climate, Australian leaders and industry are investigating
a range of energy sources to replace fossil fuels. Biofuels may provide a viable
alternative. We can use our knowledge of the source of a biofuel to determine
if it is a renewable resource and/or a sustainable resource.

What is a biofuel?
A biofuel is a fuel sourced directly from organic matter, such as sugarcane, soya beans,
wheat, or vegetable oils. The three main types of biofuels we will study are biogas,
biodiesel and bioethanol.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1

Explain why methane sourced from natural gas deposits is considered a fossil fuel, but methane sourced
from the decomposition of vegetable waste is considered a biofuel.

What information is presented in the question?

Methane in natural gas is a fossil fuel.
Methane sourced from vegetable waste decomposition is a biofuel.

What is the question asking us to do?

Explain the relationship between how a fuel is sourced and its classification.

What strategies do we need in order to answer the question?

1. Identify the characteristics of methane in natural gas that make it a fossil fuel.
2. Identify the characteristics of methane sourced from vegetable waste that make it a biofuel.

Answer
Methane derived from natural gas is produced by the chemical decomposition of animal and plant remains
over a very long period of time, so it is considered a fossil fuel. Methane derived from the decomposition
of vegetable scraps is directly obtained from organic matter, so it is considered a biofuel.

How is biogas made?

As shown in figure 1, organic matter (such as algae, crops, wood, or compostable
organics) is broken down by bacteria into gas. This process is described as anaerobic,
because it does not require oxygen to proceed. Typical composition of biogas
The gas that is produced is a mixture of different gases: predominantly methane,
but also a large proportion of carbon dioxide. Every sample of biogas will contain
different proportions of gases; figure 2 shows an approximation of the average
proportions of different gases in biogas.

Biogas

Anaerobic bacteria
digest organic matter
to produce biogas Methane
Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Other
Organic matter
Figure 2 An example of the composition
Figure 1 The production of biogas from organic matter of a biogas

1B Biofuels 13
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How is biodiesel made?

Biodiesel is produced by a transesterification reaction of fats originating from
animal products, and oils originating from crops. Animal fats and plant oils, such as
1B THEORY

sunflower and canola, are composed of compounds known as triglycerides.

An alcohol, usually methanol, is added to the triglyceride, and with a catalyst such as
potassium hydroxide, it reacts to form biodiesel, a mixture of fatty acid methyl esters,
and glycerol (figure 3).

3CH3OH

Triglyceride Methanol Mixture of fatty acid Glycerol

(fats and oils) methyl esters (propan–1,2,3–triol)
(biodiesel)
Figure 3 Transesterification of triglycerides

The reaction shown in figure 3, as well as other organic reactions, conditions,

and structures, will be explored further in chapter 8.

Why are biofuels considered renewable?

USEFUL TIP
We have already learned the definition of a non-renewable fuel in lesson 1A. A fuel
R is an abbreviation that is used is considered a renewable resource if it is capable of being replaced by natural
in organic chemistry for any processes within a relatively short period of time. For example, the fatty acid
hydrocarbon chain (e.g. −CH2CH3) methyl esters we know as biodiesel are derived from crops and animal fats which
or hydrogen atom attached to the rest
can be produced in less than a year to replenish supplies. As a result, we classify
of the molecule. This helps simplify
biodiesel as a renewable energy source.
what is occurring in reactions.
Similarly, biogas is produced directly from organic matter, meaning it can be produced
in a relatively short time period. For this reason, biogas is also classified as a renewable
energy source.

USEFUL TIP

Renewability concerns the period of time to replace resources, whereas sustainability

concerns the rate of production versus the rate of consumption of resources.

PROGRESS QUESTIONS

Question 1
Biogas is mainly composed of _ and is a _ energy source.
A. carbon dioxide, renewable
B. methane, non-renewable
C. carbon dioxide, non-renewable
D. methane, renewable

Question 2
Renewable fuels
A. release less carbon dioxide than non-renewable fuels.
B. are replaced at least at the rate at which they are consumed.
C. directly contribute less to global warming than non-renewable fuels.
D. are all biofuels. Continues →

14 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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Question 3
Which one of the following statements best defines a renewable energy resource?

1B THEORY
A. An energy resource that will not be consumed within our lifetime
B. An energy resource that does not produce greenhouse gases when consumed
C. An energy resource derived from plants that are grown for the
production of liquid biofuels
D. An energy resource that can be replaced by natural processes within
a relatively short time
VCAA 2015 exam Multiple choice Q5

Production of bioethanol [Link]

Bioethanol is one of the main biofuels used in the transportation industry.
It is estimated that transport fuels in Australia account for 25% of all energy
used per year.

How can bioethanol be produced on an industrial

scale and used for transport?
A solution of bioethanol is produced by the anaerobic fermentation of glucose
(a sugar) in organic matter (biomass) by a microorganism called yeast, as shown
in figure 4a. This solution of bioethanol then undergoes distillation, removing the
water to create pure bioethanol, as shown in figure 4b. Organic matter commonly
fermented by yeast includes crops such as sugarcane, soybeans, and corn. Ethanol
is only considered bioethanol when produced via the fermentation and distillation
process described in figure 4c.

MISCONCEPTION
Fermentation
‘Solutions of bioethanol are
Yeast not flammable.’
Glucose solution → Bioethanol solution + Carbon dioxide gas
32–35°C A solution of bioethanol that contains
Anaerobic 20 mL of bioethanol per 100 mL
of water is still flammable.

C6H12O6(aq) → 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)

5–21% v/v

Distillation
Water removed
Bioethanol solution → Pure bioethanol liquid (can be added to petrol)
>100°C

2C2H5OH(aq) → 2C2H5OH(l)
5–21% v/v 100% v/v

Overall equation
C6H12O6(aq) → 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
Figure 4 (a) Fermentation process of glucose into bioethanol (b) subsequent distillation
and (c) the overall equation

1B Biofuels 15
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MISCONCEPTION

‘Fermentation of glucose and other sugars only produces bioethanol.’

1B THEORY

Many other compounds are also formed in small quantities, including ethanoic
acid, ethanal, esters, and higher alcohols.

E10, a blend of 10% bioethanol and 90% petrol, is a common fuel available
at some service stations in Australia and is the most prominent biofuel already
in the mainstream Australian market. Other countries are far ahead of Australia;
for example, most automobiles in Brazil run either on E85 or E25 blend (figure 5).

Although the combustion of bioethanol produces CO2(g), the process of crop

production offsets this release through the absorption of CO2(g) from plants
undergoing photosynthesis (covered in lesson 1C). This means bioethanol
is considered relatively carbon neutral, as shown in figure 6. However, it is not
completely carbon neutral because the processes involved, such as the transportation,
Image: koonsiri boonnak/[Link]
harvesting, and production of organic matter, all require energy (figure 7).
Figure 5 Since 2007, E25 (25% bioethanol)
is the minimum blend allowed in Brazil.

Combustion

Bioethanol Carbon dioxide

Plants
Figure 6 The recycling of carbon dioxide in the production of bioethanol

USEFUL TIP
Bioethanol
Non-renewable industrial pure ethanol
is made from ethene (CH2CH2) which
comes from crude oil. The addition
reaction of ethene with steam in the
Used in
presence of an acid catalyst is covered Sugarcane Milling Sugar solution Fermentation Distillation transport fuel
in chapter 8.
Figure 7 Simplified overview of the process of producing bioethanol

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

What qualitative conclusion can be drawn from the following graph regarding the predicted future
demand for bioethanol versus biodiesel for use in transport?

30 Biojet
25 Biogas
Energy (× 1018 J)

Biodiesel - advanced
20 Biodiesel - conventional
15 Bioethanol - advanced
Bioethanol - conventional
10

0 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050 2055 2060
Year
Continues →

16 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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What information is presented in the question?

Global biofuels’ energy growth compared to the type of fuel.

1B THEORY
What is the question asking us to do?
Draw a qualitative conclusion by first comparing the data shown in the graph.

What strategies do we need in order to answer the question?

1. Identify the trends for bioethanol (conventional and advanced).
2. Identify the trends for biodiesel (conventional and advanced).
3. Compare the future trendlines.

Answer
Although predicted demand for advanced bioethanol increases from 2025 to 2060 (whereas predicted
demand for conventional bioethanol remains steady), this increase is much smaller than that of the
predicted demand for advanced biodiesel (although conventional biodiesel is predicted to be phased out
by 2045). Biodiesel (advanced) is depicted as the biofuel of the future, predicted to constitute a far larger
share of the fuel market than bioethanol by 2060.

How sustainable are biofuels?

Sustainable and environmentally friendlier energy (based on the use of renewable
resources) is necessary in order to meet the future energy needs of humans.
For example, the use of bioethanol in blended fuels is a more sustainable
option than petrol, as crops can be grown again to produce more bioethanol
in a short period of time (months). However, the whole life cycle of biofuels
is not completely carbon neutral, and the production and use of biofuels does
require certain considerations.

Food vs fuel
The production of biofuels should not reduce the amount of food available to the
KEEN TO INVESTIGATE?
growing global population, and the feedstock must be sourced from waste products
of food crops or non-edible plant waste materials like sugarcane pulp (bagasse).1 1  ow can the waste from sugarcane
H
help reduce plastic pollution?
Search YouTube: Biodegradable
Land requirements
sugarcane bagasse manufacture
Researchers estimate that Australians will need around 100 million hectares
of land (the size of China) to grow enough biofuels to both reduce carbon emissions
and shift to a greener economy in the next 30–40 years.

Energy input vs energy output

The total amount of energy required to grow, collect, and convert the feedstock into a
MISCONCEPTION
usable biofuel should only represent a small percentage of the total energy available
from combustion of the biofuel. Industrial processes are continuously improving ‘Bioethanol made from plants
efficiency: a key factor in improving the sustainability of biofuel energy production. is different to ethanol produced
It is crucial that the amount of energy input to create these biofuels is reduced, from crude oil.’
which can be achieved using more efficient biofuels that will help the transition Ethanol is ethanol; it functions
more towards the use of alternative fuels, given they are both sustainable and more the same, regardless of the source.
environmentally friendly than conventional fossil fuels.

PROGRESS QUESTIONS

Question 4
What could be considered a carbon neutral activity?
Any activity that
A. releases no net carbon dioxide.
B. produces carbon dioxide.
C. does not involve carbon.
D. does not produce carbon. Continues →

1B Biofuels 17
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Question 5
Which one of the following is a biofuel?
1B QUESTIONS

A. Ethanol produced from crude oil

B. Ethanol produced from plants
C. Propane produced from natural gas
D. Electricity produced by nuclear power
Adapted from VCAA 2017 exam Multiple choice Q5

Question 6
Which statement about the production of bioethanol is incorrect?
A. Bioethanol is produced via anaerobic fermentation.
B. Once the bioethanol has been fully distilled, it can be considered
a pure liquid.
C. The fermentation of glucose yields a high percentage by volume
of bioethanol.
D. Energy from the feedstock used to produce ethanol is initially stored as fat.

Theory summary
• A biofuel is a fuel sourced directly from plant and/or animal matter.
• Biogas is a mixture of gases produced by the anaerobic breakdown
of organic matter.
• Bioethanol is a fuel produced by the fermentation and the subsequent distillation
of glucose or other sugars found in organic matter.
• Biodiesel is a fuel produced by the transesterification of fats and oils.
• A fuel is renewable if it can be replaced by natural processes within a relatively
short period of time.
• Biofuel production has advantages and disadvantages when compared
to fossil fuels.
• A biofuel is sustainable if it can be produced at a rate that is greater than
consumption without compromising future generations.

1B Questions Mild Medium Spicy

Deconstructed
Use the following information to answer questions 7–9.

Bioethanol can be easily made in Australia using waste from the sugarcane industry.

Question 7 (1 MARK)
What is one disadvantage of the production and use of bioethanol?
A. It can be viewed as carbon neutral.
B. Fertile land is needed for crops.
C. It is a renewable resource.
D. It utilises waste biomass.

18 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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Question 8 (1 MARK)
What is one advantage of bioethanol?

1B QUESTIONS
A. Biofuel crops can be grown in months.
B. Fertile land is needed for crops.
C. Bioethanol is expensive compared to other fuels.
D. It is non-renewable.

Question 9 (4 MARKS)
In simple terms, biofuels can be considered to be carbon neutral, as the carbon dioxide taken in by the
plants when they are growing is equal to the amount given off when the biofuel is combusted. In reality,
many other factors are involved.
a. Give an example of a factor and explain why it is difficult to have a truly carbon neutral fuel. 2 MARKS

b. Give a different example of a factor and explain why it is difficult to have a truly carbon neutral fuel. 2 MARKS

Exam-style
Question 10 (1 MARK)
Which of the following compounds is a mixture of methyl esters?
A. Methane B. Bioethanol C. Biodiesel D. Triglycerides

Question 11 (1 MARK)
Which of the following statements is most correct?
A. Biogas is derived from the chemical decomposition of anaerobic bacteria.
B. Fatty acid methyl esters are created by the oxidation of fats.
C. Methane sourced from the breakdown of compost is a renewable energy source.
D. Bioethanol can be obtained from the fractional distillation of crude oil.

Question 12 (5 MARKS)
Daisy purchases a new car, only to discover the fuel required is pure biodiesel. Unfortunately, there are no
local biodiesel service stations, and so Daisy decides to produce biodiesel from the local sunflower crops,
which grow very quickly. They also know that they will not require all the sunflower crops to power their car.
a. Would biodiesel produced in this way be considered renewable? Explain your answer. 2 MARKS

b. List an environmental concern Daisy may have regarding the process, with respect to water. 1 MARK

c. Daisy adds methanol and a catalyst to the oil extracted from the sunflower crops.
What type of reaction is occurring? 1 MARK

d. Daisy is successful in creating their desired product, yet notices an additional product is formed.
What is the name of this product? 1 MARK

Question 13 (5 MARKS)
Sugarcane is a species of tall grass rich in glucose. When fermented by anaerobic bacteria, the following
reaction occurs:
C6H12O6(aq) → 2X(aq) + 2Y(g)
a. Name compounds X and Y. 1 MARK

b. Explain why compound X is considered a renewable fuel. 1 MARK

c. The above reaction produces compound Y, but this is offset by the production of sugarcane crops.
Explain one environmental impact of compound Y if it were not offset. 1 MARK

d. Glucose for the above reaction is now sourced from potatoes. Would compound X still be defined
as renewable? 2 MARKS

1B Biofuels 19
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Key science skills

Question 14 (6 MARKS)
1B QUESTIONS

Climate change has been identified as a threat to the environment. Fossil fuels are recognised
as a significant contributor to the rise in carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. The replacement
of fossil fuels as an energy source represents a challenge and has been the focus of research for
a number of years. However, there are different opinions/views about the suitability of using a biofuel,
such as bioethanol, as a replacement for fossil fuels. Some extracts representing different viewpoints are
shown in the box below.
1‘Biofuels
are fuels that are produced from biological sources such as trees, plants or microorganisms.
They are carbon neutral, because they do not result in fossil carbon being released into the atmosphere.’
2‘All
good solutions are needed in the energy transition required to achieve Europe’s climate goals and
sustainable biofuels are critical to transport decarbonisation.’
3‘Many scientists view biofuels as inherently carbon neutral: they assume the carbon dioxide (CO2) plants
absorb from the air as they grow completely offsets, or 'neutralises,' the CO2 emitted when fuels made from
plants burn.’
4‘… our analysis affirms that, as a cure for climate change, biofuels are 'worse than the disease.’
5‘… although some forms of bioenergy can play a helpful role, dedicating land specifically for generating
bioenergy is unwise.’
Sources: 1CarbonNeutralEarth, <[Link]/[Link]>; 2Sejersgård Fanø, quoted in Erin Voegele, ‘EU reaches deal on REDII,
sets new goals for renewables’, Biodiesel Magazine, 15 June 2018, <[Link]>; 3 &4John DeCicco, ‘Biofuels turn out to be a climate
mistake– here’s why’, The Conversation, 5 October 2016, <[Link]/au>; 5Andrew Steer and Craig Hanson, ‘Biofuels are not a green
alternative to fossil fuels’, The Guardian, 30 January 2015, <[Link]/au>

Using the chemistry that you have studied and the information provided, discuss the carbon neutrality
and the sustainability of using bioethanol as a fuel for transport. In your answers, give arguments for and
against under the following headings:
a. Carbon dioxide 2 MARKS

b. Sustainability of using bioethanol as a fuel 2 MARKS

c. Using bioethanol as a fuel for transport 2 MARKS

Adapted from VCAA 2019 exam Short answer Q10a

FROM LESSON 12E

Questions from multiple lessons

Question 15 (1 MARK)
Which one of the following fuels is the most sustainable?
A. Biodiesel
B. Uranium
C. Coal
D. Natural gas
Adapted from VCAA 2012 Exam 2 Multiple choice Q2

FROM LESSON 1A

Question 16 (1 MARK)
Which of the following alternatives lists only renewable energy resources?
A. Coal, diesel, ethanol
B. Coal, crude oil, uranium
C. Ethanol, methane, diesel
D. Crude oil, natural gas, ethanol
VCAA 2013 Exam 2 Multiple choice Q22

20 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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FROM LESSON 1A

Question 17 (2 MARKS)

1B QUESTIONS
Digesters use bacteria to convert organic waste into biogas, which contains mainly methane, CH4.
Biogas can be used as a source of energy. Both biogas and coal seam gas contain CH4 as their
main component.
Why is biogas considered a renewable energy source but coal seam gas is not?
VCAA 2021 exam Short answer Q1a

FROM LESSON 1A

Question 18 (1 MARK)
Which one of the following statements is correct?
A. Crude oil can be classified as a biofuel because it originally comes from plants.
B. Methane, CH4, can be classified as a fossil fuel because it has major environmental impacts.
C. Ethanol, CH3CH2OH, can be classified as a fossil fuel because it can be produced from crude oil.
D. Hydrogen, H2, can be classified as a biofuel because, when it combusts, it does not produce carbon
dioxide, CO2.
VCAA 2020 exam Multiple choice Q11

FROM LESSON 1A

1B Biofuels 21
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1C Fuel for the body

STUDY DESIGN DOT POINTS

• fuel sources for the body measured

in kJ g−1: carbohydrates, proteins and
lipids (fats and oils)
• photosynthesis as the process that
converts light energy into chemical
energy and as a source of glucose
and oxygen for respiration in living
things: 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) →
C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)
• oxidation of glucose as the primary
carbohydrate energy source,
including the balanced equation
for cellular respiration: C6H12O6(aq)
+ 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
Image: Elena Eryomenko/[Link]

1A 1B 1C 1D
Why do some types of food contain more energy than others?
Together, photosynthesis and cellular respiration form a continuous cycle that
sustains life on Earth. Photosynthesis produces the oxygen needed for cellular
[Link] Energy from food
respiration in animals and humans, while cellular respiration produces the
[Link] & Production of glucose carbon dioxide that plants need for photosynthesis. Many complex processes
[Link] by photosynthesis & are involved in supplying oxygen to breathe, and energy from different types
energy from glucose of food for our bodies. In this lesson we will simplify two major processes that
allow Earth to be inhabited by organisms.
ESSENTIAL PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
• Polymers
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
• Oxidation reactions
See questions 5–6. Carbohydrate any polymer made up of sugar monomers like glucose
Cellular respiration process of converting glucose into energy in the cells of
living organisms
Digestion a series of complex processes involved in the breakdown of food
Energy content amount of heat energy (in joules or kilojoules) produced upon burning
1 gram of a pure substance
Glucose (C6H12O6) an important sugar that is absorbed into the bloodstream and
transported to cells
Metabolism chemical reactions in the body’s cells that change food into energy
Photosynthesis process of converting light energy into chemical energy in the cells
of plants, algae, and certain bacteria

Energy from food [Link]

Food plays an integral role in our survival. Metabolism of food not only gives
us molecules critical to our biological functioning, but also provides us with
energy to sustain all of the reactions required for us to survive.

How much energy can different types of food provide

to the body?
Proteins, carbohydrates, and fats all have a different energy content; that is,
they provide us with a different amount of energy per gram metabolised.

22 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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This is due to the different types of bonds that are broken and formed when they
are metabolised. As outlined in table 1, fats and oils provide the greatest amount
of energy per gram, followed by proteins and lastly carbohydrates. The human body

1C THEORY
constantly breaks down certain carbohydrates and fats/oils as a supply of energy.

Table 1 Energy content of food groups

Food Heat of combustion (kJ g−1) USEFUL TIP
Fat and oils 37
Due to the fact that food is a mixture
Protein 17 of different substances, the energy
content is expressed in kilojoules per
Carbohydrate 16 gram (kJ g−1) rather than per mole.

As we know, foods contain more than just fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.
For example, many cereals contain fibre, which is an indigestible form
of carbohydrate and therefore does not provide the body with any energy.
As a result, when calculating the energy content of food, we mainly focus on the
three main food groups highlighted in table 1. This will be covered in more detail
in lesson 2C.

PROGRESS QUESTIONS

Question 1
Compared to fats and oils and carbohydrates, proteins contain
A. the most amount of energy per gram.
B. the least amount of energy per gram.
C. more energy than fats but less energy than carbohydrates per gram.
D. more energy than carbohydrates but less energy than fats per gram.

Production of glucose by photosynthesis

& energy from glucose [Link] & [Link]
The main source of energy for our planet is the sun, the light of which powers
photosynthesis. Glucose is an essential molecule that serves as the primary
source of energy for almost all living organisms, through a process called cellular
respiration. It is a type of carbohydrate that plants produce through photosynthesis.
Glucose, photosynthesis, and cellular respiration are fundamental to the survival and
sustainability of life on our planet.

What is photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and certain bacteria convert
light energy from the sun into chemical energy in the form of organic compounds,
such as glucose. This process involves the absorption of light by the green pigment
chlorophyll in the chloroplasts of plant cells, which is then used to split water
molecules into oxygen and hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ions and electrons are then
used to build carbohydrates (sugars) from carbon dioxide in a series of complex
biochemical reactions. This process is responsible for the production of oxygen
in the atmosphere and is the basis of all life on Earth (figure 1).

Figure 1 Equation for photosynthesis

1C Fuel for the body 23

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What is cellular respiration?

Respiration is the process by which organisms convert glucose into energy.
KEEN TO INVESTIGATE?
This process occurs in both plants and animals and allows them to use energy
1C THEORY

1  hat happens when glucose can’t

W from glucose to power cellular processes such as growth, reproduction,
be broken down into energy? and movement. Glucose is absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to cells,
Search YouTube: What Is Diabetes?
where the process of cellular respiration converts this molecule into energy.1
2 Minute Guide
The polymers found in food are broken down into monomers such as glucose by the
process of digestion; they are then converted into energy by an oxidation process
known as cellular respiration. The equation for this reaction is given in figure 2.

Figure 2 Equation for cellular respiration

How do photosynthesis and cellular

KEEN TO INVESTIGATE?
respiration compare?
From figures 1 and 2, we can see that the reactions for photosynthesis and cellular
2  ow does the rate of burning fuels
H
(combustion and respiration) vs the respiration are fundamentally the reverse of each other. Table 2 and figure 3 show
amount of photosynthesis taking how these processes compare to each other.2
place affect the Earth’s climate?
Search videos: Too much Table 2 Comparison of cellular respiration and photosynthesis
combustion we need more Cellular Respiration vs Photosynthesis
photosynthesis
In all living organisms In which organisms does In all green plants, algae,
it occur? and some bacteria

In mitochondria Where in the cell does it In chloroplasts

occur?
Glucose solution What are the reactants? Carbon dioxide, water,
Light energy and oxygen and light energy

Carbon dioxide, water, What are the products? Glucose solution

and chemical energy and oxygen
Chloroplast
It is broken down. What happens to the It is created.
glucose?
Oxygen is taken in with What is the overall Produces food (glucose)
Photosynthesis food (chemical energy change? by converting light energy
(Occurs in plants,
algae, and
in glucose); carbon dioxide into chemical energy
some bacteria) and energy are produced.

It is an exothermic What is the energy It is an endothermic

reaction as energy change for the reaction? reaction as it requires
Cellular respiration
(Occurs in all is released. an energy input.
living cells)
C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) → What is the overall 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) →
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) chemical equation? C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)

Mitochondria Researchers are currently investigating how an artificial photosynthetic series of

reactions can be used to produce greener fuels; this is covered in more detail in lesson 6D.

C6H12O6

Figure 3 Simple overview of photosynthesis

and cellular respiration

24 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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WORKED EXAMPLE 1

Write a simple summary sentence that compares the similarities of both the reactants and products

1C THEORY
of cellular respiration and photosynthesis.

What information is presented in the question?

The two processes that need to be compared in terms of their reactants and products.

What is the question asking us to do?

Compare reactants and products of the two processes and construct a sentence to summarise these.

What strategies do we need in order to answer the question?

1. Write out the chemical equations for both reactions.
2. Construct a summary sentence about the similarities.

Answer
Cellular respiration: C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
Photosynthesis: 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) → C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)
Both of these processes cycle the same four molecules: carbon dioxide, oxygen, glucose, and water.

PROGRESS QUESTIONS

Question 2
Cellular respiration and photosynthesis both require
A. carbon dioxide.
B. water.
C. sugar.
D. oxygen.

Theory summary
• Energy in food is stored in chemical bonds, and the main food groups
(proteins, fats and oils, and carbohydrates) have differing energy contents,
measured in kJ g−1.
• Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use sunlight to convert carbon
dioxide and water into oxygen and organic compounds known as sugars (glucose).
• Glucose is a carbohydrate (sugar) produced during photosynthesis.
• During cellular respiration, cells break down simple organic food molecules such
as glucose (through an oxidation reaction) and release the energy they contain.
• Both of these processes cycle the same molecules: carbon dioxide, oxygen,
glucose, and water.
• The overall basic reactions are the reverse of each other:
– Photosynthesis: Energy + 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) → C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)
– Cellular respiration: C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + Energy

1C Fuel for the body 25

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1C Questions Mild Medium Spicy

1C QUESTIONS

Deconstructed
Use the following diagram to answer questions 3–6.

Light energy II

I III

Question 3 (1 MARK)
Photosynthesis in plants occurs when light energy is
A. reflected.
B. absorbed.
C. refracted.
D. diverted.

Question 4 (1 MARK)
Glucose can be classified as
A. an inorganic compound.
B. containing both metals and non-metals.
C. an organic compound.
D. containing inorganic elements and non-metals.

Question 5 (1 MARK)
The cellular respiration of sugars is an example of a(n)
A. oxidation reaction.
B. substitution reaction.
C. addition reaction.
D. decomposition reaction.

Question 6 (1 MARK)
Which row correctly identifies the letters in the diagram?
I II III
A. Photosynthesis Inorganic molecules Respiration
B. Respiration Organic molecules Photosynthesis
C. Photosynthesis Organic molecules Respiration
D. Respiration Inorganic molecules Photosynthesis

Exam-style
Question 7 (1 MARK)
The energy content in food is expressed
A. per mole as this is most accurate.
B. per molecule due to the different food types.
C. per particle as this is most accurate.
D. per gram as it is a mixture of different types of compounds.

26 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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Question 8 (1 MARK)
Which of the following is not required for photosynthesis to occur?

1C QUESTIONS
A. Energy
B. Carbon dioxide
C. Water
D. Glucose

Question 9 (1 MARK)
Most algae are able to take in carbon dioxide from their surroundings and use it to make
organic compounds.
This process is an example of
A. respiration.
B. photosynthesis.
C. combustion.
D. condensation.

Question 10 (4 MARKS)
Fructose, glucose, and sucrose are found naturally in fruit and some vegetables. Sugarcane and sugar beet
are used to produce granulated table sugar, which contains mainly sucrose and has the formula C12H22O11.
a. What is the name of the process by which animal cells release the energy stored in the bonds of sugars? 1 MARK

b. Give one similarity and one difference between a molecule of sucrose and a molecule of glucose. 2 MARKS

c. Write the equation for the complete oxidation of one molecule of sucrose. 1 MARK

Key science skills

Question 11 (6 MARKS)
Consider the following statement:
‘Plants can survive on their own because they make their own food, whilst animals cannot survive on their
own as they need plants for survival.’
Give evidence to both agree and disagree with this statement. Justify your answer by referencing important
chemical processes.
a. Agree 3 MARKS

b. Disagree 3 MARKS

FROM LESSON 12E

Questions from multiple lessons

Question 12 (8 MARKS)
Ethanol is already extensively used as a fuel for powering transportation and can be produced from crude
oil or biomass. Bioethanol is commonly produced by fermenting biomass. Advocates argue that combusting
bioethanol would not alter the net emissions of carbon dioxide gas even though bioethanol produces
carbon dioxide when undergoing combustion.
a. Give two advantages of burning bioethanol. Explain your answers. 4 MARKS

b. Give two disadvantages of burning bioethanol. Explain your answers. 4 MARKS

FROM LESSONS 1A & 1B

1C Fuel for the body 27

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1D Enthalpy changes and

combustion reactions
STUDY DESIGN DOT POINTS

• comparison of exothermic and

endothermic reactions, with
reference to bond making and
bond breaking, including enthalpy
changes (ΔH) measured in kJ,
molar enthalpy changes measured
in kJ mol−1 and enthalpy changes
for mixtures measured in kJ g−1,
and their representations in energy
profile diagrams
• combustion (complete and
incomplete) reactions of fuels
as exothermic reactions: the writing
of balanced thermochemical
equations, including states, Image: Four Oaks/[Link]
for the complete and incomplete
combustion of organic molecules
using experimental data and
Why do some fuels release black carbon when burnt?
data tables Black carbon is one of the largest contributors to climate change
• determination of limiting reactants (second only to CO2) and has disastrous impacts on human respiratory and
or reagents in chemical reactions cardiovascular health. Its increasing concentration in our atmosphere is one
of the reasons scientists are searching for greener energy alternatives that can
1A 1B 1C 1D
be implemented on a global scale. In this lesson, we will cover energy changes
during chemical reactions, as well as different types of combustion reactions.

[Link] Exothermic and endothermic KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

reactions
Activation energy (Ea) minimum amount of energy required for a reaction to proceed
[Link] Types of combustion
Chemical energy energy stored in the bonds (electrostatic attractions) of chemical
reactions
compounds
[Link] & Energy changes Combustion exothermic reaction between a fuel and oxygen gas
[Link] during combustion & Complete combustion combustion reaction where oxygen gas is in excess, producing
thermochemical equations only carbon dioxide gas and water
Endothermic reaction chemical reaction that absorbs energy (in the form of heat) from
[Link] Limiting reagents the surrounding environment
and reactants
Energy profile diagram diagram that represents energy changes during
a chemical reaction
ESSENTIAL PRIOR KNOWLEDGE Enthalpy change (ΔH) overall change in the chemical energy of a system
• Electrostatic attraction Exothermic reaction chemical reaction accompanied by the release of energy
• Bonding (in the form of heat)
• Stoichiometry Heat of combustion amount of heat released by the complete combustion
of a substance
See questions 7–9.
Incomplete combustion combustion reaction where oxygen supply is limited;
able to produce a range of carbon-based products in addition to water
Molar heat of combustion amount of heat, in kJ mol−1, released when 1 mole of
substance completely combusts in excess oxygen gas
Thermochemical equation balanced chemical equation that includes the enthalpy
change (ΔH) of the reaction, measured in kJ mol−1 or kJ

28 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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Exothermic and endothermic reactions [Link]

Some chemical reactions, known as exothermic and endothermic reactions,

1D THEORY
release or absorb energy. To understand these properties, it is important to know
and be able to show how chemical reactions transform bond energy into heat energy.

How can we represent energy changes during

exothermic and endothermic reactions?
All substances contain chemical energy (the energy stored in the bonds
of compounds), which can be released and absorbed during chemical reactions
from the breaking and formation of new chemical bonds. In VCE chemistry, the main
focus is describing an enthalpy change (ΔH), which represents the total change
in chemical energy during a reaction.
The enthalpy of a substance is measured in units of kJ, the molar enthalpy of a pure
sample of a chemical compound is measured in kJ mol−1, and the enthalpy of a
mixture of chemical compounds is measured in kJ g−1. USEFUL TIP
The enthalpy of a mixture of chemical compounds cannot be measured in kJ mol−1 You may see the ΔH of a combustion
because its molar mass cannot be determined, meaning an amount in moles cannot reaction (without a sign) referred to as
be calculated. Instead, we use units of kJ g−1. the ‘heat of combustion’: the amount
of energy released in a combustion
During a chemical reaction, energy is absorbed to break chemical bonds in the reaction. Molar heat of combustion
reactants and is released as new bonds are formed in the products. For a reaction values (kJ mol−1) for common fuels
to occur, a minimum initial amount of chemical energy is required to break the at Standard Laboratory Conditions
chemical bonds in the reactants, known as the activation energy (Ea) (figure 1). (SLC) can be found in the VCE Data
Book. These values can be determined
Separated atoms (intermediates) experimentally through methods
H covered in later lessons.
H
Chemical energy of the system (kJ mol–1)

H O
O C
O
O H
Reactant
molecules Activation
Bond Bond
H H breaking energy (Ea) making
O C O
O H H O
Product molecules
O HO
H
H C H
OH O

Progress of reaction
Figure 1 Energy changes during the complete combustion of methane in terms of bond breaking and
bond making

During an exothermic reaction, more energy is released by the system through

the creation of chemical bonds as products are formed than is absorbed to break
chemical bonds in the reactants. Therefore, there is an overall decrease in enthalpy.
However, during an endothermic reaction, more energy is absorbed by the system
than is released. In this case, there is an overall increase in enthalpy.

MISCONCEPTION

‘An endothermic reaction gets hotter if it absorbs energy from the surroundings.’
Absorbing heat energy is just a measurement of the energy moving into the system.
Heat can move into the system without changing its temperature.

1D Enthalpy changes and combustion reactions 29

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These enthalpy changes in exothermic and endothermic reactions can be represented

USEFUL TIP
through energy profile diagrams. To interpret these, we can think of the overall
Energy profile diagrams will not increase in energy during an endothermic reaction as a ‘step up’ and the overall release
1D THEORY

always show a horizontal axis and of energy during an exothermic reaction as a ‘step down’ (figure 2). Energy profile
can have many different labels on the diagrams will not always show a horizontal axis and can have many different labels
vertical axis.
on the vertical axis.

Exothermic reaction Endothermic reaction

Energy

Energy
Reactants
Products

Reactants

Products

Figure 2 Shape of energy profile diagrams of (a) exothermic reactions (step down) and (b)
endothermic reactions (step up)

Energy profile diagrams can also provide information about the change in enthalpy
(ΔH) of the system during a chemical reaction as well as the activation energy
(Ea) of the reaction, as shown in figure 3. We can think of ΔH in terms of the
following equation:
ΔH = enthalpy of products − enthalpy of reactants
This means that ΔH will have a negative (−) value for exothermic reactions,
and a positive (+) value for endothermic reactions.
USEFUL TIP

The prefix ‘exo’ means ‘out’ and the Exothermic reaction Endothermic reaction
prefix ‘endo’ means ‘in’. This means we
can think of exothermic reactions as 900 900
Activation Activation
giving out energy to the surroundings, 800 energy 800 energy
and endothermic reactions as taking in
700 700
energy from the surroundings.
Enthalpy (kJ)

Enthalpy (kJ)

600 600
500 500
Reactants Products
400 400
300 ΔH energy 300 ΔH energy
released absorbed
200 200
Products Reactants
100 100

Progress of reaction Progress of reaction

Figure 3 Detailed energy profile diagrams of (a) exothermic reactions (step down) and (b)
endothermic reactions (step up)

If an energy profile diagram shows the change in enthalpy (ΔH) and activation
energy (Ea) of a reaction, these values can also be determined for the reverse
STRATEGY
reaction by reading the curve from right to left. The enthalpy change of the reverse
Always include a + or − sign when reaction will be the same size as the enthalpy change of the forward reaction.
writing ΔH values, even if they However, it must be written with the opposite sign (+ or −) because energy
are positive. is absorbed in one reaction and released in the other. Note that activation energies
of the forward and reverse reactions will be different and will always be larger
values in the endothermic reaction, as shown in figure 3.

30 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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WORKED EXAMPLE 1

Calculate the energy required to break the bonds of the reactants and the net enthalpy change of the

1D THEORY
forward reaction in kJ mol−1.

200

175

150
Energy (kJ mol–1)

125

100

75

50

25

What information is presented in the question? 200

The energy profile diagram representing a chemical reaction.
175
What is the question asking us to do?
150
Determine the activation energy and enthalpy change Energy (kJ mol–1)
Activation
125
of the forward reaction in kJ mol−1. energy (Ea)
100 of forward
What strategies do we need in order to answer the question? reaction Enthalpy
1. The word ‘net’ has the same meaning as ‘overall’ 75 change
ΔH
or ‘total’. Although the word ‘total’ is used most often 50
in VCAA exams to describe a quantity of energy, you
25
will likely come across each of these terms in questions.
0
2. Read the energy profile diagram forwards (from left
to right) to obtain information about the Now we can calculate these quantities by finding the
forward reaction. difference between relevant energy values.
3. Annotate the energy profile diagram to determine how Ea = maximum energy value of the peak − initial energy
to calculate the activation energy and enthalpy change. of reactants
4. Calculate the activation energy and enthalpy change Ea = +200 kJ mol−1 − 25 kJ mol−1
by finding the difference between energy values. Ea = +175 kJ mol−1
5. Always include a sign (+ or −) in front of ΔH values, and
even if they are positive. ΔH = final energy of products − initial energy of reactants
Answer ΔH = +125 kJ mol−1 − 25 kJ mol−1
ΔH = +100 kJ mol−1
The energy required to break the chemical bonds of the
reactants (activation energy) is the difference between Finally, we have to make sure that the activation energy
the maximum energy value reached by the system and the is a positive value and that our ΔH value is written with
energy of the reactants. If we read the curve from left the appropriate sign. Looking at the shape of the curve,
to right, given the question asks about the forward reaction, the forward reaction ‘steps up’, meaning that there is a net
we can annotate the diagram to determine the energy absorption of energy during the reaction, so the reaction
quantities we need to calculate, as shown. is endothermic. This means the ΔH value must be written
with a (+) sign.
So, Ea = +175 kJ mol−1 and ΔH = +100 kJ mol−1.

1D Enthalpy changes and combustion reactions 31

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PROGRESS QUESTIONS

Question 1
1D THEORY

A reaction is endothermic if
A. energy is released during the reaction.
B. energy is absorbed during the reaction.
C. energy does not change during the reaction.
D. None of the above

Question 2

Energy (kJ mol–1)

ΔE
Reactants

Products

Progress of reaction
The change in energy labelled ΔE in the energy profile diagram is
A. the energy required to initiate the forward reaction.
B. the activation energy for the forward reaction.
C. the enthalpy of the reaction.
D. the activation energy for the reverse reaction.

Types of combustion reactions [Link]

Different types of combustion reactions can occur depending on the amount
of oxygen available to react.

How can we identify complete and incomplete

combustion reactions?
Combustion reactions are a type of chemical reaction between a substance (usually
a fuel) and oxygen. This means that whenever something burns in air, like a match
or a candle, a combustion reaction is involved. Combustion reactions are always
exothermic because there is a net release of energy during these reactions, and this
energy is often released as heat. They are also a type of oxidation reaction, which will
be covered in greater detail in lesson 3A.

KEEN TO INVESTIGATE? There are two types of combustion reactions that occur depending on the supply
1  hy do we put carbon monoxide
W of oxygen. If oxygen is in excess, complete combustion will occur. If there is a
detectors in our homes? limited supply of oxygen, incomplete combustion will occur. Complete combustion
Search: Carbon Monoxide vs Carbon results in the production of only carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). However,
Dioxide: Let’s compare if other carbon-based products have formed in addition to water, incomplete
combustion has occurred. These products can include carbon monoxide gas1 (CO),
carbon dioxide gas (CO2), and solid carbon2 (C), also known as soot. Some examples
of complete and incomplete combustion reactions are shown in table 1.

KEEN TO INVESTIGATE?
2  hat is black carbon and why is it a
W
danger to us and our environment?
Search: Black carbon research and
future strategies

32 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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Table 1 Some possible combustion reactions of methane gas and liquid octane USEFUL TIP
Equation type Reactants → Products Type of
Fractions with two as the denominator
combustion
​​ 3 ​​) or halves (e.g __
​​1 ​​) can be written

1D THEORY
(e.g __
reaction 2 2
in front of O2 molecules in chemical
Word equation Methane gas + → Carbon dioxide gas Complete equations. This allows equations
Oxygen gas + Liquid water to always have 1 mole of the fuel,
Unbalanced CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l) meaning the units will be kJ mol−1.
symbol equation Note: these values only apply
to complete combustion reactions
Balanced CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) under SLC.
equation
Word equation Methane gas + → Carbon monoxide Incomplete
Oxygen gas gas + Liquid water
USEFUL TIP
Unbalanced CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO(g) + H2O(l)
symbol equation In VCE chemistry, exam questions
3O will often specify some or all of the
Balanced CH4(g) + ​​__​​ 2(g) → CO(g) + 2H2O(l)
2 products of an incomplete combustion
equation reaction to reduce the number of
possible correct answers.
Word equation Liquid octane + → Carbon dioxide Complete
Oxygen gas gas + Water
Unbalanced C8H18(l) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
symbol equation
25 ​O (g)
C8H18(l) + ​__ 8CO2(g) + 9H2O(l)
Balanced 2 2 →
equation
Word equation Liquid octane + → Carbon monoxide Incomplete
Oxygen gas gas + Carbon
dioxide gas +
Solid carbon +
Liquid water
Unbalanced C8H18(l) + O2(g) → CO(g) + CO2(g) +
symbol equation C(s) + H2O(l)
Balanced C8H18(l) + 9O2(g) → CO(g) + 4CO2(g) +
equation 3C(s) + 9H2O(l)

Another 2C8H18(l) + 19O2(g) → 4CO(g) + 8CO2(g)

balanced + 4C(s) + 18H2O(l)
equation USEFUL TIP

Since fewer chemical bonds are made in the formation of products of incomplete As molar heats of combustion
combustion, these reactions produce less energy than complete combustion (kJ mol−1) are measured at SLC,
reactions of the same fuel. For example, a particular incomplete combustion water has (l) as its state symbol.
VCAA also awards marks to
reaction of one mole of pure methane gas at SLC may release up to approximately
combustion equations written with
595 kJ mol−1 of energy, whereas the complete combustion of one mole of pure water in a gaseous state.
methane gas at SLC can produce up to 890 kJ mol−1 of energy.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

What is the balanced chemical equation for the combustion of ethanol in an excess of oxygen gas?

What information is presented in the question?

Ethanol is being combusted.
There is an excess supply of oxygen (this means complete combustion occurs).

What is the question asking us to do?

Write the balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of ethanol. Continues →

1D Enthalpy changes and combustion reactions 33

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What strategies do we need in order to answer the question?

1. Write out the reactants (including states).
1D THEORY

2. Write out the products (including states).

3. Balance the carbon atoms, hydrogen atoms, and then all of the oxygen atoms (which are also found
in ethanol).

Answer
CH3CH2OH(l) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
is the unbalanced chemical reaction for the complete combustion of ethanol.
Balance the carbon atoms first:
CH3CH2OH(l) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Balance the hydrogen atoms next:
CH3CH2OH(l) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
Balance the oxygen atoms next:
CH3CH2OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
This is the balanced complete combustion reaction of ethanol.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3

What is a balanced chemical equation for the combustion of methanol in a limited supply of oxygen?
Assume carbon monoxide and carbon (soot) are the only carbon-based products.

What information is presented in the question?

Methanol is being combusted.
There is a limited supply of oxygen (this means incomplete combustion).
The products will be carbon monoxide, solid carbon (soot), and water.

What is the question asking us to do?

Write a balanced chemical equation for the incomplete combustion of methanol, where CO and C are the
only carbon-based products.

What strategies do we need in order to answer the question?

1. Write out the reactants (including states).
2. Write out the products (including states).
3. Balance the carbon atoms, hydrogen atoms, and then oxygen atoms.

Answer
CH3OH(l) + O2(g) → CO(g) + C(s) + H2O(l)
This is an unbalanced chemical equation for the incomplete combustion of methanol.
Balance the carbon atoms first:
2CH3OH(l) + O2(g) → CO(g) + C(s) + H2O(l)
Balance the hydrogen atoms next:
2CH3OH(l) + O2(g) → CO(g) + C(s) + 4H2O(l)
Balance the oxygen atoms next:
​3 ​O2(g) → CO(g) + C(s) + 4H2O(l)
2CH3OH(l) + __
2
or 4CH3OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO(g) +2C(s) + 8H2O(l)
This is one of many possible balanced equations for this reaction.

34 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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PROGRESS QUESTIONS

Question 3

1D THEORY
What type of reaction is represented by the following equation?
4CH4(g) + 7O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 2CO(g) + 8H2O(l)

A. Complete combustion reaction

B. Semi-complete combustion reaction
C. Incomplete combustion reaction
D. None of the above

Question 4
The sign of the enthalpy change of a combustion reaction is
A. negative because exothermic reactions have a negative enthalpy
change value.
B. positive because exothermic reactions have a positive enthalpy
change value.
C. negative because endothermic reactions have a negative enthalpy
change value.
D. positive because endothermic reactions have a positive enthalpy
change value.

Question 5
Which of the following reactions represents a balanced equation for the
incomplete combustion of ibuprofen C13H18O2(s)?

A. C13H18O2(s) + 9O2(g) → 13CO(g) + 9H2O(l)

B. C13H18O2(s) + 9O2(g) → 13CO2(g) + 9H2O(l)
C. C13H18O2(s) + 10O2(g) → 13CO(g) + 9H2O(l)
D. C13H18O2(s) + 10O2(g) → 13CO2(g) + 9H2O(l)

Energy changes during combustion

& thermochemical equations [Link] & [Link]
The exothermic properties of combustion reactions can be harnessed to produce
energy and power our world. Thermochemical equations are a useful tool
to show the overall energy change in exothermic and endothermic reactions,
including combustion reactions.

How can we show energy changes during

chemical reactions?
To show energy changes during an exothermic or endothermic reaction, we can
write a thermochemical equation. In a thermochemical equation, we write the
balanced chemical equation, including the states, and to the right of the equation we
include the enthalpy change (ΔH ) in units of kJ or kJ mol−1 to signify the amount
of energy that is lost or gained by the system.
A ΔH value written in kJ mol−1 refers to the enthalpy change per 1 mole of a fuel
combusted. For example, the equation below shows the complete combustion of
1 mole of methanol.
3 ​​O (g) → CO (g) + 2H O(l) ΔH = −726 kJ mol−1
CH3OH(l) + ​​__
2 2 2 2

1D Enthalpy changes and combustion reactions 35

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If we were to write the equation for the reverse reaction of this example, the sign
MISCONCEPTION
of ΔH would change, but its magnitude (size) would stay the same, as shown below.
‘If the coefficients of the equation 3 ​​O (g) ΔH = +726 kJ mol−1
CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) → CH3OH(l) + ​​__
1D THEORY

are doubled, the ΔH value in kJ mol−1 2 2

is also doubled.’ A ΔH value in kJ refers to the overall enthalpy change of a chemical reaction.
The ΔH value in kJ mol−1 is a fixed Here, we assume that one mole of each reagent without a coefficient is reacted.
value, but the energy in kJ will double. This means that if the coefficients of an equation were doubled, the ΔH value
In the past, if, for instance, 2 moles in kJ would also double. For example, consider the complete combustion of 2 moles
of a fuel was combusted, the units of methanol shown in the equation below, where the molar heat of combustion
of kJ mol−1 were used and awarded
of methanol is 726 kJ mol−1.
marks, whereas now the units will
be just kJ. This is a change for the new 2CH3OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 4H2O(l) ΔH = −1452 kJ
VCE chemistry study design.
As discussed above, if we were to write the equation for the reverse reaction of this
example, the sign of ΔH would change, but its magnitude (size) would stay the same,
as shown in the example below.
2CO2(g) + 4H2O(l) → 2CH3OH(l) + 3O2(g) ΔH = +1452 kJ

WORKED EXAMPLE 4

Ethanol reacts with oxygen according to the following equation:

C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) ΔH = −1366.8 kJ mol−1
Calculate ΔH for the following reaction using the units kJ mol−1 and kJ:
4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) → 2C2H5OH(l) + 6O2(g)

What information is presented in the question?

The equation for the combustion of ethanol and its enthalpy of combustion: ΔH = −1366.8 kJ mol−1.
The reaction is given in reverse, with the stoichiometric ratio doubled.

What is the question asking us to do?

Calculate ΔH for the given reaction in units of kJ mol−1, and then in units of kJ.

What strategies do we need in order to answer the question?

1. Reverse the sign of ΔH as the reaction has reversed.
2. For ΔH values in kJ mol−1, the size of ΔH remains the same when coefficients are changed.
3. For ΔH values in kJ, ΔH is doubled as the number of moles of the constituents are doubled.

Answer
ΔH for the second equation is positive, so must be written with a + sign.
Even though the mole amount for each of the constituents has doubled, the size of the ΔH value in units
of kJ mol−1 remains the same.
ΔH = +1366.8 kJ mol−1
In units of kJ, the mole amount of the constituents has doubled, so ΔH must also be doubled.
ΔH = 2 ⨉ (+1366.8 kJ)
ΔH = +2733.6 kJ
Therefore,
ΔH = +1366.8 kJ mol−1 and there is an overall enthalpy change of +2733.6 kJ for the reaction.

PROGRESS QUESTIONS

Question 6
Which of the following is an example of a thermochemical equation?
A. C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
B. C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) ΔH = −1366.8 kJ mol−1
C. ΔH = −1366.8 kJ mol−1
D. All of the above Continues →

36 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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Question 7
Given that the heat of combustion of methanol (CH3OH) is 726 kJ mol−1 at SLC,

1D THEORY
what is the value of ΔH for the following equation at SLC?
2CH3OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
A. +726 kJ mol−1
B. −726 kJ mol−1
C. +1452 kJ mol−1
D. −1452 kJ mol−1

Question 8
Based on the following thermochemical equation of ice melting, which equation
would have a ΔH value of −18.0 kJ?
H2O(s) → H2O(l) ΔH = +6.0 kJ mol−1
A. H2O(l) → H2O(s)
B. 3H2O(s) → 3H2O(l)
C. 3H2O(l) → 3H2O(s)
D. H2O(s) → H2O(l)

Limiting reagents and reactants [Link]

The amount of each reactant available to react can impact both the amount of
products produced, as well as the types of products that can be formed. This is a
particularly important factor in determining the type of combustion reaction that
will occur. Note: this section only covers gaseous reactants in combustion reactions.
Limiting reagents and reactants involving solutions will be covered in lesson 9D.

How can we determine limiting and excess reagents?

To determine the products formed in a chemical reaction and their quantities,
we often have to consider limiting and excess reagents. We can identify limiting
and excess reagents in combustion reactions by determining whether incomplete
or complete combustion has occurred.
As we have learned, complete combustion occurs when oxygen is either in sufficient
supply or in excess, and incomplete combustion occurs when oxygen is the limiting
reactant. Since there is enough oxygen available during complete combustion for the
fuel to be completely oxidised to form CO2, only carbon dioxide and water are formed.

USEFUL TIP

The terms ‘reagent’ and ‘reactant’ have similar definitions and are often used
interchangeably. Whilst reagents are not necessarily consumed during a reaction,
reactants are. A catalyst, which will be covered in lesson 4A, is an example of a reagent
that is not a reactant.

However, in incomplete combustion reactions, there is insufficient oxygen supply

USEFUL TIP
for the fuel to be fully oxidised to CO2. This means that in addition to water vapour,
carbon monoxide and solid carbon (soot) can be produced instead of carbon dioxide. During the combustion of fuels,
Note that carbon dioxide can also be produced during incomplete combustion oxygen supply being limited is the
reactions when either carbon monoxide or solid carbon are also products. same as the fuel being in excess
(and vice versa).

1D Enthalpy changes and combustion reactions 37

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WORKED EXAMPLE 5

Identify the reagent(s) in the reaction below that are limiting and in excess.
1D THEORY

2C6H14(l) + 10O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 9C(s) + 14H2O(l)

What information is presented in the question?

The balanced chemical equation showing the reaction between hexane and oxygen gas to produce
carbon dioxide, solid carbon, and water.

What is the question asking us to do?

Determine whether there are limiting or excess reagents in the given reaction.
Identify any limiting or excess reagents in the given reaction.

What strategies do we need in order to answer the question?

1. Complete combustion occurs when there is sufficient oxygen supply or if oxygen gas is in excess,
and incomplete combustion occurs when there is a limited supply of oxygen.
2. Complete combustion reactions only produce carbon dioxide and water, whereas incomplete
combustion reactions can also produce carbon monoxide and solid carbon, as well as carbon dioxide
and water.
3. When there is a limiting reagent in a reaction, there will always be an excess reagent present too.

Answer
We can see that in the given equation, the products are CO2, C, and H2O. Solid carbon is only produced
in incomplete combustion reactions, meaning there is insufficient oxygen supply in this reaction.
Therefore, O2 is the limiting reagent in this reaction and the fuel (hexane) is in excess.

When it comes to the combustion of fuels, oxygen being in excess or in limited supply
KEEN TO INVESTIGATE?
can both be hazardous. Harmful particles are released into the atmosphere during
3  ow can excess oxygen create
H incomplete combustion, whereas excess oxygen can create explosive conditions.3
explosive conditions?
Search YouTube: Explosion
of natural gas in a tin can PROGRESS QUESTIONS

Question 9
In the following reaction:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
I. Oxygen is in excess and methane is the limiting reagent.
II. Oxygen is the limiting reagent and methane is in excess.
III. Neither reactant is in excess.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A. I only
B. II only
C. III only
D. Limiting and excess reagents cannot be determined.

Question 10
In the following reaction
5 ​​O (g) → 2CO(g) + 3H O(l)
C2H6(g) + ​​__
2 2 2

A. O2(g) is the limiting reagent.

B. C2H6(g) is the limiting reagent.
C. O2(g) is the excess reagent.
D. CO(g) is the limiting reagent. Continues →

38 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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Question 11
In which of the following reactions has complete combustion occurred?

1D THEORY
A. 4CH4(g) + 7O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 2CO(g) + 8H2O(l)
B. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
C. 2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO(g) + 4H2O(l)
D. 4CH4(g) + 5O2(g) → 2CO(g) + 2C(s) + 8H2O(l)

Theory summary
• Exothermic reactions:
Exothermic reaction

900 Activation
800 energy
700
Enthalpy (kJ)

600
500
Reactants
400
300 ΔH energy
released
200
100 Products

Progress of reaction

– Energy released as chemical bonds in the products are

formed > energy absorbed to break bonds in the reactants
(‘step down’ on energy profile diagram).
– All combustion reactions (reaction between fuel and oxygen gas)
are exothermic.

• Endothermic reactions:
Endothermic reaction

900 Activation
800 energy
700
Enthalpy (kJ)

600
500
Products
400
300 ΔH energy
absorbed
200
Reactants
100

Progress of reaction

– Energy absorbed to break the chemical bonds in the

reactants > energy released as bonds in the products are formed
(‘step up’ on energy profile diagram).

• The enthalpy of a reaction of a pure substance can be written in the units:

– kJ to represent the total energy change during a reaction.
– kJ mol−1 to represent the energy change per one mole of a fuel that reacts.
– kJ g−1 to represent the energy change per gram of a mixture reacted,
as its molar amount cannot be determined.

• The molar heat of combustion of a fuel in kJ mol−1 indicates the maximum

amount of energy that can be released when one mole of the fuel undergoes
complete combustion.

1D Enthalpy changes and combustion reactions 39

 Back to contents

• Thermochemical equations show the enthalpy change (ΔH) and a balanced

chemical equation.
1D QUESTIONS

• Complete combustion occurs when there is a plentiful supply of oxygen,

allowing the reaction to proceed to completion. Products of the complete
combustion of fuels are carbon dioxide and water.
• Incomplete combustion occurs when there is a limited supply of oxygen.
Products of the incomplete combustion of carbon-based fuels include water and
at least one of the following products containing carbon:
– carbon monoxide gas - CO(g)
– solid carbon (black carbon or soot) - C(s).

1D Questions Mild Medium Spicy

Deconstructed
Use the following information to answer questions 12–14.

A team of scientists are investigating a chemical reaction that may be used in reusable hand warmers.
The heat-releasing reaction is initiated in these hand warmers when the user bends the metal disc
inside it. Then, the hand warmers can be ‘reset’ by being boiled for around 15 minutes and cooled
before they are used again.
The reaction that takes place in these hand warmers is a reversible reaction with an activation energy,
Ea, of +20 kJ mol−1 and an enthalpy change, ΔH, of −10 kJ mol−1 for the forward reaction. The reactants
have an initial molar enthalpy of +10 kJ mol−1.

Question 12 (1 MARK)
Which is the energy profile diagram for the forward reaction?
A. B.
30 30
Enthalpy change,

Enthalpy change,
AH (kJ mol–1)

AH (kJ mol–1)

20 20

10 10

0 0

–10 –10
Progress of reaction Progress of reaction

C. D.
30 30
Enthalpy change,

Enthalpy change,
AH (kJ mol–1)

AH (kJ mol–1)

20 20

10 10

0 0

–10 –10
Progress of reaction Progress of reaction
Adapted from VCAA (NHT) 2019 exam Multiple choice Q30

40 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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Question 13 (1 MARK)
Which is the energy profile diagram for the reverse reaction?

1D QUESTIONS
A. B.
30 30
Enthalpy change,

Enthalpy change,
AH (kJ mol–1)

AH (kJ mol–1)
20 20
10 10
0 0
–10 –10
Progress of reaction Progress of reaction

C. D.
30 30
Enthalpy change,

Enthalpy change,
AH (kJ mol–1)

AH (kJ mol–1)
20 20
10 10
0 0
–10 –10
Progress of reaction Progress of reaction
Adapted from VCAA (NHT) 2019 exam Multiple choice Q30

Question 14 (3 MARKS)
All chemical reactions have an activation energy.
a. Calculate the activation energy, Ea, and the change in enthalpy, ΔH, of the reverse reaction. 2 MARKS

b. Why would the team of scientists want the reaction to have a relatively low activation energy? 1 MARK

Exam-style
Question 15 (4 MARKS)
The energy profile diagrams for steps 1 and 2 of a reaction are shown below.
Step 1 Step 2
300 150
250 125
Enthalpy (kJ mol–1)

Enthalpy (kJ mol–1)

200 100
150 75
(CH3)3C+ (CH3)3C+
100 Br– 50 OH–
50 (CH3)3CBr 25
0 0
(CH3)3COH

a. Which step involves an endothermic reaction? Provide a reason for your answer. 2 MARKS

b. What is the activation energy of the reaction shown in step 1? 1 MARK

c. Calculate ΔH for the reaction represented in step 2. 1 MARK

Adapted from VCAA 2012 Exam 2 Short answer Q2bi

Question 16 (1 MARK)
In an exothermic reaction the
A. reaction system gains energy from the surroundings.
B. enthalpy of the products is greater than the enthalpy of the reactants.
C. activation energy is always greater than the enthalpy of reaction.
D. energy required to break bonds in the reactants is less than the energy released when bonds are
formed in the products.
Adapted from VCAA 2011 Exam 2 Multiple choice Q6

1D Enthalpy changes and combustion reactions 41

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Question 17 (1 MARK)
The reaction
1D QUESTIONS

A+B→C ΔH > 0
Involves a two-step process
A+B→X ΔH < 0
X→C ΔH > 0
Which of the following diagrams best represents the energy changes during the reaction?
A. B. C. D.

C
Energy

Energy

Energy

Energy
C
X X
A+B A+B A+B A+B
X
X C C

Progress of reaction Progress of reaction Progress of reaction Progress of reaction

Adapted from VCAA 2007 Exam 1 Multiple choice Q19

Question 18 (1 MARK)
In some circumstances, there is a limited supply of oxygen.
Write the balanced chemical equation for the combustion reaction of the major component of biodiesel,
C19H32O2, where carbon monoxide, CO, is the only product containing carbon.
VCAA 2017 exam Short answer Q2c

Question 19 (2 MARKS)
The combustion of butane takes place according to the equation

​13 ​O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(l)

C4H10(l) + __
2
Consider the following reaction.
8CO2(g) + 10H2O(l) → 2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g)
What is the value of ΔH for this reaction in kJ?
Adapted from VCAA 2016 exam Multiple choice Q17

Question 20 (1 MARK)
An equation for the complete combustion of methanol is
2CH3OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
Assuming this reaction occurs under SLC, what is the value of ΔH for this reaction in kJ?
Adapted from VCAA 2018 exam Multiple choice Q14

Question 21 (5 MARKS)
Tiberius decided to burn some butane to see what the products of the reaction would be. They set up
a device that could detect the presence of water and carbon dioxide. When they burnt the butane,
water as vapour was present, but carbon dioxide was not.
a. Write a balanced thermochemical equation representing the complete combustion reaction of butane. 1 MARK

b. What would the lack of carbon dioxide indicate about the type of combustion reaction that occurred? 2 MARKS

c. Is the conversion of liquid water to water vapour (a process which occurred in this reaction)
an endothermic or exothermic process? Justify your answer. 2 MARKS

42 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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Key science skills

1D QUESTIONS
Question 22 (10 MARKS)
Chemistry student Anastasiya notices that when she heats a ceramic crucible over a bunsen burner with
a yellow flame (air holes closed) for 60 seconds, the bottom of the crucible becomes coated with a black
substance. However, when she heats an identical crucible over a blue bunsen burner flame (air holes open)
for the same amount of time, it remains clean.

Images (left to right): Choze-KL, Stefan Schierle/[Link]

a. Explain Anastasiya’s observations. 4 MARKS

b. Anastasiya predicts that if she opened the air holes halfway, the crucible would still remain clean
because some air will be let into the bunsen burner.
i. Suggest why someone may agree with Anastasiya’s prediction. 2 MARKS
ii. Suggest why someone may disagree with Anastasiya’s prediction. 2 MARKS

c. Anastasiya then heats a crucible with the air holes of the bunsen burner opened half way and
constructs the following table of results based on her findings.
Bunsen burner air holes Closed Half open Open
Observations Crucible becomes covered Crucible becomes coated Crucible remains clean -
with a dark/black coating with a grey coating no observable changes

i. What type of data has Anastasiya collected? 1 MARK

ii. What could Anastasiya measure to quantitatively determine how much coating has appeared on the crucible? 1 MARK

FROM LESSONS 12B & 12C

Questions from multiple lessons

Question 23 (2 MARKS)
A chemist is testing the amount of energy that can be obtained from a sample of biodiesel under
certain conditions. At 298 K, the biodiesel is found to have a heat of combustion of 37 kJ g−1.
a. Why is the molar enthalpy of biodiesel unable to be determined? 1 MARK

b. What would the overall enthalpy change during the reaction be if 200 g of the fuel was completely
combusted at 298 K? Give your answer in kJ. 1 MARK

FROM LESSON 1B

Question 24 (3 MARKS)
On a cold and rainy day, a propane LPG heater was used to heat a small, enclosed, outdoor area. The fuel
in this heater is sourced from fossil fuels.
a. Write a balanced chemical equation for the incomplete combustion of propane gas, where carbon
monoxide and soot are the only products containing carbon. 1 MARK
Adapted from VCAA (NHT) 2021 exam Short answer Q2a

b. Is this fuel carbon neutral? Explain your answer. 2 MARKS

FROM LESSON 1A

1D Enthalpy changes and combustion reactions 43

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Chapter 1 review
Chapter 1 review

Multiple choice (10 MARKS)

Question 1 (1 MARK)
Which one of the following fuels is the most sustainable?
A. Coal
B. Ethanol
C. Natural gas
D. Coal seam gas

Question 2 (1 MARK)
Which one of the following statements about fuels is correct?
A. Petrol is a form of renewable energy.
B. Electricity can only be generated by burning coal.
C. Carbon dioxide is not produced when biogas is burned.
D. Biodiesel can be derived from both plant and animal material.
VCAA 2018 exam Multiple choice Q3

Question 3 (1 MARK)
Which one of the following statements indicates why ethanol produced from sugarcane is defined
as a biofuel and ethanol produced from coal is not?
A. Ethanol produced from sugar cane generates less greenhouse gases when used as a fuel than ethanol produced
from coal.
B. Ethanol produced from coal can be used to generate electrical energy whereas ethanol produced from sugar
cane cannot.
C. Sugar cane is recently living organic matter whereas coal is formed over millions of years.
D. Sugar cane is a natural resource whereas coal is not.
VCAA (NHT) 2019 exam Multiple choice Q7

Question 4 (1 MARK)
Which of the following molecular formulas is most likely to be that of biodiesel?
A. C4H8O2
B. C17H34O2
C. C8H18
D. C17H36

Question 5 (1 MARK)
Common food groups include: carbohydrates, fats, oils, and proteins.
Which of these food groups is least likely to be used as an energy source in the human body?
A. Carbohydrates
B. Fats
C. Oils
D. Proteins

44 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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Question 6

Chapter 1 review
(1 MARK)
Biodiesel can be obtained via
A. addition of methanol to triglycerides from organic matter.
B. transesterification of triglycerides from fossilised remains.
C. fractional distillation of crude oil.
D. oxidation of fatty acid methyl esters.

Question 7 (1 MARK)
Which of the following is most likely to cause a sudden decrease in the rate of photosynthesis?
A reduction in the availability of
A. oxygen.
B. hydrogen.
C. carbon dioxide.
D. carbon monoxide.

Question 8 (1 MARK)
Which of the following reactions represents a balanced equation where oxygen gas is the
limiting reactant?
1 ​​O (g) → 13CO(g) + 9H O(l)
A. C13H18O2(s) + 5​​_
2 2 2

1
_
B. C13H18O2(s) + 17​​ ​​O2(g) → 13CO2(g) + 9H2O(l)
2
C. C13H18O2(s) + 10O2(g) → 13CO(g) + 9H2O(l)
D. C13H18O2(s) + 33O2(g) → 13CO2(g) + 9H2O(l)

Question 9 (1 MARK)
Given the following reaction
4CO2 (g) + 6H2O(l) → 2C2H5OH(g) + 6O2(g) ΔH = ​+​2728 kJ
We would expect the ΔH value for the following reaction to be:
C2H5OH(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
A. ​+​1364 kJ mol−1
B. ​−​1364 kJ mol−1
C. ​+​5456 kJ mol−1
D. ​−​5456 kJ mol−1

Question 10 (1 MARK)
Consider the following set of balanced thermochemical equations.
2NO2(g) → 2NO(g) + O2(g) ΔH ​=​ ​+​14 kJ
NO2(g) + CO(g) → CO2(g) + NO(g) ΔH ​=​ ​−​226 kJ
2NO2(g) ⇌ N2O4(g) ΔH ​=​ ​−​57 kJ
N2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2NO(g) ΔH ​=​ ​+​181 kJ
Which one of the following graphs is consistent with the chemical equations shown?

Chapter 1 review 45
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Chapter 1 review

A. B.
40 100
35 75
30 50
25
25 CO2 + NO

Enthalpy change (kJ)

Enthalpy change (kJ)

0
20 −25
15 −50
10 −75
5 −100
2NO2 −125
0
−150
−5
−175
−10 −200
2NO + O2 NO2 + CO
−15 −225
−20 −250
Progress of reaction Progress of reaction

C. D.
175 100
75
150
50
125 25
N2 + O2
Enthalpy change (kJ)

Enthalpy change (kJ)

0
100 −25
75 −50
2NO2 −75
50 −100
25 −125
N2O4 −150
0 2NO
−175
−200
−25
−225
−50 −250
Progress of reaction Progress of reaction

Adapted from VCAA 2021 exam Multiple choice Q18

Short answer (30 MARKS)

Question 11 (6 MARKS)
Different types of fuels can be used in vehicles with combustion engines. These fuels can be
produced from either fossil fuels or from renewable sources. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG),
a fossil fuel used in cars, is mainly made up of propane, C3H8.
a. Write a balanced thermochemical equation (including states) for the complete combustion of
C3H8 in air at standard laboratory conditions (SLC). 3 MARKS

b. Write a possible balanced equation (including states) for the incomplete combustion of C3H8 in
air at standard laboratory conditions (SLC), where only one of the products contains carbon. 2 MARKS

c. Predict, giving a reason, whether the enthalpy change in part b will be larger than, smaller than,
or equal to the value for part a. 1 MARK

Question 12 (7 MARKS)
A global ethanol production company is investigating a potential new source for their fuel.
Currently, this company sources ethanol from coal deposits underground, but researchers have
proposed the use of sweet potatoes as an alternative source. Sweet potatoes are harvested from
crops and fermented by bacteria, which produces ethanol.
a. Explain why ethanol sourced from coal is considered non-renewable, whereas ethanol sourced
from sweet potatoes is considered renewable. 2 MARKS

46 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels

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b. The researchers of the company are interested in the specific process of the fermentation

Chapter 1 review
of sweet potatoes. Give the chemical equation for the fermentation reaction. 2 MARKS

c. Describe one environmental advantage, with respect to the production of carbon dioxide,
of switching to the use of sweet potatoes as an energy source as opposed to coal deposits. 2 MARKS

d. Identify one negative impact that the growth of sweet potato crops may have on the environment. 1 MARK

Question 13 (8 MARKS)
One process of extracting petrol from the environment is summarised below.

Drilling Fractional
Underground deposits Crude oil Petrol
distillation

a. Would the product of this process be considered a renewable or non-renewable fuel?

Justify your answer. 2 MARKS

b. A sample of petrol is extracted and analysed. What intermolecular force(s) would you expect
to observe in this sample? Use the structure of petrol in your explanation. 2 MARKS

c. Through an error in the transport of the crude oil from the drilling facility to the refinery,
the sample of petrol was actually contaminated with biodiesel to a large extent. Would this
contamination lead to a higher or lower boiling point compared to a pure sample of petrol?
Explain your reasoning. 3 MARKS

d. The pure product petrol is now combusted in a vehicle’s engine to harness its energy.
Identify one negative effect of this combustion reaction on the environment. 1 MARK

Question 14 (3 MARKS)
The decomposition of ammonia is represented by the following equation.
2NH3(g) ⇌ N2(g) + 3H2(g) ΔH ​=​​+9
​ 2.4 kJ
The activation energy for the uncatalysed reaction is ​+​335 kJ.
The activation energy for the reaction when tungsten is used as a catalyst is +
​ ​163 kJ.
On a grid similar to the one provided, draw a labelled energy profile diagram for the uncatalysed
and catalysed reactions.

500

400

300
Enthalpy change (kJ)

200

100

NH3
0

−100

Adapted from VCAA 2014 exam Short answer Q1a

Chapter 1 review 47
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Question 15
Chapter 1 review

(6 MARKS)
Year 12 chemistry students Ruchika and Katrina each attain their probationary licences and begin
researching options for the purchase of their first cars. Both students are looking for a renewable
energy source to fuel their car. Ruchika is interested in an electric car, whereas Katrina is looking for
a car fuelled by bioethanol.

a. Ruchika proposes that their car would be running on a sustainable energy source because the
electricity used to power the car is generated from the combustion of natural gas. Comment on
the accuracy of this statement. 2 MARKS

b. Katrina hires an expert to investigate the fuel efficiency of a range of models she is interested in.
The results of this investigation are summarised below.
Car 1 Car 2 Car 3 Car 4
Fuel efficiency (L/100 km) 21.3 17.6 17.3 11.4
CO2 produced (g (CO2)/L) 1750 2479 2453 2871

If the journey to the ski lodge is 75 km, which car would produce the least amount of CO2
for this trip? 2 MARKS

c. Katrina is looking to compare bioethanol and petrol and finds that bioethanol produces 1.91 kg
of CO2 per kg of fuel, compared with 3.17 kg of CO2 per kg for petrol. However, the overall impact
of the carbon dioxide released by bioethanol is significantly lower than that of petrol. Explain
this result with reference to the origin of bioethanol. 2 MARKS

Key science skills (10 MARKS)

Question 16 (6 MARKS)
Jules, an automobile safety engineer tasked with testing an engine’s capacity to combust different
fuels, conducts the following experiment to investigate the boiling point of a range of different
molecules. The engineer is supplied with a large supply of petrol, biodiesel, and bioethanol with
which to perform the experiment. In a controlled environment, 100 g samples of each fuel were
heated until vapourised, and their respective boiling points were recorded with a digital thermometer.
a. Name the independent and dependent variables in this experiment. 2 MARKS

b. The experimentally determined values of the boiling points for each of the fuels were, in increasing order:
Ethanol 78 °C
Petrol 250 °C
Biodiesel 360 °C
Jules notes that the boiling point for petrol, which they know is a non-polar hydrocarbon,
is found to be higher than the boiling point of ethanol, which they know is a highly polar
molecule. If, in fact, Jules’ experimental results are accurate, suggest a reason why petrol has
a higher boiling point than ethanol. 2 MARKS

c. If the engineer only has access to the resources mentioned above, identify a method to improve
the precision of their results. Explain your answer. 2 MARKS

FROM LESSONS 12A & 12D

Question 17 (4 MARKS)
Produce a short overview focusing on both the similarities and differences between cellular
respiration and photosynthesis. Limit your response to a maximum of 75 words. Dot points
are acceptable.
FROM LESSON 12E

48 Chapter 1: Carbon-based fuels