WEEK 8: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM -​ Regulating the body’s use of

calories and nutrients.

☆ The Endocrine System
-​ Secretion of wastes.
●​ The human body comprises
approximately 40 trillion cells. -​ Maintenance of blood pressure
and osmolarity.
●​ The endocrine system makes
efficient, widespread, and rapid -​ Growth, fertility, sex drive,
systemic communication possible, lactation, and sleep.
coordinating the behavior of these
many cells. -​ Impacting mood and emotion.

●​ The term "endocrine" itself helps ☆ MAJOR ENDOCRINE STRUCTURES

define its function: endo means “in” AND TARGET CELLS
and crine means “secretion,”
referring to how hormones are ●​ Endocrine Glands vs. Exocrine
secreted into the bloodstream. Glands

☆ HORMONES AND ENDOCRINE -​ Endocrine glands are the major

SIGNALING players in the system. Their
primary function is to secrete
●​ The endocrine system uses hormones directly into the
secreted chemical signals called surrounding fluid (extracellular
hormones as its means of fluid/blood).
communication.
-​ Unlike exocrine glands, endocrine
●​ Hormones are signaling molecules glands do not have ducts that
released into the bloodstream. carry their secretions away.

●​ This process is known as ☆ Key Endocrine Glands

endocrine signaling, where
chemicals diffuse into the blood or ●​ The endocrine system includes the
lymph and can travel great pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid,
distances throughout the body. adrenal, and pineal glands.

●​ Hormones can reach most cells of ●​ The pancreas is an organ that

the body and have widespread functions equally in endocrine and
effects. exocrine secretions.

☆ MAJOR REGULATORY FUNCTIONS

●​ The endocrine system maintains ☆ Organs with Endocrine Roles

homeostasis in the body by
regulating a wide variety of ●​ Other organs contain cells with
physiological processes: endocrine function, even though
that is not their primary purpose:
 ●​ Hypothalamus, thymus, heart,
kidneys, stomach, small 2.​ ES: Widespread (hormones travel
intestine, liver, adipose tissue, in the blood, reaching most cells)
ovaries, and testes.
Speed of Response:
☆ The Target Principle
1.​ NS: Rapid (within milliseconds)
●​ A hormone, once in the
bloodstream, has the opportunity 2.​ ES: Generally slower (some rapid,
to reach just about any of the 40 others take up to 48 hours)
trillion cells in the body.
Duration of Response:
●​ However, a given hormone only
impacts the activity of its target 1.​ NS: Quick and brief actions
cells.
2.​ ES: Usually slower acting,
●​ Target cells are the only cells that maintaining homeostasis and
possess receptors for that working toward longer-term goals
particular hormone. (e.g., growth, reproduction)

●​ This concept is analogous to a key ☆ CHEMICAL SIGNALING TYPES

(hormone) that only fits one lock
(target cell’s receptor). Types of Chemical Signaling in the Body

☆ ENDOCRINE VS. NERVOUS SYSTEM ●​ Paracrine signaling: Chemical

COMPARISON released by one cell induces a
response in neighboring cells.
●​ Communication is a process of
transmitting signals to control and -​ Neurotransmitters: Chemicals
coordinate actions. The nervous released by neurons to
and endocrine systems are the two communicate with a local cell or
major organ systems participating cells; a specific example of
in relatively “long-distance” paracrine signaling.
communication.
●​ Autocrine signaling: Local
communication affecting the cell
Signal Type: that releases the signal.

1.​ NS: Electrical signals (down ●​ Endocrine signaling: Releasing

axons) and Chemical signals chemical signals (hormones) into
(neurotransmitters) the bloodstream that induce
responses
2.​ ES: Chemical signals (hormones) in specific target cells throughout
the body.
Pathways/Reach:

1.​ NS: Local (neurotransmitters act

locally within the synaptic cleft)
☆ HORMONE PRODUCTION, out of the cell immediately upon
STORAGE,AND TRANSPORT synthesis.

●​ A. Steroid Hormone Dynamics -​ Transport: Because blood is

water-based, hydrophobic steroid
-​ Production: The human genome hormones must travel bound to a
contains instructions to make carrier protein.
enzymes that modify cholesterol
into steroid hormones. Made in the -​ Duration: They tend to persist
smooth endoplasmic reticulum longer in the bloodstream (30–90
(ER). minutes).

-​ Storage & Release: Steroid ●​ B. Peptide/Protein Hormone

hormones cannot be stored in Dynamics
vesicles because they are lipophilic
and readily diffuse out. They must
be made on demand and diffuse
 -​ Production: Synthesized like other ●​ Membrane-bound Hormone
proteins (DNA → mRNA → amino Receptors
acids at ribosomes/rough ER).
-​ Location: Expressed on the cell
-​ Storage & Release: Modified by surface (extracellular-facing side).
the Golgi apparatus and packaged
into vesicles. Released from the -​ Hormones: Hydrophilic,
cell via exocytosis when triggered. water-soluble hormones (most
amino acid–derived hormones,
-​ Transport: Travel freely in the excluding thyroid hormones) bind
blood. here, as they cannot diffuse
through the lipid bilayer.
-​ Duration: Typically persist for only
a few minutes.
-​ Mechanism (Second Messenger
☆ MECHANISMS OF HORMONE System): The hormone (the first
ACTION (RECEPTORS AND messenger) binds to the receptor,
SIGNALING) initiating a cascade of internal
signaling molecules (like a relay
●​ Intracellular Hormone Receptors race).

-​ Location: Found inside the target ●​ The cAMP Second Messenger

cell (in the cytosol or nucleus). Pathway (Common Example)

-​ Hormones: Lipophilic hormones ➢​ Hormone binds to the receptor.

(Steroid hormones and Thyroid
hormones, T3/T4) readily diffuse ➢​ An associated G protein is
through the lipid bilayer to reach activated.
these internal receptors.
➢​ The G protein activates the
-​ Mechanism (Genomic Effect): enzyme adenylyl cyclase.

1.​ The hormone binds to the receptor, ➢​ Adenylyl cyclase converts ATP to
forming a hormone-receptor cyclic adenosine monophosphate
complex. (cAMP) (the second messenger).

2.​ The complex moves to the cell ➢​ cAMP activates protein kinase.
nucleus and binds to a segment of
DNA. ➢​ Activated protein kinases initiate a
phosphorylation cascade, altering
3.​ This triggers transcription of a various cellular proteins, triggering
target gene, leading to mRNA a wide variety of effects.
generation and subsequent protein
synthesis. ●​ Insight: This cascade amplifies the
efficacy of the hormone, allowing a
significant and rapid cellular
response even from low hormone
concentrations.
☆ REGULATION OF HORMONE Example (Oxytocin and
SECRETION: FEEDBACK LOOPS Lactation):

●​ A. Necessity of Control 1.​ An infant suckling at the breast

provides sensory stimulation.
-​ Hormones have profound impacts
on homeostasis and must be 2.​ This triggers the release of
tightly controlled. oxytocin from the posterior
pituitary.
-​ Control is maintained by regulating
hormone production and 3.​ Oxytocin causes the release of
degradation. breast milk.

●​ B. Negative Feedback Loops 4.​ The presence of milk encourages

(The Self-Regulating System) the infant to continue suckling,
which perpetuates the cycle by
-​ Characteristic: The inhibition of continuing nipple stimulation and
further secretion of a hormone in oxytocin release.
response to adequate levels of that
hormone. Negative feedback loops 5.​ The cycle only resolves when the
turn themselves off through their infant is full and stops sucking
own actions. (external event).

-​ Example (Calcitonin):
☆ TRIGGERS OF HORMONE RELEASE
1.​ A rise in blood calcium (Ca2+)
levels (stimulus) triggers the There are three different types of stimuli
thyroid gland to secrete calcitonin. that control the release of hormones.

2.​ Calcitonin encourages osteoblasts ●​ Non-Hormone Chemical Signals

to remove Ca2+ from the blood (Humoral Stimuli):
and deposit it into the bone matrix.
-​ Endocrine glands directly monitor
3.​ As blood Ca2+ levels fall back to blood levels of non-hormone
the homeostatic range, the thyroid chemicals, such as ions or
gland stops releasing calcitonin nutrients.
(inhibition/resolution).
Example: Rising blood Ca2+
●​ C. Positive Feedback Loops levels trigger calcitonin release
(The Perpetuating System) from the thyroid gland.

-​ Characteristic: The cycle will not ●​ Hormonal Signals (Tropic

stop on its own, but the products of Hormones):
the loop perpetuate the cycle until
an external interruption occurs. -​ One endocrine gland secretes a
hormone (tropic hormone) that acts
on another endocrine gland to
 trigger the release of a second -​ It does not produce hormones, but
hormone. stores and secretes hormones
produced by neurosecretory cells
-​ This often involves the in the hypothalamus.
hypothalamus.
Hormones Stored/Secreted:
Example: Thyrotropin-releasing
hormone (TRH) from the 1.​ Oxytocin (OT): Produced in the
hypothalamus triggers the anterior paraventricular nucleus. Functions
pituitary to release in uterine contraction and milk
Thyroid-stimulating hormone ejection.
(TSH).
2.​ Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) /
●​ Neural Stimulation: Vasopressin: Produced in the
supraoptic nucleus. Target cells in
-​ Hormones are released in the kidneys. Released in response
response to stimulation from the to high blood osmolarity to
nervous system. conserve water (decrease urine
output).
-​ Example: Stimulation by the
sympathetic nervous system C. Anterior Pituitary
causes the adrenal medulla to (Adenohypophysis)
secrete epinephrine and
norepinephrine. -​ The anterior pituitary is made of
distinct glandular tissue.
☆ THE HYPOTHALAMUS – PITUITARY
COMPLEX -​ It is connected to the
hypothalamus by the
A. The "Command Center" hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal
system (a specialized blood vessel
-​ This complex is central to the network).
endocrine system, regulating the
synthesis and secretion of -​ Hypothalamic regulatory hormones
hormones from many other glands. travel directly through this portal
system to the anterior pituitary,
-​ The hypothalamus integrates the preventing dilution and speeding
nervous system and the endocrine communication.
system.
-​ The anterior pituitary produces six
B. Posterior Pituitary major hormones in response to
(Neurohypophysis) hypothalamic releasing hormones.

-​ The posterior pituitary is a neural

extension of the hypothalamus,
connected by the infundibulum
(pituitary stalk).
 Prolactin (PRL):
☆ MAJOR ANTERIOR PITUITARY
HORMONES Type: Peptide.

The release of these six protein/peptide Effect: Promotes milk production

hormones is controlled by hypothalamic in lactating individuals and
tropic contributes to mammary gland
hormones: development.

●​ Growth Hormone (GH): Control: Primarily inhibited by

dopamine (Prolactin-Inhibiting
Type: Protein. Hormone, PIH).

Effects: Primary function is ●​ Follicle-Stimulating Hormone

anabolic (promotes protein (FSH):
synthesis and tissue building).
Stimulates mitosis in cartilage and Type: Protein.
hypertrophy of skeletal muscle
cells. Stimulates lipolysis and Effect: Stimulates the production
gluconeogenesis to provide and maturation of gametes
energy. (oocytes and sperm).

Control: Stimulated by GHRH and Control: Stimulated by GnRH

inhibited by GHIH (somatostatin) (Gonadotropin-Releasing
from the hypothalamus. Hormone).

●​ Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone ●​ Luteinizing Hormone (LH):

(TSH) (Thyrotropin):
Type: Protein.
Type: Protein.
Effect: Triggers ovulation (release
Effect: Stimulates the thyroid of oocytes) and stimulates
gland to release thyroid hormones production of sex steroids
(T3 and T4). (testosterone, estrogens,
progesterone).
●​ Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
(ACTH) (Corticotropin): Control: Stimulated by GnRH.

Type: Peptide. ☆ THE THYROID GLAND AND

METABOLIC REGULATION
Effect: Stimulates the adrenal
cortex to secrete corticosteroid Anatomy and Hormone Synthesis
hormones (like cortisol).
-​ The thyroid gland is located over
the anterior surface of the trachea.
 -​ Tissue is composed of thyroid
follicles surrounding colloids, the ☆ CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS:
precursor to thyroid hormones. CALCITONIN AND PTH

-​ Follicular cells produce two forms ●​ Blood calcium levels are tightly
of thyroid hormone (TH): T3 regulated due to calcium’s critical
(triiodothyronine) and T4 role in processes like muscle
(thyroxine). contraction, nerve impulse
transmission, and blood clotting.
-​ Iodine is a key ingredient
necessary for TH production. ●​ A. Calcitonin (From Thyroid
Parafollicular Cells)
-​ Regulation: T3 and T4 are
regulated by a classic negative -​ Stimulus: Released in response to
feedback system involving the a rise in blood calcium levels.
hypothalamus (TRH) and anterior
pituitary (TSH). -​ Action (Decreases Blood
Calcium):
Functions of Thyroid Hormone (T3 and
T4) 1.​ Inhibits osteoclasts (cells that
degrade bone matrix and release
-​ THs are referred to as metabolic calcium).
hormones because they influence
the body’s basal metabolic rate. 2.​ Increases activity of osteoblasts
(cells that deposit calcium into
-​ Mechanism: They directly bone matrix).
increase the activity of the Na+/K+
pump within every cell. Since the ●​ B. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
pump is ATP-dependent, increased (From Parathyroid Chief Cells)
activity requires increased cellular
respiration and ATP production. -​ The parathyroid glands are tiny,
round structures embedded in the
-​ Thermogenesis: Heat is a posterior surface of the thyroid
byproduct of cellular respiration, so gland. Chief cells produce and
increased ATP demand increases secrete PTH.
body temperature (a role in
maintaining warmth). -​ Stimulus: Secreted in response to
low blood calcium levels.
-​ Development: Adequate TH is
essential for fetal and childhood -​ Action (Increases Blood
development and growth. Calcium):

-​ Potentiation: THs increase the 1.​ Stimulates osteoclasts (to release

body's sensitivity to epinephrine calcium from bone).
and norepinephrine, allowing these
stress hormones to further 2.​ Inhibits osteoblasts (preventing
accelerate heart rate and increase calcium deposition into bone).
blood pressure.
 3.​ Initiates production of calcitriol ●​ B. Adrenal Cortex (Outer)
(active vitamin D) in the kidneys,
which increases intestinal -​ Glandular tissue that secretes
absorption of dietary calcium. steroid hormones collectively
called corticoids. Involved in the
●​ C. Regulatory Difference long-term stress response.
(Insight)
-​ Zona Glomerulosa: Produces
-​ PTH and Calcitonin are Mineralocorticoids (e.g.,
antagonistic hormones. Aldosterone). Regulates Na+ and
K+ levels, increasing Na+ retention
-​ The negative feedback regulation and blood pressure/volume.
of PTH is considered a simple
endocrine pathway, regulated -​ Zona Fasciculata: Produces
directly by the level of calcium ions Glucocorticoids (e.g., Cortisol).
in the blood.
-​ Released in response to long-term
-​ The negative feedback regulation stress via the CRH-ACTH
of T3/T4 is more complex, cascade.
involving the hypothalamic and
anterior pituitary tropic hormones. -​ Inhibits tissue building while
stimulating the breakdown of
stored nutrients (glycogen, fats,
☆ THE ADRENAL GLANDS AND proteins) to fuel survival activities.
STRESS RESPONSE
-​ Also acts as an anti-inflammatory
The adrenal glands sit atop the kidneys agent by downregulating the
and function as two physiologically immune system.
separate endocrine
glands: the cortex and the medulla. -​ Zona Reticularis: Produces small
amounts of steroid Androgens.
●​ A. Adrenal Medulla (Inner)
☆ THE PANCREAS AND BLOOD
-​ An extension of the central GLUCOSE REGULATION
nervous system; functions in the
acute, short-term sympathetic A. Structure and Cell Types
stress response.
-​ The endocrine function is
-​ Hormones: Chromaffin cells completed by clusters of cells
secrete amine hormones: called pancreatic islets.
Epinephrine (adrenaline) and
Norepinephrine (noradrenaline). -​ Alpha cells: Produce Glucagon
(secreted when blood glucose is
-​ Action: Increases heart rate, low).
releases stored nutrients, and
shifts blood flow to favor skeletal -​ Beta cells: Produce Insulin
muscles. (secreted when blood glucose is
high).
 -​ Delta cells: Secrete Somatostatin ☆ OTHER DIFFUSE ENDOCRINE
(inhibits GH, glucagon, and insulin TISSUES
release).
Many organs have secondary endocrine
B. Insulin Action (Lowers Blood Glucose) roles.

-​ Primary function: To facilitate the ●​ Heart: Produces Atrial Natriuretic

uptake of glucose into body cells Peptide (ANP) in response to
(e.g., skeletal muscle and adipose stretch from high blood volume or
cells). pressure. ANP signals the kidneys
to allow more sodium (and
-​ Mechanism: Insulin binds its therefore water by osmosis) into
receptor, triggering a second the urine, decreasing blood
messenger system that causes volume.
glucose transporters (stored in
vesicles) to be expressed on the ●​ Kidneys: Produce Erythropoietin
cell surface, allowing glucose (EPO) in response to low oxygen
entry. levels. EPO stimulates red blood
cell production in the bone marrow.
-​ Other Effects: Stimulates the liver Also participates in blood pressure
to convert excess glucose into regulation (RAAS) and production
glycogen for storage and promotes of Calcitriol.
triglyceride synthesis in adipose
tissue. ●​ Adipose Tissue: Produces
Adipokines, including:
C. Glucagon Action (Raises Blood
Glucose) -​ Leptin: Circulates proportional to
body fat levels; produces a feeling
-​ Secreted by alpha cells in of satiety (reducing appetite) after
response to declining blood a meal.
glucose levels (e.g., during fasting
or exercise). -​ Adiponectin: Reduces cellular
insulin resistance and protects
-​ Key Effects: blood vessels.

1.​ Glycogenolysis: Stimulates the ●​ Thymus: Produces Thymosins,

liver to convert stored glycogen which contribute to the
back into glucose. development and differentiation of
T lymphocytes (immune cells).
2.​ Gluconeogenesis: Stimulates the
liver to convert non-carbohydrate ●​ Skin: Produces inactive Vitamin
materials (amino acids, glycerol) D3 upon exposure to UV radiation.
into glucose. This is later converted into the
active form (Calcitriol) in the liver
3.​ Lipolysis: Breakdown of stored and kidneys.
triglycerides into free fatty acids
and glycerol.
●​ Liver: Releases Insulin-like Growth raises blood pressure) and
Factors (IGFs) in response to GH. Thrombopoietin (stimulates platelet
Also produces Angiotensinogen production
(precursor to angiotensin, which

Philippians 4:13: "I can do all this through him who gives me strength".