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IGCSE Physics: Measurement Basics

The document provides an overview of key concepts in physics related to measurements, including techniques for measuring length, volume, and time, as well as the distinction between scalar and vector quantities. It explains the importance of taking multiple readings to reduce measurement errors and introduces calculations involving vectors, including graphical methods and trigonometry. Additionally, it covers the definitions of speed and velocity, emphasizing their scalar and vector nature, respectively.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

5 views122 pages

IGCSE Physics: Measurement Basics

Uploaded by

Muhammad Ibrahim khan

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes

Physics
Physical Quantities & Measurement
Techniques
Contents
Measurement
Scalars & Vectors
Calculating with Vectors

Measuring length & volume

When making measurements in physics, different instruments are used for different
measurements

Measuring length
Rulers can be used to measure small distances of a few centimetres (cm).
They are able to measure to the nearest millimetre (mm)

A ruler can measure lengths in cm or mm

A tape measure is used to measure lengths of tens of centimetres
A trundle wheel is used to measure lengths of tens of metres

Trundle wheels can be used to measure larger distances

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Measuring volume
Measuring cylinder are used to measure the volume of liquids Your notes
By measuring the change in volume, a measuring cylinder can also be used to
determine the volume of an irregular shape

Measuring cylinders can be used to determine the volume of a liquid or an irregular shaped
solid

Worked Example
The diagram shows four identical ball-bearings placed between two blocks on a steel
ruler.

Calculate the diameter of one ball-bearing.

Answer:
Step 1: Measure the length of all four ball-bearings
The blocks mark the edges of the first and last ball bearings
The blocks make it easier to measure the length of all four ball-bearings
total length = 12 − 4
total length = 8 cm
Step 2: Find the diameter by dividing the total length by the number of ball-
bearings

total length
diameter = number of ball bearings
8
diameter =4
diameter = 2 cm

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Two measurements can be considered equal within the limits of experimental
accuracy if their values are within 10% of each other

Measuring time
In physics, stop-clocks and stopwatches are usually used to measure time intervals
An important factor when measuring time intervals is human reaction time
The standard human reaction time for an alert person is 0.25 s

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This can have a significant impact upon measurements when the measurements
involved are very short
Your notes

Worked Example
A stopwatch is used to measure the time taken for a runner to complete a lap of a 400
m track.
The images below give the readings on the stopwatch at the start and the end of the
lap.

Calculate how long it took the runner to complete the lap. Give your answer in
seconds.
Answer:
Step 1: Identify the start time for the lap
The stopwatch was already at 0:55:10 when the runner started the lap
Start time = 55.10 seconds (s)
Step 2: Identify the finish time for the lap
The stopwatch reads 1:45:10 at the end of the lap
Finish time = 1 minute and 45.10 s
Step 3: Convert the finish time into seconds

1 minute = 60 seconds
finish time = 60 s + 45. 10 s
finish time = 105 . 10 s
Step 4: Calculate the total time taken to complete the lap

total time = finish time − start time

total time = 105 . 10 s − 55. 10 s

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You will sometimes find that information is given in the question that is not actually
needed in the calculation.
In this worked example, you were told that the track the runner is running on is 400 m.
This had nothing to do with the calculation the question asked you to perform.
This is a common method for making a question seem more difficult. Don't let it catch
you out.

Multiple readings
In physics, multiple readings of measurements are often taken to reduce the impact of
measurement errors

Taking multiple measurements in physics

The measurement of the thickness of a single sheet of paper is so small that it would be
very difficult to get an accurate answer
However, measuring the thickness of 100 sheets of paper can be done much more
accurately
Dividing the answer by 100 then gives an accurate figure for the average thickness
of one sheet
Measuring the time period of a simple pendulum would incur a human reaction time error
at the start of the measurement and at the end of the measurement
If the measurement is small, the uncertainty in the measurement is huge

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Therefore, multiple readings can be taken to reduce the uncertainty of the
measurement
Your notes
The time taken for 10 swings of the pendulum can be measured
Dividing the answer by 10 gives a more accurate figure for the average time taken
for one swing
A fiducial marker can be used when measuring oscillations
A fiducial marker is a visual reference point such as a line or a dot
The marker is added to the point at which the measurement is taken, such as the
equilibrium position of an oscillating pendulum
This makes it easier to see when the pendulum passes this point, reducing the error
in starting and stopping the timer

Scalar & vector quantities

Extended tier only
All quantities can be one of two types:
A scalar
A vector

Scalars
Scalar quantities have only a magnitude
Mass is an example of a scalar quantity because it has magnitude without direction
Energy and volume are also examples of scalar quantities

Vectors
Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction
Weight is an example of a vector quantity because it is a force and therefore has
both magnitude and direction
Acceleration and momentum are also examples of vector quantities

Distance and displacement

Distance is a measure of how far an object has travelled, regardless of direction
Distance is the total length of the path taken
Distance, therefore, has a magnitude but no direction
So, distance is a scalar quantity
Displacement is a measure of how far it is between two points in space, including the
direction
Displacement is the length and direction of a straight line drawn from the starting
point to the finishing point
Displacement, therefore, has a magnitude and a direction
So, displacement is a vector quantity

What is the difference between distance and

displacement?

Displacement is a vector quantity, while distance is a scalar quantity

When a student travels to school, there will probably be a difference between the
distance they travel and their displacement
The overall distance they travel includes the total lengths of all the roads, including
any twists and turns
The overall displacement of the student would be a straight line between their
home and school, regardless of any obstacles, such as buildings, lakes or
motorways, along the way

Speed and velocity

Speed is a measure of the distance travelled by an object per unit time, regardless of
the direction
The speed of an object describes how fast it is moving, but not the direction it is
travelling in
Speed, therefore, has magnitude but no direction
So, speed is a scalar quantity
Velocity is a measure of the displacement of an object per unit time, including the
direction
The velocity of an object describes how fast it is moving and which direction it is
travelling in
An object can have a constant speed but a changing velocity if the object is
changing direction
Velocity, therefore, has magnitude and direction

Examples of scalars & vectors Your notes

Extended tier only
The table below lists some common examples of scalar and vector quantities
Corresponding scalars and their vector counterparts are aligned in the table where
applicable

Table of scalars and vectors

Scalar Vector

distance displacement

speed velocity

mass weight

force

acceleration

momentum

electric field strength

energy

volume

density

temperature

power

Worked Example
An instructor is in charge of training junior astronauts. For one of their sessions, they
would like to explain the difference between mass and weight.

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Suggest how the instructor should explain the difference between mass and weight,
using definitions of scalars and vectors in your answer.
Your notes
Answer:
Step 1: Recall the definitions of a scalar and vector quantity
Scalars are quantities that have only a magnitude
Vectors are quantities that have both magnitude and direction
Step 2: Identify which quantity has magnitude only
Mass is a quantity with magnitude only
So mass is a scalar quantity
The instructor might explain to their junior astronauts that their mass will not
change as their location in the Universe changes
Step 3: Identify which quantity has magnitude and direction
Weight is a quantity with magnitude and direction (it is a force)
So weight is a vector quantity
The instructor might explain that their weight, the force on them due to
gravitational field strength, will vary depending on their location. For example, the
force of weight acting on them would be less on the Moon than it is on Earth

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Make sure you are comfortable with the differences between similar scalars and
vectors.
The most commonly confused pairings tend to be:
distance and displacement
speed and velocity
weight and mass

Calculations with vectors

Extended tier only
Vectors can be drawn using vector diagrams

Vector diagrams
Vectors are represented by an arrow
The length of the arrow represents the magnitude
The direction of the arrow indicates the direction
the scale of the arrows should be proportional to the relative magnitudes of the
forces
an arrow for a 4 N force should be twice as long as an arrow for a 2 N force

Vector diagram of two forces acting on an object

The length of the arrows are proportional to the magnitude of the forces, and show the
direction that forces act in

Calculating vectors graphically

Vector diagrams can be used to combine vectors
Vectors at right angles to one another can be combined into one resultant vector
The resultant vector will have the combined effect of the two original vectors
For example, a resultant force vector will have the combined effect of two
component forces
Component vectors are sometimes drawn with a dotted line and a subscript indicating
horizontal or vertical

A force F , for example, may have two components:

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FV is the vertical component of the force F
Your notes
FH is the horizontal component of force F
To calculate vectors graphically means carefully producing a scale drawing with all
lengths and angles correct
This should be done using a sharp pencil, ruler and protractor
Follow these steps to carry out calculations with vectors on graphs
1. Choose a scale which fits the page
For example, use 1 cm = 10 m or 1 cm = 1 N, so that the diagram is around 10 cm high
2. Draw the vectors at right angles to one another
3. Complete the rectangle
4. Draw the resultant vector diagonally from the origin
5. Carefully measure the length of the resultant vector
6. Use the scale factor to calculate the magnitude
7. Use the protractor to measure the angle

Vectors can be measured or calculated graphically using scaled vector diagrams

Combining vectors by calculation

In this method, a vector diagram is still essential but it does not need to be exactly to
scale
The vector diagram can take the form of a sketch, as long as the resultant side,
component sides are clearly labelled

Using a vector diagram to resolve two force vectors F1 and F2 into a resultant force vector
FR
When the magnitude of only one vector is known, and the angle is known, then
trigonometry can be used to find the magnitude of the missing vector
The mnemonic 'soh-cah-toa' can used to remember the trigonometric functions

Trigonometry can be used when the magnitude of one vector and the angle is known

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When the magnitudes of two of the vectors are known, then Pythagoras' theorem can
be used to find the magnitude of the missing vector
Your notes

Pythagoras's theorem can be used when the magnitudes of two of the three vectors are
known

Worked Example
A force acts on an object with 60 N to the right. A second force of 100 N acts on the
same object in the upward direction.
Calculate the resultant force acting on the object.
Answer:
Step 1: Draw a vector diagram

Step 2: Calculate the magnitude of the resultant force using Pythagoras' theorem

F = 60 2 + 100 2
F = 13 600
F = 117 N
Step 3: Calculate the direction of the resultant vector using trigonometry

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opposite
tanθ = adjacent Your notes
100
tanθ = 60
100
θ = tan−1 ⎛
⎜
⎜
60
⎞
⎟
⎟ = 59°
⎝ ⎠

Step 4: State the final answer, complete with magnitude and direction

F = 117 N at 59° from the horizontal

Examiner Tips and Tricks

If the question specifically asks you to use the calculation or graphical method, you
must solve the problem as asked. However, if the choice is left up to you then any
correct method will lead to the correct answer.
The graphical method sometimes feels easier than calculating, but once you are
confident with trigonometry and Pythagoras you will find calculating quicker and
more accurate.

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Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes
Physics
Motion
Contents
Speed & Velocity
Acceleration
Distance-Time Graphs
Speed-Time Graphs
Calculating Acceleration from Speed-Time Graphs
Freefall

Speed
The speed of an object is defined as
Distance travelled per unit time
Speed is a scalar quantity
This is because it only contains a magnitude (without a direction)
For objects that are moving at a constant speed, the equation for calculating speed is:

s
v = t
Where:

v = speed, measured in metres per second (m/s)

s = distance travelled, measured in metres (m)
t = time, measured in seconds (s)

Average speed
The speed of an object can vary throughout its journey
Therefore, it is often more useful to know an object's average speed

Examples of average speeds

Average walking speed = 1.5 m/s
Average running speed = 3 m/s
Average cycling speed = 6 m/s

A hiker might have an average speed of 2.0 m/s, whereas a particularly excited bumble
bee can have average speeds of up to 4.5 m/s
A car travels at different instantaneous speeds throughout its journey
The car speeds up and slows down
The car may stop at junctions and traffic lights
The average speed of the journey of the car can be found by dividing the total distance
travelled by the total time taken
The equation for calculating the average speed of an object is:

distance travelled
Average speed = time taken
Average speed considers the total distance travelled and the total time taken

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Formula triangle for average speed, distance moved and time taken

How to use formula triangles Your notes

Formula triangles are really useful for knowing how to rearrange physics equations
To use them:
1. Cover up the quantity to be calculated, this is known as the 'subject' of the equation
2. Look at the position of the other two quantities
If they are on the same line, this means they are multiplied
If one quantity is above the other, this means they are divided - make sure to keep
the order of which is on the top and bottom of the fraction!
In the example below, to calculate average speed, cover-up the variable speed so that
only distance and time are left
The equation is revealed as:

distance
speed = time

To use a formula triangle, simply cover up the quantity you wish calculate and the
structure of the equation is revealed

Worked Example
Planes fly at typical average speeds of around 250 m/s.
Calculate the distance travelled by a plane moving at this average speed for 2 hours.
Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Average speed = 250 m/s

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Time taken = 2 hours
Step 2: Write the relevant equation
Your notes
distance travelled
average speed = time taken
Step 3: Rearrange to make distance moved the subject

distance travelled = average speed × time taken

Step 4: Convert any units
The time given in the question is not in standard units
Convert 2 hours into seconds:
2 hours = 2 × 60 × 60
2 hours = 7200 s
Step 5: Substitute the values for average speed and time taken

distance travelled = 250 × 7200

distance travelled = 1 800 000 m

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Rearranging equations is an important skill in Physics. You can use the equation
triangles to help you practice, but it is better not to rely on them because they do not
work for all equations you may need to rearrange in the exam.

Velocity
Velocity is a vector quantity with magnitude and direction
Velocity is defined as:
Speed in a given direction
The direction of a velocity can be given in words
For example, 20 m/s east
Or the direction of velocity can be given using a positive or negative value
For example, −20 m/s
A positive direction is typically in the direction of the initial motion, to the right, or upward
A negative velocity is typically in the opposite direction to the initial velocity, to the left,
or downward

Comparing speed and velocity

The cars in the diagram above have the same speed (a scalar quantity) but different
velocities (a vector quantity). Fear not, they are in different lanes!

Examiner Tips and Tricks

The positive and negative values of velocity can be assigned to any direction as long
as the negative velocity is in the opposite direction to the positive value. You can
decide which direction you assign to be positive as long as you are consistent
throughout a question.

The equation for velocity is very similar to the equation for speed:

s
v=
t
Where:
v = velocity in metres per second (m/s)
s = displacement, measured in metres (m)
t = time, measured in seconds (s)
Velocity is a vector quantity, so it uses displacement, s, which is another vector quantity

Acceleration
Extender tier only
Acceleration describes how the velocity of an object changes over time
Acceleration is defined as:
The rate of change of velocity
In other words, acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time
The acceleration of an object is often changing throughout an object's journey
Therefore, is it often useful to know the average acceleration

∆v
a = ∆t
Where:

a = acceleration in metres per second squared (m/s2)

∆ v = change in velocity in metres per second (m/s)
∆ t = time taken in seconds (s)
Formula triangle for acceleration, change in velocity and
change in time

To use a formula triangle, simply cover up the quantity you wish calculate and the
structure of the equation is revealed
Information on how to use a formula triangle can be found in Speed & velocity

Change in velocity

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The change in velocity is the difference between the initial and final velocity:

∆v = v − u Your notes
Where:

∆ v = change in velocity in metres per second (m/s)

v = final velocity in metres per second (m/s)
u = initial velocity in metres per second (m/s)

Speeding up & slowing down

An object can change its velocity in several ways:
speeding up
slowing down
changing direction
Any change in an object's velocity is an acceleration
When an object speeds up, it is accelerating
This is positive acceleration
When an object slows down, it is decelerating
This is negative acceleration
Acceleration is positive if its direction is in the same direction as the motion of the
object

Acceleration of different objects

A rocket speeding up (accelerating) and a car slowing down (decelerating)

Worked Example
A Japanese bullet train decelerates at a constant rate in a straight line. The velocity of
the train decreases from 50 m/s to 42 m/s in 30 seconds.
(a) Calculate the change in velocity of the train.
(b) Calculate the deceleration of the train, and explain how your answer shows the
train is slowing down.
Answer:
Part (a)
Step 1: List the known quantities

Initial velocity, u= 50 m s /
Final velocity, v = 42 m s /
Step 2: Write the equation for change in velocity

∆v = v − u
Step 3: Substitute values for final and initial velocity

∆ v = 42 − 50
∆ v = − 8 m/s

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Part (b)
Step 1: List the known quantities Your notes
∆ =−
Change in velocity, v 8m s /
Time taken, t∆ = 30 s
Step 2: Write the equation for acceleration

∆v
a = ∆t
Step 3: Substitute the values for change in velocity and time

−8
a = 30
a = − 0 . 27 m/s2
Step 4: Interpret the value for deceleration
The answer is negative, which indicates the train is slowing down

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Remember, the units for acceleration are metres per second squared, m/s2. In other
words, acceleration measures how much the velocity (m/s) changes every second, so
the units are metres per second per second (m/s/s).

Distance-time graphs
A distance-time graph is used to describe the motion of an object and calculate its
speed

Distance-time graph of an object moving at a constant

speed

The graph shows a moving object moving further away from its origin at a constant speed

Constant speed on a distance-time graph

If an object is moving at a constant speed, the distance-time graph will be a straight line
If the constant speed is zero, the line will be horizontal
If the constant speed is non-zero, the line will have a gradient
If an object has a speed of zero, the object is stationary
The distance moved by the object over time is zero
The gradient of a distance-time graph represents the magnitude of the object's
velocity, or its speed
A steeper slope, or a higher gradient, represents a greater speed
A shallower slope, or a lower gradient, represents a slower speed

Different speeds on a distance-time graph

Both of these objects are moving at a constant speed, because the lines are straight. The
steeper slope represents the faster speed and the shallower line represents the slower
speed.

Changing speed on a distance-time graph

Often, the speed of an object is not constant
If the speed of an object is changing, the object is accelerating
If an object is accelerating, the distance-time graph will be a curved line
A curve on a distance-time graph is a changing gradient
If the gradient increases over time, the speed is increasing over time
If the gradient decreases over time, the speed is decreasing over time

Speed of an object increasing and decreasing on a

distance-time graph

Changing speeds are represented by changing slopes, or gradients. The red line shows a
decreasing gradient and represents an object slowing down, or decelerating. The green
line shows an increasing gradient and represents an object speeding up, or accelerating.

Using distance-time graphs

The speed of a moving object can be calculated from the gradient of the line on a
distance-time graph:

∆y
speed = gradient = ∆ x

The speed of an object can be found by calculating the gradient of a distance-time graph

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∆ y is the change in y (distance) values
∆ x is the change in x (time) values Your notes

Worked Example
A distance-time graph is drawn below for part of a train journey. The train is travelling
at a constant speed.

Calculate the speed of the train.

Answer:
Step 1: Draw a large gradient triangle on the graph
The image below shows a large gradient triangle drawn with dashed lines
∆ ∆
y and x are labelled, using the units as stated on each axes

Step 2: Convert units for distance and time into standard units

The distance travelled, s = ×

8 km 1000 m 8000 m =
The time taken, t = × =
6 min 60 s 360 s
Step 3: State that speed is equal to the gradient of a distance-time graph
The gradient of a distance-time graph is equal to the speed of a moving object:
∆y s
gradient = v = ∆x = t
Step 4: Substitute values to calculate the speed

8000
v = 360
v = 22. 2 m/s

Worked Example
A student decides to take a stroll to the park. They find a bench in a quiet spot, take a
seat, and read a book on black holes. After some time reading, the student realises
they lost track of time and runs home.
A distance-time graph for the trip is drawn below.

(a) How long does the student spend reading the book?
(b) Which section of the graph represents the student running home?
(c) What is the total distance travelled by the student?

Answer:
Part (a)
The student spends 40 minutes reading his book
The flat section of the line (section B) represents an object which is stationary, so
section B represents the student sitting on the bench reading
This section lasts for 40 minutes

Part (b)
Section C represents the student running home
The slope of the line in section C is steeper than the slope in section A
This means the student was moving at a faster speed (running) in section C
Part (c)
The total distance travelled by the student is 0.6 km
The total distance travelled by an object is given by the final point on the line; in
this case, the line ends at 0.6 km on the distance axis

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Examiner Tips and Tricks
When calculating a gradient, use the entire line where possible. Examiners tend to Your notes
award credit if they see a large gradient triangle used, so you need to actually draw
the lines directly on the graph itself!
Remember to check the units on each axis. These may not always be in standard units;
in our example, the unit of distance was km and the unit of time was minutes. Double-
check which units to use in your answer.
You could also be asked to plot a distance time graph from data given to you in a
question, or be asked to describe the motion of an object from the data given.
You can read more about the use of graphs in exams in the article Graph skills for
GCSE Physics

Speed-time graphs
A speed-time graph is used to describe the speed of an object and calculate its
acceleration

Constant acceleration on a speed-time graph

If an object is moving at a constant acceleration, the speed-time graph will be a straight
line
If the constant acceleration is zero, the line will be horizontal
If the constant speed is non-zero, the line will have a gradient
If an object has an acceleration of zero, the object is travelling at a constant velocity
Its velocity is not changing over time
If the constant speed is zero, then the object is stationary

Motion on a speed-time graph

This image shows how to interpret the slope of a speed-time graph

The gradient of a speed-time graph represents the object's acceleration

A steeper slope, or a higher gradient, represents a greater acceleration
A shallower slope, or a lower gradient, represents a slower acceleration
If the gradient is positive, the line slopes upward

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A positive gradient represents an increasing speed, or acceleration
If the gradient is negative, the line slopes downward
Your notes
A negative gradient represents a decreasing speed, or deceleration
Speeding up and slowing down on a speed-time graph

Both of these objects are moving at a constant acceleration, because the lines are
straight. The positive gradient represents an increasing speed or positive acceleration.
The negative gradient represents a decreasing speed or negative acceleration.

Examiner Tips and Tricks

For CIE IGCSE Physics, you may be asked plot a graph of your own, or to interpret
information given to you in a graph. You may also be asked to describe the motion of
an object from data given in a question. You can read more about graph skills in the
article Graph skills in GCSE Physics

Using speed-time graphs

Speed-time graphs can also be used to determine the distance travelled by an object

The area under a speed-time graph

The area under a speed-time graph represents the distance travelled

If the area of a section of the speed-time graph forms a triangle, the area can be
calculated using:

1
AT = 2
bh

If the area of a section of the speed-time graph forms a rectangle, the area can be
determined using:

AR = bh
Where:

A T = area of a triangle

A R = area of a rectangle

b = base
h = height
The total distance travelled can be determined by finding the total area under the
speed-time graph
The distance travelled for part of the journey can be determined by finding the area
under the graph for a specific time interval

Area under a speed-time graph split into sections

The area under a speed-time graph can split into triangular and rectangular sections

Worked Example
The speed-time graph below shows a car journey that lasts for 160 seconds.

Calculate the total distance travelled by the car on this journey.

Answer:
Step 1: Recall that the area under a speed-time graph represents the distance
travelled
In order to calculate the total distance travelled, the total area underneath the line
must be determined
Step 2: Identify each enclosed area

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In this example, there are five enclosed areas under the line
These can be labelled as areas 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, as shown in the image below:
Your notes

Step 3: Calculate the area of each enclosed shape under the line
Area 1 = area of a triangle
1
A1 = 2
bh

1
A1 = 2
× 40 × 17. 5
A1 = 350 m
Area 2 = area of a rectangle
A2 = bh
A2 = 30 × 17. 5
A2 = 525 m
Area 3 = area of a triangle
1
A3 = 2
bh

1
A3 = 2
× 20 × 7 . 5
A3 = 75 m
Area 4 = area of a rectangle
A4 = bh

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A4 = 20 × 17. 5
Your notes
A4 = 350 m
Area 5 = area of a triangle
1
A5 = 2
bh

1
A5 = 2
× 70 × 25
A5 = 875 m
Step 4: Calculate the total distance travelled by finding the total area under the line
Add up each of the five areas enclosed:
total distance = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5
total distance = 350 + 525 + 75 + 350 + 875
total distance = 2175 m

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Some areas will need to be split into a triangle and a rectangle to determine the area
for a specific time interval, like areas 3 & 4 in the worked example above.
If you are asked to find the distance travelled for a specific time interval, then you just
need to find the area of the section above that time interval.
For example, the distance travelled between 70 s and 90 s is the sum of Area 3 + Area
4

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Calculating Acceleration from Speed-Time Graphs
Your notes

Interpreting speed-time graphs

Extended tier only
When interpreting speed-time graphs, the shape of the graph can show:
constant acceleration
changing acceleration
The gradient of a speed-time graph shows the acceleration of a moving object
The gradient is positive if the object is accelerating (speed increases with time)
The gradient is negative if the object is decelerating (speed decreases with time)

Interpreting constant positive acceleration on a

speed-time graph
When the acceleration is constant and non-zero:
the graph is a straight line
velocity is increasing at a constant rate, i.e. speed changes by the same amount in
equal intervals of time

Constant positive acceleration on a speed-time graph

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A speed-time graph for an object with constant positive acceleration. Its speed
increases by 5 m/s every 20 s, showing that the rate at which the speed increases is
constant. Your notes

Interpreting increasing positive acceleration on a

speed-time graph
When the acceleration is increasing:
the graph is a curve
velocity is increasing at an increasing rate, i.e. the speed changes by the same
amount in increasingly shorter time intervals

Increasing positive acceleration on a speed-time graph

A speed-time graph for an object with changing positive acceleration. The time taken for
the speed to increase by 5 m/s decreases over time, showing that acceleration is
increasing.

Interpreting decreasing positive acceleration on a

speed-time graph
When the acceleration is decreasing:
the graph is a curve

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velocity is increasing at a decreasing rate, i.e. the speed changes by the same
amount in increasingly longer time intervals
Decreasing positive acceleration on a speed-time graph Your notes

A speed-time graph for an object with changing positive acceleration. The time taken for
the speed to increase by 5 m/s increases over time, showing that acceleration is
decreasing.

Interpreting decreasing negative acceleration on a

speed-time graph
When the deceleration is decreasing:
the graph is a curve
the velocity is decreasing at a decreasing rate, i.e. the speed changes by the same
amount in increasingly longer intervals of time

Decreasing negative acceleration on a speed-time graph

A speed-time graph for an object with changing negative acceleration. The time taken for
the speed to decrease by 5 m/s increases over time, showing that deceleration is
decreasing.

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Interpreting graphs can be difficult, and students often struggle with this key skill
In CIE IGCSE Physics, interpreting graphs is a required skill
For your exam, you are also expected to calculate the gradient of a graph and the
area under a graph
Finding the area under a graph is covered in the revision note Speed-time graphs

Calculating acceleration
Extended tier only
The acceleration of an object can be calculated from the gradient of a speed-time
graph

Finding the gradient when acceleration is constant

When acceleration is constant, the speed-time graph will be a straight line
The gradient of a straight line can be found using:

∆ y = change in y (speed) values

∆ x = change in x (time) values
Therefore, the gradient is equal to:

∆v
a = ∆t
Where:

a = acceleration, measured in metres per second squared (m/s2)

∆ v = change in speed, measured in metres per second (m/s)
∆ t = change in time, measured in seconds (s)

The gradient of a speed-time graph for constant acceleration can be found using Δy
divided by Δx

Finding the gradient when acceleration is changing

When acceleration is changing, the speed-time graph will be a curve
The gradient of a point on a curve can be found by drawing a tangent to the curve

A tangent to the curve

The value of the gradient at a single point on a curve can be determined by finding the
gradient of the tangent to that point

The tangent provides a gradient that is representative of the gradient at a specific point
on the curve
The gradient of the tangent can be found using:

∆y
gradient = ∆x
The value of the gradient at specific point on the curve represents the acceleration of
the object at that moment
This is called instantaneous acceleration

Worked Example
A cyclist is training for a cycling tournament.
The speed-time graph below shows the cyclist's motion as they cycle along a flat,
straight road.

(a) In which section (A, B, C, D, or E) of the speed-time graph is the cyclist's

acceleration the largest?
(b) Calculate the cyclist's acceleration between 5 and 10 seconds.

Answer:
Part (a)
Step 1: Recall that the slope of a speed-time graph represents the magnitude of
acceleration
The slope of a speed-time graph indicates the magnitude of acceleration
Therefore, the only sections of the graph where the cyclist is accelerating are
sections B and D
Sections A, C, and E are flat; in other words, the cyclist is moving at a constant
velocity (therefore, not accelerating)
Step 2: Identify the section with the steepest slope
Section D of the graph has the steepest slope
Hence, the largest acceleration is shown in section D

Part (b)
Step 1: Recall that the gradient of a speed-time graph gives the acceleration
Calculating the gradient of a slope on a speed-time graph gives the acceleration
for that time period
Step 2: Draw a large gradient triangle at the appropriate section of the graph

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A gradient triangle is drawn for the time period between 5 and 10 seconds

Your notes

Step 3: Calculate the size of the gradient and state this as the acceleration
The acceleration is given by the gradient, which can be calculated using:
∆y
a = ∆x
5
a = 5
a = 1 m/s2
Therefore, the cyclist accelerated at 1 m/s2 between 5 and 10 seconds

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Use the entire slope, where possible, to calculate the gradient. Examiners tend to
award credit if they see a large gradient triangle used.
Remember to actually draw the lines directly on the graph itself, particularly when the
question asks you to use the graph to calculate the acceleration.

Worked Example

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A skydiver jumps from a plane and reaches terminal velocity after 15 seconds. A
speed-time graph of their motion is shown below.
Your notes
Use the graph to find the acceleration at 5 seconds.

Answer:
Step 1: Draw a tangent to the curve at the point where t = 5 s

Step 2: Calculate the gradient of the tangent

Change in y (speed):∆y
Change in x (time):∆x

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∆y
= ∆x
a
Your notes
58 − 20
a=
9 . 75 − 0 . 75
38
a = 9.0
a = 4 . 2 m/s2 ( 2 s. f . )

Examiner Tips and Tricks

The CIE IGCSE Physics specification includes knowing how to calculate the gradient
of a tangent to the curve in the maths skills section. This means that you could be
asked to demonstrate this skill in any topic. The skills in this revision note are
applicable to any type of graph. For more information on interpreting graphs in
Physics, see the article Graph skills in GCSE Physics

Acceleration of free fall

In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with the same acceleration regardless of
their mass
This is called the acceleration of freefall
This is also sometimes called acceleration due to gravity

acceleration of freefall = g = 9 . 8 m/s2

In the absence of air resistance, Galileo discovered that all objects (near Earth's surface)
fall with an acceleration of about 9.8 m/s2
This means that for every second an object falls, its velocity will increase by 9.8 m/s

The symbol g also stands for the gravitational field strength, and can be used to
calculate the force of weight acting an object using its mass:

W = mg
Where:

W = the force of weight acting on an object, measured in newtons (N)

m = mass of object, measured in kilograms (kg)

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g = gravitational field strength, measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg)
Motion of falling objects Your notes
Extended tier only

Falling objects without air resistance

A vacuum is a space that contains no matter, so there are no particles to exert frictional
forces on a falling object
When objects fall in a vacuum, there is no air resistance or liquid resistance so the only
force acting on them is the force of weight

W = mg
Newton's second law of motion describes acceleration as:

F
a =m
Where:

a = acceleration, measured in metres per second squared (m/s2)

F = force exerted on object, measured in newtons (N)
m = mass of object, measured in kilograms (kg)
Since the only force acting on a falling object in a vacuum is weight, the equation can be
expressed as

W
a = m
Weight is the product of mass and gravitational field strength, so the equation can be
expressed as

mg
a = m
Here, the masses cancel each other out

mg
a = m
So, for objects falling in a vacuum

a =g
Where g = acceleration of free fall

This theory was tested by astronauts on the Moon

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A hammer and a feather were dropped from equal heights on the Moon, where there
is no air resistance
Your notes
The hammer and the feather fell with the same acceleration and landed at the same
time
This proved that objects falling in a vacuum have the same acceleration regardless
of their mass
This also applies when air resistance is so small that it can be disregarded
When air resistance is described as negligible, it can be approximated to an object
is falling in a vacuum

Object falling with no air resistance

In the absence of air resistance, objects fall with constant acceleration

Objects falling through a vacuum will never reach a terminal velocity

Falling objects with air resistance

When objects fall through a fluid, the fluid exerts a frictional force on the object as it falls
Fluids are liquids or gases
Frictional forces oppose the motion of an object
They act to slow it down
When an object falls through air, it experiences air resistance
Air resistance is a frictional force produced by collisions with air particles as the
object moves through the air
Air resistance increases as the speed of the object increases
When objects fall through air, two forces are exerted on the object:
The force of weight

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The force of air resistance
When the force of air resistance becomes equal to the force of weight, then the object
stops accelerating and falls at a constant speed Your notes
This is called terminal velocity

How does a skydiver reach terminal velocity?

The stages of a skydivers fall until they reach terminal velocity

When a skydiver jumps out of a plane, initially the only force acting on them is weight
The resultant force acts in the downward direction
The skydiver accelerates
As the skydiver accelerates, their speed increases, so the force of air resistance
increases
The resultant force acts in the downward direction with a smaller magnitude
The skydiver continues to accelerate but at a slower rate
Air resistance increases until it is equal to the weight
The forces are balanced
There is no resultant force
Terminal velocity is reached
The parachute is deployed, increasing the surface area of the skydiver

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The parachute collides with many more air particles
Air resistance increases greatly Your notes
The force of air resistance is now greater than the force of weight
The resultant force acts in the upward direction
The skydiver continues falling in a downward direction
The skydiver is decelerating
As the skydiver decelerates, their speed decreases
Therefore, air resistance decreases
Therefore, the resultant force decreases
Air resistance decreases until it is equal to the weight
The forces are balanced
There is no resultant force
A new, slower terminal velocity is reached

Graph showing the motion of the skydiver as they reach

terminal velocity

The graph shows how the speed of the skydiver changes during the descent. The
horizontal parts of the graph show the periods of terminal velocity

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Your notes
Worked Example
A small object falls out of an aircraft. Choose words from the list to complete the
sentences below:
air resistance gravitational field strength air pressure
accelerates falls at a steady speed slows down

(a) The weight of an object is the product of the object's mass and the __________.
(b) When an object falls, initially it ____________.
(c) As the object falls faster, the force of ______________ acting upon the object
increases.
(d) Eventually the object ______________ when the force of friction equals the force
of weight acting on it.
Answer:
Part (a)
The weight of an object is the product of the object's mass and the gravitational field
strength.
The weight force is due to the Earth's gravitational pull on the object's mass as it
falls through a uniform gravitational field

Part (b)
When an object falls, initially it accelerates.
The resultant force on the object is very large initially, so it accelerates
This is because there is a large unbalanced force downwards (its weight) - the
upward force of air resistance is very small to begin with
Part (c)
As the object falls faster, the force of air resistance acting on the object increases.
The force of air resistance is due to friction between the object's motion and
collisions with air particles
Collisions with air particles slow the object down, so air itself produces a
frictional force, called air resistance (sometimes called drag)
Part (d)
Eventually, the object falls at a steady speed when the force of friction equals the
force of weight acting on it.
When the upward acting air resistance increases enough to balance the
downward weight force, the resultant force on the object is zero

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This means the object is no longer accelerating; it is moving at a steady speed
called terminal velocity
Your notes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Don't confuse 'air resistance' with 'air pressure' - these are two different concepts!
Exam questions about terminal velocity tend to involve the motion of skydivers as
they fall
A common misconception is that skydivers move upwards when their parachutes are
deployed; however, this is not the case, they are in fact decelerating to a lower
terminal velocity

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Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes
Physics
Mass, Weight & Density
Contents
Mass & Weight
Density
Measuring Density
Floating

Mass & weight

Mass
Mass is defined as:
A measure of the quantity of matter in an object at rest relative to the observer
Consequently, mass is the property of an object that resists change in motion
The greater the mass of an object, the more difficult it is to speed it up, slow it down, or
change its direction
Mass is a scalar quantity that has magnitude but no direction
Mass is measured in kilograms (kg)
Sometimes mass may be given in grams (g) but this will need to be converted to
kilograms when used in calculations
1000 g = 1 kg
1 g = 0.001 kg
To convert g to kg, divide the mass in g by 1000
To convert kg to g, multiply the mass in g by 1000

Weight
Weight is a gravitational force on an object with mass
Since weight is a force, it is a vector quantity with both magnitude and direction
Weight is measured in newtons (N)

Worked Example
An object has a mass of 4.5 kg.
State the mass of the object in grams (g).
Answer:
Step 1: State the conversion between g and kg
1 kg = 1000 g
Step 2: Convert kg into g by multiplying

m = 4 . 5 × 1000

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Students commonly confuse mass and weight because the terms are used
interchangeably in everyday speech. In Physics, mass and weight mean very different
things, and you must be confident that you can explain the difference.
Mass is the amount of matter an object has; it is a scalar quantity, and it is
measured in kg.
Weight is a force; it is a vector quantity, and it is measured in N.

Weight & gravity

Extended tier only

Weight and gravitational field strength

Weight is the effect of a gravitational field on a mass
Weight is defined as:
The force acting on an object with mass when placed in a gravitational field
Planets have strong gravitational fields
Hence, they attract nearby masses with a strong gravitational force
Because of weight:
Objects stay firmly on the ground
Objects will always fall to the ground
Satellites are kept in orbit

Some of the phenomena associated with gravitational attraction and the weight force

Defining gravitational field strength

Gravitational field strength is defined as:
The force per unit mass acting on an object in a gravitational field
On Earth, this is equal to 9.8 N/kg

W
g = m
Where:

g = gravitational field strength, measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg)

W = force of weight, measured in newtons (N)
m = mass of object, measured in kilograms (kg)
An object in free fall in a vacuum, in a uniform gravitational field, will accelerate at a rate
also known as g

Where g = acceleration of free fall

In this context, g = 9.8 m/s2

Gravitational field strength and acceleration of free fall are equivalent quantities

Mass vs. weight

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An object’s mass always remains the same, regardless of its location in the Universe
The weight force exerted on the object will differ depending on the strength of the Your notes
gravitational field in its location
For example, the gravitational field strength on the Moon is 1.63 N/kg, meaning an
object’s weight will be about 6 times less than on Earth

On the Moon, a person's mass will stay the same but their weight will be much lower
You can find more information about the gravitational field strength on different planets
in the revision note Gravitational field strength

Worked Example
NASA's Artemis mission aims to send the first woman astronaut to the Moon. Isabelle
hopes to one day become an astronaut. She has a mass of 42 kg.
Compare the difference between Isabelle's weight on Earth, and her weight on the
Moon.

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Take the Earth's gravitational field strength as 9.8 N/kg, and the Moon's gravitational
field strength as 1.6 N/kg.
Your notes
Answer:
Step 1: List the known values

Mass, m = 42 kg
Gravitational field strength on Earth, g
E
= 9 . 8 N/kg
Gravitational field strength on Moon,
Step 2: State the equation linking weight, mass and gravitational field strength

W
g = m
Step 3: Rearrange to make weight the subject

W = mg
Step 3: Calculate the weight force exerted on Isabelle on Earth

WE = mg E
WE = 42 × 9 . 8
WE = 411 . 6 N = 410 N ( 2 s. f . )

Step 4: Calculate the weight force exerted on Isabelle on the Moon

WM = mg M
WM = 42 × 1 . 6
WM = 67. 2 N = 67 N ( 2 s. f . )

Step 5: Compare the two values of weight

The weight force is greater on Earth than on the Moon
This is because the Earth has a larger gravitational field strength than the Moon,
so Isabelle's weight force is larger on Earth than on the Moon

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You won't be expected the learn the exact value of g (9.81 N/kg), but you will be
expected to remember that g = 9.8 N/kg and use it in calculations

Using a balance

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The weight of two objects can be compared using a balance
Because the gravitational field strength is constant everywhere on Earth, this also Your notes
allows us to measure the mass of an object

W
m = g

A balance can be used to compare two different weights

Balances can be digital or analogue
The object being measured is placed on the balance
The reading given is mass in kg or g
Force meters, or newton meters, consist of a spring and hook
The object being measured is hung from the hook
The reading given is weight in N

Density
Density is defined as:
The mass per unit volume of a material
Density is related to mass and volume by the following equation:

m
ρ = V
Where:
ρ = density, measured in kilograms per metre cubed (kg m−3)

m = mass, measured in kilograms (kg)

V = volume, measured in metres cubed (m3)

Formula triangle for density, mass and volume

To use a formula triangle, simply cover up the quantity you wish calculate and the
structure of the equation is revealed

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For more information on how to use a formula triangle, refer to the revision note on
Speed and velocity
Your notes
Objects made from low density materials typically have a low mass
Similarly sized objects made from high density materials have a high mass
For example, a bag full of feathers is far lighter compared to the same bag full of
metal
Or another example, a balloon is less dense than a small bar of lead despite
occupying a larger volume
Gases, for example, are generally less dense than solids because the particles in a gas
are more spread out (same mass, over a larger volume)

Comparing the density of solids and gases

A gas is less dense than the same substance in liquid or solid form
The units of density depend on what units are used for mass and volume:
If the mass is measured in g and volume in cm3, then the density will be in g/cm3
If the mass is measured in kg and volume in m3, then the density will be in kg/m3

Determining volume to calculate density

The volume of an object may not always be given directly, but can be calculated with the
appropriate equation depending on the object’s shape

Common formulae required to calculate the volumes of

objects

Volumes of common 3D shapes

Worked Example
A paving slab has a mass of 73 kg and dimensions 0.04 m × 0.5 m × 0.85 m.
Calculate the density, in kg/m3, of the material from which the paving slab is made.

Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Mass of slab, m = 73 kg
Volume of slab, V = 0.04 m × 0.5 m × 0.85 m = 0.017 m3
Step 2: Write out the equation for density, mass and volume

m
ρ = V
Step 3: Substitute in values

73
= 0 . 017
ρ

ρ = 4294 kg/m3

ρ = 4300 kg/m3 Your notes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Make sure you are comfortable converting between units such as metres (m) and
centimetres (cm) or grams (g) and kilograms (kg).
When converting a larger unit to a smaller one, you multiply (×)
E.g. 125 m = 125 × 100 = 12 500 cm
When you convert a smaller unit to a larger one, you divide (÷)
E.g. 5 g = 5 ÷ 1000 = 0.005 or 5 × 10-3 kg

Measuring density
Equipment
Equipment list
Apparatus Purpose

Regular and irregularly shaped Objects used to measure the density of

objects

A suitable liquid (e.g. sugar or salt Liquid to use to measure the density
solution)

A 30 cm ruler To measure objects up to 30 cm in length

Vernier Calipers To measure objects to around 15 cm in length

Micrometer To measure objects to around 3 cm in length

Digital Balance To measure the mass of objects

Displacement "Eureka" can To measure the displacement of water of irregularly

shaped objects

Measuring cylinders To measure the volume of liquid

Resolution of measuring equipment:

30 cm ruler = 1 mm
Vernier calipers = 0.01 mm
Micrometer = 0.001 mm
Digital balance = 0.01 g

Experiment 1: measuring the density of regularly

shaped objects
The aim of this experiment is to determine the densities of regular objects by using
measurements of their dimensions

Variables:

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Independent variable = Type of shape / volume
Dependent variable = Mass of the object Your notes
Method
Equipment needed to measure the density of regularly
shaped objects

1. Place the object on a digital balance and note down its mass
2. Use either the ruler, Vernier callipers or micrometer to measure the object’s dimensions
(width, height, length, radius) – the apparatus will depend on the size of the object
3. Repeat these measurements and take an average of these readings before calculating
the density

Results
An example results table to measure the density of regularly
shaped objects

A suitable results table must contain space for multiple readings and any calculations that
need to performed
Analysis of results
Calculate the volume of the object depending on whether it is a cube, sphere, cylinder
(or other regular shape)
Then use the formula for density to calculate the density of each object
The formulae for volume and density are explained in the revision note Density

Experiment 2: measuring the density of irregularly

shaped objects
This experiment aims to determine the densities of irregular objects using a
displacement technique

Variables:
Independent variable = Different irregular shapes / mass
Dependent variable = Volume of displaced water

Method
Equipment needed to measure the density of irregularly
shaped objects

Apparatus for measuring the density of irregular objects

1. Place the object on a digital balance and note down its mass
2. Fill the eureka can with water up to a point just below the spout
3. Place an empty measuring cylinder below its spout
4. Carefully lower the object into the eureka can
5. Measure the volume of the displaced water in the measuring cylinder
6. Repeat these measurements and take an average before calculating the density
Alternatively, the object can be placed in a measuring cylinder containing a known
volume of liquid, and the change in volume then measured

When an irregular solid is placed in a measuring cylinder, the level of the liquid will rise by
an amount equal to the volume of the solid
Once the mass and volume of the shape is known, its density can be calculated

Results
An example results table to measure the density of
irregularly shaped objects

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A suitable results table must contain space for multiple readings and any calculations that
need to performed
Your notes
Analysis of results
The volume of the water displaced is equal to the volume of the object
Once the mass and volume of the shape are known, the density can be calculated using:

m
ρ = V

Experiment 3: measuring the density of liquids

This experiment aims to determine the density of a liquid by finding a difference in its
mass

Variables:
Independent variable = Volume of water added
Dependent variable = Mass of cylinder

Method
Equipment needed to measure the density of liquid

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Apparatus for determining the density of a liquid
1. Place an empty measuring cylinder on a digital balance and note down the mass Your notes
2. Fill the cylinder with the liquid and note down the volume
3. Note down the new reading on the digital balance
4. Repeat these measurements and take an average before calculating the density

Results
An example results table to measure the density of a liquid

A suitable results table must contain space for multiple readings and any calculations that
need to performed
Analysis of results
Find the mass of the liquid by subtracting the final reading from the original reading
Mass of liquid = Mass of cylinder with water – mass of cylinder
Once the mass and volume of the liquid are known, the density can be calculated using
the equation for calculating density
This is explained in the revision note Density

Evaluating the experiments

Systematic errors
Ensure the digital balance is set to zero before taking measurements of mass
This includes when measuring the density of the liquid – remove the measuring
cylinder and zero the balance before adding the liquid
Random errors
A main cause of error in this experiment is in the measurements of length
Ensure to take repeat readings and calculate an average to keep this error to a
minimum

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Place the irregular object in the displacement can carefully, as dropping it from a height
might cause water to splash, which will lead to an incorrect volume reading
Safety considerations Your notes

There is a lot of glassware in this experiment, ensure this is handled carefully

Water should not be poured into the measuring cylinder when it is on the electric
balance
This could lead to electric shock
Make sure to stand up during the whole experiment, to react quickly to any spills

Examiner Tips and Tricks

There is a lot of information to take in here! When writing about experiments, a good
sequence is as follows:
If you need to use an equation to calculate something, start off by giving it as this
will give you some hints about what you need to mention later
List the apparatus that you need
State what measurements you need to make (your equation will give you some
hints) and how you will measure them
Finally, state that you will repeat each measurement several times and take
averages

Floating objects
Density and floating
Whether an object floats or sinks depends on the relative densities of the object and
the fluid it is submerged in
If the object is denser than the fluid, it will sink
If the object is less dense than the fluid, it will float
Upthrust is a force that pushes upwards on an object submerged in a fluid
Upthrust always acts in the opposite direction to the object's weight force
This is how objects float
The size of the upthrust force depends on:
the density of the fluid
the volume of fluid that is displaced (which is equal to the volume of the object)
The denser the liquid, the greater the force of upthrust exerted on the object

Upthrust and weight forces on a boat

An object will float if the force of upthrust is equal to the force of weight

Factors affecting floating & sinking

The factors affecting floating and sinking are:
upthrust

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density
If the force of upthrust on an object is:
Your notes
equal to the object’s weight, then the object will float
less than the object’s weight, then the object will sink
If the density of the object is:
greater than the density of the fluid, then the object will sink
less than the density of the fluid, then the object will float
If the density of the object is greater than the density of the fluid, the object can never
displace enough fluid to create an upthrust that will equal its weight (and therefore it
sinks)

Objects which are less dense than water will float in water, and those that are more dense
will sink
A polystyrene block will float in water
This is because polystyrene has a density of 0.05 g/cm3 which is much less than the
density of water (1.0 g/cm3)
A wooden block will be partially submerged but will still float
This is because the density of a wooden block (0.9 g/cm3) is slightly less than the
density of water
An iron block will sink
This is because iron has a density (7.9 g/cm3) that is much higher than water

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Worked Example
Potassium is an alkali metal that reacts with oxygen and water. Potassium is therefore Your notes
stored in containers filled with mineral oil. The potassium must sink in the mineral oil to
ensure it has no contact with any air in the container.
A science teacher has four different mineral oils in which they could store their
potassium. Potassium has a density of 0.862 g/cm3.
Which mineral oil should the teacher choose?

A: White mineral oil, ρ = 0 . 864 g/cm3

B: Paraffin oil, ρ = 0 . 890 g/ cm3

C: Liquid paraffin, ρ = 0 . 825 g/ cm3

D: Food grade mineral oil, ρ = 0 . 880 g/ cm3

Answer: C
An object will sink in a fluid if the density of the object is greater than the density
of the fluid
Therefore, for the potassium to sink, the density of the oil must be less than the
density of the potassium
Liquid paraffin is less dense than potassium
0 . 825 g/ cm3 < 0 . 862 g/cm3
The only oil which is less dense than potassium is C

Examiner Tips and Tricks

The main thing to remember is that density is mass per unit volume
In Physics, mass is almost always measured in kg
Density is the only topic in which physicists sometimes use grams instead

Floating liquids
Extended tier only
A liquid with a lower density will float on a liquid with a higher density if the liquids do not
mix

Lower density liquids float on higher density liquids as long as the liquids do not mix

Worked Example
Liquid A has a density of 0.76 g/cm3 and liquid B has a density of 0.93 g/cm3.
If the two liquids do not mix, which liquid will float on top of the other?
Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Liquid A = 0.76 g/cm3
Liquid B = 0.93 g/cm3
Step 2: Determine which liquid has the lowest density
The liquid with the lowest density will float on top of the liquid with the higher
density
0.76 is less than 0.93
Therefore, liquid A has the lowest density
Step 3: State your answer
Liquid A will float on top of liquid B

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Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes
Physics
Effects of Forces
Contents
Resultant Forces
Newton's First Law
Newton's Second Law
Investigating Force & Extension
Hooke's Law
Circular Motion
Friction

Effects of forces
A force is defined as:
A push or a pull that acts on an object due to the interaction with another object
Forces can have a variety of effects on an object
Forces can change an object's
speed
direction
shape
size

Effects of forces on different objects

A thrust force can cause a car to speed up, a gravitational force can cause a comet to
change direction, compression forces can cause a spring to change shape
The effects of forces on an object often depend on the type of force acting
The push force (thrust) of an engine can cause a car to speed up, whilst the force
exerted by the brakes (friction) can cause it to slow down
The gravitational pull of the Sun on a comet causes the comet to change direction
When two opposing forces push on each end of a spring, the spring changes shape
(it compresses)

Resultant forces on a straight line

What is a resultant force?

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A resultant force is a single force that describes all of the forces operating on a body
When multiple forces act on one object, the forces can be combined to produce one Your notes
net force that describes the combined action of all of the forces
This single resultant force determines:
The direction in which the object will move as a result of all of the forces
The magnitude of the net force experienced by the object

Balanced and unbalanced forces

The forces acting on an object can be described as balanced or unbalanced
Forces are balanced if multiple forces act in opposing directions with an equal
magnitude in each direction
The effects of the forces then cancel out
There is no resultant force in that plane of direction
Forces are unbalanced if the effects of the forces acting in each plane do not cancel out
There is a resultant force in one or more planes of direction
A book is at rest on a table
The gravitational pull of the Earth on the book (weight) acts in a downward direction
The push force of the table on the book (normal contact force) acts in the upward
direction
The forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
The forces are therefore balanced
There is no resultant force acting on the book

Zero resultant force on a book resting on a table

A book resting on a table is an example of balanced forces

Calculating resultant force

Force is a vector quantity; it has both magnitude and direction
When adding forces together, it is important to assign positive and negative values to
show the direction in which the forces are acting
If a 5 N force acts to the right and a 5 N force acts to the left on an object, then we assign
one of the values as positive and one as negative
So the resultant force acting on the object is

resultant force = 5 + −5 ( )

resultant force = 0 N
The forces acting on the object are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction;
therefore, they cancel one another out
This is like two people pushing a box with equal force from opposite sides; the box
doesn't move
If two people push the box from the same side in the same direction, one with a 3 N force
and one with a 7 N force, then the forces will add together, and the box will move in the
direction of the resultant force

resultant force =3+7

resultant force = 10 N
If two people push the box in opposite directions, one with a 7 N force to the left
(negative) and one with a 3 N force to the right (positive), then the forces will add
together and the box will move in the direction of the resultant force

resultant force = − 4 N Your notes

In this case, the box will move to the left with a force of 4 N

Zero and non-zero resultant forces

Zero and non-zero resultant forces acting on three objects

Worked Example
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant force in the diagram below.

Answer:
Step 1: Assign a direction to the forces
Forces acting to the right are positive
Forces acting to the left are negative
Step 2: Add together all the forces acting on the object

resultant force = −14 + 4 + 8

( )

resultant force = 14 + 12 ( )

resultant force = − 2 N
Step 3: State the magnitude and direction of the resultant force
The resultant force is 2 N to the left

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Examiner Tips and Tricks Your notes
Mathematically, it doesn't matter which direction you assign to be positive or
negative, as long as you are consistent throughout your calculation.

Newton's first law

Newton's 1st law of motion states:
Objects will remain at rest, or move with a constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant
force
This means if that:
A stationary object will remain stationary
An object moving with a constant velocity will continue to move at that constant
velocity
Unless the object is acted upon by a resultant force
Conversely, that means that if an object is at rest, or has a constant velocity, no resultant
force can be acting on it
Remember that a constant velocity means:
No change in speed
No change in direction

Objects with Zero Resultant Force

Constant velocity can only be achieved when the forces on an object are balanced - in
other words, when the resultant force is zero

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Examples of Newton's first law
A mug on a table will remain stationary on the table unless acted upon by a resultant Your notes
force
For example, if someone picks up the mug, or knocks into the table
A piece of space debris will continue moving in a straight line at a constant speed unless
acted upon by a resultant force
For example, if it enters the gravitational field of a planet or collides with an asteroid
A car travelling in a straight line at a constant speed will continue to travel in a straight line
at a constant speed unless acted upon my a resultant force
For example, if the driver brakes or accelerates

Worked Example
A student did some online research and found out that the Moon orbits the Earth at a
constant speed of around 2000 mph.
The student says that this is not an example of Newton's first law of motion. Is the
student correct? Explain your answer.
Answer:
Step 1: Recall Newton's first law of motion
Newton's first law of motion states that objects will remain at rest, or move with
a constant velocity, unless acted on by a resultant force
Step 2: Determine if the object in the question is at rest, or if it is moving with a
constant velocity
The Moon, in this case, is not at rest
It is moving at a constant speed
But it is not moving in a constant direction - it continually orbits the Earth
Hence, it is not moving with a constant velocity, because velocity is a vector
quantity
Step 3: State and explain whether the student is correct
The student is correct
The Moon moves with a constant speed, but always changes direction
So it is not moving with a constant velocity, and is not an example of Newton's
first law of motion

Worked Example
A car moves at a constant velocity. The driving force from the engine is 3 kN.

Determine the frictional force acting on the car.

Answer:
Step 1: Recall Newton's first law of motion
Newton's first law of motion states that objects will remain at rest, or move with
a constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant force
Step 2: Relate Newton's first law to the scenario
Since the car is moving at a constant velocity, there is no resultant force
This means the driving and frictional forces are balanced
Step 3: State the value of the frictional force
Frictional force, F = driving force = 3 kN

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Students often struggle to understand how an object can move when there is no
resultant force acting on it. You may even have this misconception without realising it.
It is important to fully understand Newton's first law, because it underpins a lot of
physics content and can cause you to make mistakes in seemingly unrelated
questions.
Usually, students are comfortable with the idea that an object at rest on a table will not
move unless something or someone physically moves it. The issue comes from the
idea of an object in motion.
A rock drifting through the vacuum of deep space away from the gravitational pull of
any large bodies, will continue to drift at that same speed, in that same direction,
potentially forever. The only way to change its motion is for a force to be exerted upon
it.
On Earth, there are always forces acting on objects, so in our everyday experience we
need to think in terms of resultant forces and balanced forces.
A car can maintain a constant velocity when the force from the engine is balanced
with the frictional forces opposing its motion (friction between the tyres and road,
and air resistance). If nothing changes with these forces, it will continue travelling at a
constant velocity. If you do want to change the motion of the car, to speed up or slow
down, you need to provide a resultant force. By increasing the force from the engine,
you can cause the car to speed up. By either decreasing the force from the engine, or
increasing the frictional force (using the brakes) the car will slow down.

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When the forces acting on an object are not balanced (a resultant force is exerted)
this will cause a change in the object's motion.
Your notes

Newton's second law

Newton's second law of motion states:
The acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force acting on it and
inversely proportional to the object's mass
Newton's second law of motion explains what happens when a non-zero resultant force
acts on an object
A resultant force occurs when the forces acting on an object are not balanced
A resultant force acting on an object will cause a change in the object's motion
This change in motion is an acceleration:
Speeding up
Slowing down
Changing direction
If the resultant force on an object is not zero, the object will accelerate in the direction
of the resultant force
The bigger this resultant force, the larger the acceleration
For a given force, the greater the object's mass, the smaller the acceleration
experienced

Examples of Newton's second law

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Objects like baseballs and lawnmowers accelerate when a resultant force is applied on
them. The size of the acceleration is proportional to the size of the resultant force
Your notes
Calculations using Newton's second
law
Extended tier only
Newton's second law can be expressed as an equation:

F = ma
Where:
F = resultant force on the object, measured in newtons (N)
m = mass of the object, measured in kilograms (kg)
a = acceleration of the object, measured in metres per second squared (m/s2)
The acceleration occurs in the same direction as the resultant force

Formula triangle for acceleration, mass and resultant force

To use a formula triangle, simply cover up the quantity you wish calculate and the
structure of the equation is revealed
A more detailed explanation of how to use formula triangles is covered in the revision
note Speed and velocity

Worked Example

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A car salesman says that their best car has a mass of 900 kg and can accelerate from
0 to 27 m/s in 3 seconds.
Your notes
Calculate:
a) the acceleration of the car in the first 3 seconds.
b) the force required to produce this acceleration.
Answer:
Part (a)
Step 1: List the known quantities

Initial velocity, v= 0m s /
Final velocity, u = 27 m s /
Time, t = 3s
Step 2: State the equation for acceleration, in terms of change in velocity

v −u
a = t
27 − 0
a = 3
a = 9 m/s2
Part (b)
Step 1: List the known quantities

Mass of the car, m =900 kg

Acceleration, a = 9 m s2/
Step 2: Identify which law of motion to apply
The question involves quantities of force, mass and acceleration, so Newton's
second law is required:
F = ma
Step 3: Calculate the force required to accelerate the car

F = 900 × 9
F = 8100 N

Worked Example
Three shopping trolleys, A, B and C, are being pushed using the same force. This force
causes each trolley to accelerate.

State which trolley would have the smallest acceleration. Explain your answer.
Answer: C
Step 1: Identify which law of motion to apply
The question involves quantities of force and acceleration, and the image shows
trolleys of different masses, so Newton's second law is required:
F = ma
Step 2: Re-arrange the equation to make acceleration the subject

F
a =m
Step 3: Explain the inverse proportionality between acceleration and mass
Acceleration is inversely proportional to mass
This means that for the same amount of force, a large mass will experience a
small acceleration
Therefore, trolley C will have the smallest acceleration because it has the largest
mass

Investigating springs
Aim of the experiment
The aim of this experiment is to investigate the relationship between force and extension
for a spring

Variables
Independent variable = Force, F

Dependent variable = Extension, x

Control variables:

Spring with spring constant, k

Equipment
Equipment list
Equipment Purpose

Clamp stand, boss and clamp To apply an upward force on the spring

Ruler To measure the extension of the spring

Spring To measure the extension of

6 × 100 g masses To apply a downward force on the spring

100 g mass hanger To hold the additional masses

Pointer To accurately read the extension from the ruler

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Ruler = 1 mm

Method
Equipment for investigating the extension of a spring

Fixing the ruler to the clamp stand will reduce movement in the ruler and, therefore,
reduce errors in measurement
1. Align the marker to a value on the ruler with no mass added to the spring, and record this
initial length of the spring
2. Add the 100 g mass hanger onto the spring
3. Record the mass (in kg) and position (in cm) from the ruler now that the spring has
extended
4. Add another 100 g to the mass hanger
5. Record the new mass and position from the ruler now that the spring has extended
further
6. Repeat this process until all masses have been added
7. The masses are then removed and the entire process is repeated again until it has been
carried out a total of three times, and an average length is calculated

Example results table

A suitable table of results must contain space for the calculations of force and extension

Analysis of results
The force, F added to the spring is the weight of the mass
The weight is calculated using the equation:

W = mg
Where:

W = weight, measured in newtons (N)

m = mass, measured in kilograms (kg)
g = gravitational field strength, measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg)
Therefore, multiply each mass by gravitational field strength, g = 9.8 N/kg, to calculate
the force, F
The extension of the spring is calculated using the equation:

extension = final length − original length

The final length is the length of the spring recorded from the ruler when the masses were
added
The original length is the length of the spring when there were no masses
1. Plot a graph of the force against extension
2. Draw a line of best fit
3. If the graph has a linear region (is a straight line), then the force is proportional to the
extension in this region

Example force-extension graph

The graph is a straight line that goes through the origin which shows that the extension of
the spring is directly proportional to the force applied (Hooke's Law)

Evaluating the experiment

Systematic errors
Make sure the measurements on the ruler are taken at eye level to avoid parallax error
Random errors
The precision of the experiment is improved with the use of a pointer at the bottom of
the spring
Wait a few seconds for the mass to become stationary after it is added, before taking
the readings for its length
Check that the spring has not gone past its limit of proportionality otherwise, it has
been stretched too far and will no longer obey this relationship
Make sure the measurements are taken from the same point on the bottom of the spring
every time

Safety considerations
Wear goggles during this experiment in case the spring snaps
Stand up while carrying out the experiment making sure no feet are directly under the
masses
Place a mat or a soft material below the masses to prevent any damage in case they fall
Use a G clamp to secure the clamp stand to the desk so that the clamp and masses do
not fall over
As well as this, place each mass carefully on the hanger and do not pull the spring
too hard that it breaks or pulls the apparatus over

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Examiner Tips and Tricks
Your notes
Remember, the extension measures how much the object has stretched by and can
be found by subtracting the original length from each of the subsequent lengths.
A common mistake is to calculate the increase in length instead of the total extension.
If each of your extensions is roughly the same, then you might have made this mistake!
The proportional relationship between force and extension is known as Hooke's law.
You do not need to remember the name of the law for your exam, but you do need to
remember the relationship.

Hooke's law
Extended tier only
The relationship between the extension of an elastic object and the applied force is
defined by Hooke's Law
Hooke's Law states that:
The extension of an elastic object is directly proportional to the force applied, up to the
limit of proportionality
Directly proportional means that as the force is increased, the extension increases
If the force is doubled, then the extension will double
If the force is halved, then the extension will also halve
The limit of proportionality is the point beyond which the relationship between force
and extension is no longer directly proportional
This limit varies according to the material

The extension of a spring due to an applied load

Hooke's Law states that a force applied to a spring will cause it to extend by an amount
proportional to the force
Hooke's law can be described by the following equation:

F = kx

F = force applied, measured in newtons (N) Your notes

k = the spring constant, measured in newtons per metre (N/m)
x = extension of spring, measured in metres (m)
The force applied to the spring is sometimes referred to as the load

Spring constant
The spring constant is defined as:
The force per unit extension
Therefore, the units are newtons per metre (N/m)
The spring constant is a measure of how stiff the spring is
Stiff springs have a high spring constant
Stretchy springs have a low spring constant
The spring constant can be applied to objects other than springs
The Hooke's law equation can be used to calculate the spring constant of a material

F
k = x

The force-extension graph

Hooke’s law is a linear relationship
This is represented by a straight line on a force-extension, or load-extension graph
Any material beyond its limit of proportionality will have a non-linear relationship
between force and extension

Force-extension graph for a spring

Hooke's Law is associated with the linear region of a force-extension graph. Beyond the
limit of proportionality, Hooke's law no longer applies
Important features of the force-extension graph
The linear portion of the graph
This represents the load or force under which the spring obeys Hooke's law
Force and extension are directly proportional
The gradient of the linear portion is equal to the spring constant for a force-
extension graph

1
The gradient of the linear portion is equal to for an extension-force graph
k
The limit of proportionality
This is the point at which the graph begins to curve
Beyond this point, force and extension are no longer proportional
The curved portion of the graph
This is where the material does not obey Hooke's law
Force and extension are not proportional

Worked Example
The figure below shows the forces acting on a child who is balancing on a pogo stick.
The child and pogo stick are not moving.

The spring constant of the spring on the pogo stick is 4900 N/m. The weight of the
child causes the spring to compress elastically from a length of 40 cm to a new length
of 33 cm.
Calculate the weight of the child.
Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Spring constant, k = 4900 N/m
Original length = 40 cm
Final length = 33 cm
Step 2: Write the relevant equation

F = kx
Step 3: Calculate the compression, x

x = final length − original length

x = 33 − 40 = − 7 cm
A negative extension represents a compression of 7 cm
Step 4: Convert any units

Since the spring constant is given in N/m, x must be in metres (m)

7
x = 100
= − 0 . 07 m
Step 5: Substitute the values into the Hooke's Law equation

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F = 4900 × − 0 . 07
F = − 343 N Your notes
The minus sign simply indicates the direction of the force, downwards in this case
The child's weight is 343 N

Circular motion
Extended tier only
Velocity is a vector quantity with both magnitude and direction
Therefore, the velocity of an object is its speed in a given direction
When an object travels in circular motion, its direction is always changing
Therefore, the velocity of an object in circular motion is always changing, even if its
speed is constant
Circular motion is a type of acceleration since acceleration is a change in velocity

Circular motion of the International Space Station

The International Space Station’s velocity is always changing - it whizzes around the Earth
at a constant speed of about 7660 m/s but is always changing direction

When a force acts perpendicularly to an object’s direction of travel, the force will cause
that object to change direction

When the two cars collide, the first car changes its direction in the direction of the force
If the force continues to act at 90 degrees to the motion, the object will keep changing
its direction (whilst remaining at a constant speed) and travel in a circle
This is what happens when a planet orbits a star, or when a satellite orbits a planet

Circular motion of the Moon around the Earth

The Moon is pulled towards the Earth (at 90 degrees to its direction of travel). This causes
it to travel in a circular path
Therefore, for an object in circular motion, the force is always directed toward the
centre of the circle
The force needed to make something follow a circular path depends on a number of
factors:
The mass of the object
A greater mass requires a greater force when the speed and radius are constant

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The speed of the object
A faster-moving object requires a greater force when the mass and radius are Your notes
constant
The radius of the circle
A smaller radius requires a greater force to keep the speed and radius constant

Friction in solids
Friction is a force that works in opposition to the motion of an object
Frictional forces slow down the motion of the object
When friction occurs, energy is transferred by heating
Friction causes an increase in temperature of the object and its surroundings
The work done against the frictional forces causes this rise in the temperature
Friction in solids is caused by imperfections in the surfaces of the objects moving over
one another
Solid friction:
decreases the speed of the moving object
increases the temperature of the objects due to heating

Friction between surfaces

The interface between the ground and the sledge is bumpy, causing the frictional force
Friction between solids can be reduced by:
lubricating the surfaces
smoothing the surfaces

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Friction in fluids
Your notes
Gases and liquids are known as fluids
Fluids are different to solids because the particles in fluids are free to move around
Friction acts on objects moving through gases and liquids as the particles collide with
the object
This type of friction is called drag
Air resistance is a type of friction that slows the motion of an object moving through air
Air particles bump into the object as it moves through the air
Air resistance:
reduces the speed of the object
increases the temperature of the object and the air particles due to heating

The return module of a rocket heats up due to the work done by air resistance as it travels
a distance through the atmosphere
Air resistance is covered in greater depth in the revision note Free fall
Friction in fluids can be reduced by:
streamlining the shape of the object moving through the fluid

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Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes
Physics
Momentum
Contents
Momentum
Impulse

Momentum
Extended tier only
An object with mass that is in motion has momentum

The momentum equation

Momentum is defined by the equation:

momentum = mass × velocity

p = mv
Where:

p = momentum, measured in kilogram metres per second (kg m/s)

m = mass in kilograms (kg)
v = velocity in metres per second (m/s)
This means that an object at rest (i.e. v = 0) has no momentum
Momentum keeps an object moving in the same direction
It is difficult to change the direction of an object that has a large momentum
Velocity is a vector with both magnitude and direction
This means that the momentum of an object also depends on its direction of travel
Therefore, momentum can be either positive or negative
If an object has positive momentum, then an object travelling in the opposite direction
will have negative momentum

How does the momentum of a ball change after a collision?

The momentum of the tennis ball is positive as it approaches the wall and negative after
the collision, as it moves in the opposite direction

Worked Example
Determine which object has the most momentum.

Answer:
Step 1: Determine the momentum of the tennis ball using the momentum equation

p= mv
p = 0 . 06 × 75
p = 4 . 5 kg m/s

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Step 2: Determine the momentum of the brick using the momentum equation

= mv
p Your notes
p = 3 × 1.5
p = 4 . 5 kg m/s
Step 3: Compare the momentum of each object
Both the tennis ball and the brick have the same momentum
Even though the brick is much heavier than the ball, the ball is travelling much
faster than the brick
This means that on impact, they would both exert a similar force (depending on
the time it takes for each to come to rest)

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You can remember momentum as mass in motion. The units of momentum are kg
m/s which is the product of the units of mass (kg) and velocity (m/s).
Which direction is taken as positive is completely up to you in the exam, as long as you
are consistent throughout a question. In general, the right and upwards are taken as
positive, and down or to the left as negative.

Conservation of momentum
Extended tier only
The principle of conservation of momentum states that:
In a closed system, the total momentum before an event is equal to the total momentum
after the event
A system, in physics, is an object or group of objects
A closed system means that no energy is transferred into or out of the system and there
are no external forces acting
The principle of conservation of momentum can also be written as:
The total momentum before a collision = The total momentum after a collision
Since momentum is a vector quantity, a system of objects moving in opposite directions
(e.g. towards each other) at the same speed will have an overall momentum of 0 since
they will cancel out
Momentum is always conserved over time
The diagram below shows two masses m with velocity u and M at rest (ie. zero velocity)

Principle of conservation of momentum for a collision

The momentum of a system before and after a collision is constant

Before the collision:
The momentum is only of mass m which is moving
If the right is taken as the positive direction, the total momentum of the system is m
×u
After the collision:
Mass M also now has momentum
The velocity of m is now -v (since it is now travelling to the left) and the velocity of M
is V
The total momentum is now the momentum of M + momentum of m
This is (M × V) + (m × -v) or (M × V) – (m × v)

Worked Example
The diagram shows a car and a van, just before and just after the car collided with the
van, which is initially at rest.

Use the idea of conservation of momentum to calculate the velocity of the van when it
is pushed forward by the collision.
Answer:
Step 1: State the principle of conservation of momentum

total momentum before = total momentum after

Step 2: Calculate the total momentum before the collision

p = mv
Momentum of the car
p= 990 × 10
p = 9900 kg m/s
Momentum of the van
The van is at rest
Therefore, v = 0 m/s
Therefore, p = 0 kg m/s
Total momentum before collision
p before = 9900 + 0 = 9900 kg m/s
Step 3: Calculate the total momentum after the collision
Momentum of the car
p = 990 × 2

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p = 1980 kg m/s
Momentum of the van Your notes
p = 4200 × v
Total momentum after collision
p after = 1980 + 4200v
Step 4: Rearrange the conservation of momentum equation to solve for v

p before = p after
9900 = 1980 + 4200v
9900 − 1980 = 4200v
9900 − 1980
v = 4200
v = 1 . 9 m/s

Examiner Tips and Tricks

If it is not given in the question already, drawing a diagram of before and after helps
keep track of all the masses and velocities (and directions) in the conversation of
momentum questions.

Impulse
Extended tier only
When an external resultant force acts on an object for a very short time and changes the
object's motion, we call this impulse
For example:
Kicking a ball
Catching a ball
A collision between two objects

The impulse equation

Impulse is the product of the force applied and the time for which it acts

impulse = F ∆t
Where:

F = resultant force, measured in newtons (N)

∆ t = change in time, measured in seconds (s)
Therefore, the units of impulse are newton seconds (Ns)
The impulse of the resultant force is equal to the change in momentum of the object

impulse = F ∆t = ∆p
Change in momentum can also be described as:

∆ p = ∆ mv ( )

∆ p = mv − mu
Where:

∆ p = change in momentum, measured in kilogram metres per second (kg m/s)

m = mass, measured in kilograms (kg)
v = final velocity, measured in metres per second (m/s)
u = initial velocity, measured in metres per second (m/s)
Therefore:

impulse = F ∆ t = ∆ p = mv − mu

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Examples of impulse
When rain and hail (frozen water droplets) hit an umbrella, they feel very different due to Your notes
the impulse of the force
Water droplets tend to splatter and roll off the umbrella because there is only a
very small change in momentum
Hailstones have a larger mass and tend to bounce back off the umbrella, because there
is a greater change in momentum
Therefore, the impulse that the umbrella applies on the hail stones is greater than the
impulse the umbrella applies on the raindrops
This means that more force is required to hold an umbrella upright in hail compared to
rain

The impulse exerted by the umbrella on the hail stones is greater than the impulse exerted
on the raindrops.

Worked Example
A 58 g tennis ball moving horizontally to the left at a speed of 30 m s–1 is struck by a
tennis racket which returns the ball back to the right at 20 m s–1.

(i) Calculate the impulse of the force exerted by the racket on the ball
(ii) State which direction the impulse is in

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Answer:
Part (i) Your notes
Step 1: Write the known quantities
Taking the initial direction of the ball as positive (the left)
= /
Initial velocity, u 30 m s
=− /
Final velocity, v 20 m s
Mass, m = = ×
58 g 58 10−3 kg
Step 2: Write down the impulse equation

impulse = F ∆ t = ∆ p = mv − mu
Step 3: Substitute in the values

=mv−u
impulse ( )

impulse = 58 × 10−3 −20 − 30 ( )

impulse = − 2 . 9 N s
Part (ii)
State the direction of the impulse
Since the impulse is negative, it must be in the opposite direction to which the
tennis ball was initially travelling
Therefore, the direction of the impulse is to the right

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Remember that if an object changes direction, then this must be reflected by the
change in sign of the velocity. For example, if the left is taken as positive and therefore
the right as negative, an impulse of 20 N s to the right is equal to -20 N s

Force & momentum

Extended tier only
Newton's second law is defined by the equation:

F = ma
Momentum is given by the equation:

p = mv
Combining these equations gives Newton's second law in terms of momentum:

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∆p
F = ∆t
Your notes
Therefore, force can also be defined as the rate of change of momentum on a body
Or the change in momentum per unit time

Worked Example
A tennis ball hits a racket twice, with a change in momentum of 0.5 kg m/s both times.
During the first hit, the contact time is 2 s and during the second hit, the contact time
is 0.1 s
Determine which strike of the tennis racket experiences the greatest force from the
tennis ball.

Answer:
Step 1: Calculate the force during the first hit

∆p
F = ∆t
0.5
F=
2
F = 0 . 25 N
Step 2: Calculate the force during the second hit

∆p
F = ∆t
0.5
F=
0.1
F = 5.0 N
Step 3: State your answer

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The tennis racket experiences the greatest force from the ball during the second
hit
Your notes

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