UNIT 1 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

STAGES OF A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

There are six stages of scientific investigation.
These are:
 Knowing the problem
 Making a prediction
 Planning the investigation
 Carrying out the investigation
 Making meaning of the results
 Making conclusions

These six stages can be summarized into three

main stages which are:
 Planning stage
 Implementation stage
 Concluding stage

PLANNING STAGE
This stage involves a number of steps.
The first step is to identify the problem to be
investigated.
The second step is to write the statement of the
problem in the form of a question The third step is
to predict or guess the answer to the question or
problem.
The predicted answer is called a hypothesis.

The next step is to identify what is going to be

observed and measured.
These are the factors that would affect the results
of the investigation which are called variables. A
variable is anything that can change.
The next step is to identify the materials that will
be required to carry out the investigation.
The last step of the planning stage is to come up
with steps to be followed in the process of
collecting data.

The above steps of the planning stage of an

investigation are summarised as follows:
Step 1 identifying the problems to be investigated

writing a statement of the problem to be

Step 2
investigated in the form of a question

predicting or guessing the answer to the

Step 3
question, that is, coming up with a hypothesis
Step 4 identifying the variables
 identifying the materials required for carrying
Step 5
out the investigation
coming up with the procedures for carrying
Step 6
out the investigation

IMPLEMENTATION STAGE
The second stage of a scientific investigation
involves implementing the plans that were
developed during the planning stage.
This is the stage which the hypothesis are tested
by carrying out the investigation.
During this stage, the variables to be investigated
are deliberately changed while keeping the other
variables constant.
The variables that are changed are observed and
recorded as the investigation is being conducted.
The purpose of carrying out an investigation is to
collect data through observation.
If one is not satisfied with the data that has been
collected, it is necessary to repeat the procedures.
The data that is collected should be organised and
presented in a meaningful way.
There are several ways of presenting data. These
include tables and graphs.
When presenting data in the form of a graph, it is
important to remember that:
  a sharp pencil should be used when drawing
graph lines
 each graph should be given a title
 a scale that can give a large graph sould be
chosen so that points are plotted accurately
 the vertical and horizontal axes should be
labelled and the units for each axis should be
shown
 a line of best fit should be drawn if points do
not lie on a straight line or smooth curve

When data has been collected, it should be

organised in such a way that it is meaningful. The
procedures of organizing data are referred to as
data analysis.
One way of analysing data is the use of graphs.
Once the data has been analysed, there is need to
interpret it.
The interpretation of data involves determining the
relationship between variables using the analysed
data.
The methods of determining the relationships
between variables include:
 Looking for patterns of data in a table
 Interpreting the shapes of graph lines
In summary, the implementation stage of scientific
investigation involves the following:
Step 1 carrying out the investigation according to
the plans.
collecting data and presenting it in a
Step 2
meaningful way.
Step 3 analyzing the collected data.
Step 4 interpreting the analyzed data.

CONCLUDING STAGE
The last stage of a scientific investigation is the
concluding stage.
During this stage, the hypothesis is evaluated
against the interpretation of the data.
That is, the relationship between variables that has
been determined from the data is compared with
the hypothesis of the investigation.
If the determined relationship from the analysed
data agrees with the hypothesis then the
hypothesis becomes the conclusion of the
investigation.
If the hypothesis is different from the relationship
determined from the results of the investigation
then the hypothesis is not true.
What is important is that the conclusion must be
based on the results of the investigation and not on
the investigator’s wishes.

UNIT 2 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

REPRODUCTIVE PARTS OF HUMAN BEINGS
The male reproductive parts or organs are:
 the testes
 the penis
The testes produce and store the sperm.
The penis is for reproduction and for passing out
urine.
The female reproductive parts are:
 the ovaries
 the fallopian tubes or oviducts
 the uterus
 the vagina

Egg cells are produced in the ovaries.

The egg travels through the oviducts or fallopian
tubes.
The vagina is the passage for sperm during sexual
intercourse and is also the birth canal.
FERTILIZATION IN HUMAN BEINGS

Reproduction in human beings involves special sex

cells. These sex cells are the egg and sperm.
The sperm is the male sex cell while the egg is the
female sex cell.
During mating, the penis is inserted into the
vagina. The seminal fluid which contains millions of
sperm is then released into the vagina.
Sperm and egg cell unite Fertilization is the union
of the sperm and egg (ovum).
After fertilization has happened, the fertilized egg
moves down the fallopian tube to the uterus as it
develops into an embryo.
In the uterus, the embryo attaches itself to the
wall. The umbilical cord joins the embryo to the
mother.

An embryo attached to uterus wall

The developed embryo usually takes about nine
months before it is ready to be born.
When a baby is born it grows into a child, an
adolescent and finally becomes an adult.

MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT PREGNANCY

Some teenagers have misconceptions about
pregnancy.
They think that a girl cannot have pregnancy if she
does the following:
o has sexual intercourse once
o stands up and urinates soon after sexual
intercourse
o washes the vagina soon after sexual
intercourse
o wears a herbal string around her waist
o has sexual intercourse while standing
 o has sexual intercourse while in water

UNIT 3: THE HUMAN NERVOUS

SYSTEM

THE HUMAN BRAIN

The human brain is located in the skull.
It consists of three main parts:
o Cerebrum
o Cerebellum
o Medulla oblongata

CEREBRUM
Cerebrum is the front and largest part of the brain.
It is responsible for:
o Thinking
o Speech
o Movement of muscles
o Control of senses

CEREBELLUM
Cerebellum is the middle part of the brain.
It is responsible for:
o controlling balance
o posture
o coordination.

MEDULLA OBLONGATA
Medulla oblongata is the part below the cerebellum
It is responsible for:
o controlling body activities such as
heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure and
digestion.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE BRAIN AND

SENSE ORGANS
The brain is connected to different sense organs
through nerves, via the spinal cord. The sense
organs are eyes, ears, skin, nose and tongue.

EFFECTS OF DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE ON

THE BRAIN
o Mental disorders
o Poisoning
o Suffocation
o Intoxication
o Damage of nerve cells and brain cells
o Injury
o Depression
o Death

CAUSES OF DAMAGE TO THE BRAIN

o Neck and back injuries
o Blows to the head
o Diseases
WAYS OF TAKING CARE FOR THE BRAIN
o Getting plenty of rest
o Doing regular exercises
o Eating meals that are well balanced at
regular times
o Avoiding smoking and drinking alcohol
o Avoiding abusing of drugs and substances
o Reducing levels of stress and relaxing

UNIT 4 FLOWERING AND NON-

FLOWERING PLANTS

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS
There are two major groups of plants:
o Flowering plants
o Non-flowering plants

FLOWERING PLANTS
Flowering plants produce flowers.
Examples of flowering plants are maize, rice,
mangoes and beans

NON-FLOWERING PLANTS
Non-flowering plants do not produce flowers.
Examples are algae (ndele), mosses, liverworts,
ferns, mushrooms, lichens, pine and cedar.

USES OF FLOWERING AND NON-FLOWERING

PLANTS
o Provision of food
o Source of medicine
o Provision of building materials
 o Source of fuel
o Source of paper making materials
o Source of furniture
o Source of clothes
o Sources of income
o Helps in prevention of soil erosion

PARTS OF A FLOWER

A flower has internal and external parts.

The stamen is the male part of a flower consisting
of the anther and the filament. The pistil is the
female part of the flower. It consists of the stigma,
style and ovary. The ovary keeps ovules which
develop into seeds.
The ovary becomes a fruit.
The stamen, petals and sepals wither and fall off
when the fruit has been formed.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF A FLOWER

 Function
Part of a flower
Flower stalk Holds and connects the flower to
the whole plant
Sepal Encloses and protects the
developing flower before it comes
out
Petal Attracts pollination agents such as
birds and insects
Ovary Keeps ovules which grow into seeds
Anthers Produce pollen grains
Filaments Holds anthers
Stigma Receives pollen from anthers
Style Connects stigma and the ovary
Ovules Develop into seeds
UNIT 5: POLLINATION, FRUIT AND
SEED DISPERSAL

POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION

Flowers are important parts of plants. They are
reproductive parts.
Reproduction takes place through the processes of
pollination and fertilization.

POLLINATION
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from
anthers to the stigma.
There are different types of pollination. These are:
o Self pollination
o Cross pollination
Self pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from
anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower
or another flower on the same plant.
Cross pollination is the transfer of pollen grains
from the anther of a flower to the stigma of
another flower on another plant of the same kind.
Things that help the transfer of pollen from anthers
to the stigma are called agents of pollination.
These include bees, butterflies, birds, wind and
water.

INSECT AND WIND POLLINATED FLOWERS

Insect pollinated flowers are different from wind
pollinated flowers.. The following table shows some
of the differences.

INSECT POLLINATED WIND POLLINATED

FLOWERS FLOWERS
Flowers are large to be Flowers are usually small
easily seen
Petals are usually Petals are dull coloured
brightly coloured
They produce scent to They have no scent
attract insects
They produce nectar They have no nectar
Small quantities of Large quantities of light
sticky pollen are pollen grains are produced
produced
Anthers hold firmly Anthers hang loosely so
that pollen can be blown
away easily

FERTILISATION
Fertilization is the union of male gamete and
female gamete.
When a pollen grain lands on stigma, it grows to
form a tube called a pollen tube which grows
towards the ovule.
The pollen tube continues to grow down the style
until it reaches one of the ovules in ovary.
When this happens the male part (male gamete)
contained in the pollen tube unites with the female
part (female gamete) inside the ovule to form a
zygote.
The zygote develops into a seed.
The following instruction shows pollen tubes
growing towards ovules.

After fertilization has taken place, the petals,

stamen and style wither. The ovary then develops
into a fruit.

HOW FRUITS AND SEEDS ARE DISPERSED

Fruits and seeds can be scattered from the parent
plant.
Dispersal is the scattering of fruits and seeds from
the parent plant.
There are different ways and agents by which fruits
and seeds can be dispersed. These include wind,
animals, explosive mechanism and water.
Fruits and seeds which are dispersed by wind are
light and have wing-like structures or hairs. These
features help the fruits and seeds to be carried
away from the parent plant by wind.
Examples of fruits and seeds which can be
dispersed by wind are those from cotton, Tridax
and m’bawa.
The following illustration shows some of the
examples of wind dispersed fruits and seeds.

Fruits and seeds that are dispersed by animals are

either succulent or have hook-like features or
sticky fluid which make them to stick to the body of
animals or clothes.
Large, brightly coloured or scented fruits also
attract animals and in the process dispersion can
take place.
Examples of fruits and seeds that are dispersed by
animals include oranges, tomatoes, black jack,
guavas, mangoes, hedgehog grass and peaches.
The following illustration shows some examples of
fruits and seeds that can be dispersed by animals.

Fruits and seeds that can be dispersed by water

are less dense than water. An example of fruits
that can be dispersed by water is a coconut fruit.
The following illustration shows a coconut fruit.

Some fruits and seeds are dispersed by explosive

mechanism (bursting). These fruits and seeds have
pods.
When the pods have dry, they suddenly open and
scatter the seeds away from parent plant due to
the expansion and contraction of the pods.
Examples of seeds that can be dispersed in this
way are castor oil, peas, beans and chitedze. The
following illustration shows some seeds that can be
dispersed by explosive mechanism.
Fruit dispersal and seed dispersal are important
because they help to scatter fruits and seeds
thereby reducing the competition for space, air,
moisture and mineral salts.
Plants grow well when they are well spaced.

UNIT 6 SEED GERMINATION

CONDITIONS FOR SEED GERMINATION
For a seed to germinate, it requires moisture,
warmth and air.
It is possible to show through experiments that
these conditions are necessary for seeds to
germinate.
The illustrations below show the external and
internal parts of a bean seed.
During germination, a bean seed undergoes five
stages. The illustrations below show the stages.
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF A SEED
Parts of a seed Function
Seed coat or Protects the inner parts of the
testa seed from damage
cotyledon Contains food reserves which are
used during
germination
Plumule The upper parts of the embryo
which grows into
 the shoot
Radicle Develops into the root system
Micropyle Allows water and air to enter the
seed
Scar (hilum) For attachment to the pod

UNIT 7 TECHNOLOGIES THAT CAN

BE MADE IN THE SCHOOL FOR
MARKETING
TYPES OF TOYS
Toys can classified in a number of ways.
One way of classifying toys is based on the
materials which have been used to make them.
Toys can be made from materials such as wood,
rubber, maize pith, wire, clay, paper, plastic and
cartons.
The table below shows the classification of toys
based on materials used.
Materials used Types of toy
Wood Wooden toys
Wire Wire toys
Clay Clay toys
Paper Paper toys
Plastic Plastic toys
Rubber Rubber toys
cartons Carton toys

The following are examples of toys made from

different materials.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN COSTING TOYS

 Amount of materials used
 Time spent in making the toys
 Attractiveness of the finished product
 Age group meant for the toy
 Availability of the toy
 Durability of the toy
 Quality of the materials used
 Demand
 Cost of the materials, if bought
WAYS OF MARKETING TOYS
 Advertising
 Making a display of the finished products
  Organizing a showcase

UNIT 8 CLASSROOM
TECHNOLOGIES

CLASSROOM TECHNOLOGIES
There are different technologies that are used for
teaching and learning in a classroom such as
papers, radios, computers, calculators, rulers,
chalkboards, pens, dusters, pairs of compasses and
pencil sharpeners.
Teaching and learning can be difficult without
these resources.
Where these resources are not available, it is
necessary to improvise them.

Some problems of the technologies that are used

in the classroom and their possible solutions.

problems Possible
Technologies
Chalkboa  Not durable  Hiring specialist
rd  Lack of care contractors and
  Lack of evaluating their work.
maintenance  Use of proper materials
on the chalkboards
 Proper storage for
portable chalkboard
 Maintaining the
chalkboard when need
arises

radio  High cost  Resource mobilization

 Theft by involving PTA
 Lack of care  Civic educate the
 Personalizing stakeholders
use  Maintain a tracking
 Poor reception ledger
 Have a strong room
 Have a time table for
using the radio

ruler  Some learners  Improvise

cannot
afford them
paper  Expensive  Practice paper recycling
 Abuse of the  Civic educate the
resources stakeholders

IMPROVISATION OF CLASSROOM TECHNOLOGIES

Some of the technologies used in the classroom
can be improvised.
Examples of technologies that can be improvised
are chalkboards, rulers, pental markers, papers
and protractors.

 Improvised portable chalkboard

An improvised portable chalkboard consists of
stands which are made of bamboo or planks and a
board painted black or green.

 Improvised chalkboard ruler

A chalkboard ruler can be made from a straight
plank and marked using a standard ruler. Other
materials that can be used are bamboo, cardboard
paper and a hard plastic strip.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

IMPROVISED CLASSROOM TECHNOLOGIES

Advantage
Disadvantage
 Materials are locally  Usually not durable
available  Time consuming when
 Encourage creativity making the technologies
 Assist in the teaching  May not be precise
 and learning process

CARE AND STORAGE OF CLASSROOM

TECHNOLOGIES
Different improvised materials might require
different ways of storing and safe keeping. The
materials can be stored in boxes, on stands,
shelves or hangers.

UNIT 9 THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM

MEANING OF DIGESTION
Digestion is the process by which insoluble food,
consisting of large molecules, is broken down into
small soluble molecules.
The small molecules, in solution form, pass through
the walls of the intestine and enter the blood
stream.
Digestion and absorption of food take place in the
alimentary canal.

PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system consists of the alimentary

canal and related organs.
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
 Mouth : where food is physically broken down
and mixed with saliva
 Tongue: helps to shape food into boluses for
easy swallowing
 Epiglottis: a flap which directs food into the
oesophagus (gullet)
 Stomach: muscular sac which stores food for a
short time
 Pyloric sphincter: a ring of muscles which
controls the passage of food
 Bile duct: a passage through which bile passes
to the small intestines
 Pancreas: a gland that secretes pancreatic
juice
 Small intestines: where digestion of food is
completed and digestible materials are
absorbed
 Large intestine (colon): absorbs water from the
undigested food
 Rectum: keeps undigested residues ready to
be expelled at intervals through the anus
 Anus: where undigested residues are expelled
from the body.

PROBLEMS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

  Constipation : a condition where one has
difficulties in emptying the bowels
 Haemorrhoids (piles): a condition which results
when a constipated patient uses increased
effort to remove hard faeces. It is characterized
by swelling of veins near the opening of the
anus.
 Intestinal ulcers: open sores in the intestines.
 Intestinal parasites (such as roundworms and
hookworms): they interfere with the digestion
and absorption of food.
 Diarrhoea: an intestinal infection characterized
by watery faeces

CARE FOR THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

 Eating foods rich in dietary fibre such as fruits
and vegetables
 Resting after taking meals
 Taking a lot of fluids including water
 Doing exercises regularly
 Washing foods before eating, especially fruits,
to avoid intestinal infections
 Eating complete meals at regular intervals
during the day
UNIT 10 VERTEBRATES

VERTEBRATES
Vertebrates are animals with a backbone.

CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATES
Vertebrates are classified into five groups which
are mammals, fish, amphibians, reptiles and birds.

The following table shows the group of vertebrates,

their characteristics and examples.
General characteristics Example
Vertebrates
Fish  Scaly bodies Chambo, cat fish,
 Gills and fins utaka and usipa
 Laying eggs

amphibia  Moist skin Toad and frog

ns  No scales
 Four limbs
 Webbed feet
 Presence of
 lungs
 Laying eggs
 Live on land
and water

Reptiles  Dry scaly skin Snake, tortoise,

 Laying eggs chameleon and
 Presence of lizard
limbs in some
animals
 Breathing
using lungs

Birds  Presence of Chicken, duck,

feathers pigeon and peacock
 Scaly feet
 Beak
 Two legs

Mammals  Having mammary Mouse, pig, monkey

glands (breasts) and people
 Hair or fur on the
body
 Presence of
external ears with
a soft flap called
the pinna
 Bearing live young
ones
MOVEMENT OF FISH
Fish move in water by swimming.
They have fins and a streamlined body which make
them possible to move rapidly in water. The
following illustration shows the external parts of a
fish.

TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF FINS

The key function of fins is to help the fish balance
and turn as it swims.
 Dorsal fin
Dorsal fin protects the fish against rolling, and
assists in sudden turns and stops.
 Ventral (pelvic) fin
Ventral fin assists with moving up and down
through the water, turning sharply and stopping
quickly
 Caudal (tail) fin
Caudal fin is the main propelling fin in most fish
  Anal fin
Anal fin helps to maintain stable equilibrium
 Pectoral fins
A pair of fins used for balancing and braking
 Adipose fins
Adipose fin’s function not yet proven by scientists.
Some said it serves as a pre-caudal flow

PROTECTION MECHANISMS USED BY SOME

VERTEBRATES
Vertebrates have different mechanisms for
protecting themselves.
These include biting, changing colour
(camouflage), producing a hissing sound, running
away, good eye sight and hiding.

UNIT 11 INVERTEBRATES
INVERTEBRATES
Invertebrates can be classified into four groups,
namely, protozoa, worms, molluscs and
arthropods.

 Protozoa
These are also called microscopic animals.
Some of them live in seawater or fresh water while
others live in bodies of other animals. Examples of
protozoa include amoebas, plasmodia and
trypanosome.
Amoebas are found in the mud in ponds.
They reproduce by dividing into two in a process
called binary fission.
Binary fission is an example of asexual
reproduction which does not involve the fusion of
male and female gametes.

 Worms
Worms can further be classified into the following
groups:
 o Flatworms
Flatworms can be divided into two groups. These
are free-living and parasites.
Planaria are examples of free-living flatworms
while flukes and tapeworms are parasites. Blood
flukes cause bilharzia in human beings.

 Roundworms
Roundworms are also known as nematodes.
Some of the roundworms are free-living while
others are parasites.

Ascaris, hookworms, filarial worms, and pinworms

are examples of roundworms.
  Segmented worms These are also called
annelida.
They include earthworms and leeches.
The body of the worm is divided into several
segments, hence the name segmented worms.

 Molluscs
Molluscs are animals with shells.
Molluscs have soft and non-segmented bodies.
Examples of molluscs are snails, octopuses, slugs,
oysters. Many of molluscs live in water.

 Arthropods
These are animals with jointed legs.

Arthropods form the largest group of invertebrates

which include insects, crabs, millipedes and
spiders.
THREE MAIN COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF
ARTHROPODS
 segmented body
 have an exoskeleton
 pairs of jointed legs

LIFE CYCLE OF A HOUSEFLY AND A GRASSHOPPER

Insects lay eggs which hatch into larvae.
In some insects larva changes to a pupa that
develops into the adult form or imago.
The development in stages of an insect from the
young to the adult is called metamorphosis.
There are two types of metamorphosis, namely,
complete metamorphosis and incomplete
metamorphosis.
In complete metamorphosis, an egg hatches into a
larva, a larva develops into a pupa, which finally
develops into imago or adult form.
Incomplete metamorphosis does not have pupa
stage.
Insects such as houseflies and mosquitoes undergo
complete metamorphosis.
Insects such as grasshoppers, bugs, termites and
cockroaches undergo incomplete metamorphosis
ADVANTAGES OF INVERTEBRATES
 Insects such as honey-bees and butterflies
pollinate flowers which lead to the formation of
seeds in flowering plants
 Bees produce honey which can be used as food
and medicine, and can also be a source of
income
 Source of food for humans, for example crabs
and white ants
 Some of the invertebrates such as ladybird
beetles and certain ants can be used in the
biological control of pest – the invertebrates
can feed on certain pests
 Some of the invertebrates help in aerating and
improving soil fertility, for example,
earthworms
Life cycle of a grasshopper
DISADVANTAGES OF INVERTEBRATES
 Some insects such as locusts can damage
crops
 Some invertebrates are carriers of diseases, for
example, mosquitoes can transmit malarial
parasites (plasmodia); houseflies can transmit
diarrhoeal diseases such as cholera; and tsetse
flies are carriers of sleeping sickness
 Invertebrates such as scorpions, bees and
certain spiders can be harmful to humans when
they sting or bite
 Worms such as tapeworms, roundworms,
pinworms and hookworms can infect humans
and other animals and cause suffering.
UNIT 12 PARTS OF A PLANT
TYPES OF LEAVES AND ARRANGEMENT
There are different types of leaves.
The types can be explained in terms of their shape,
arrangement and how they are attached to the
stem.
There are various shapes of leaves.

The following illustration below shows some of the

shapes of leaves
There are different leaf arrangements.
Some of these are shown in the following
illustration below
There are two ways in which a leaf is attached to
the stem.
One way is when a leaf is attached to a stem with a
leaf stalk, for example: mango, tobacco,
groundnuts and bluegum leaves.
Another way is when a leaf is attached to a stem
without a leaf stalk, for example, maize, sisal,
onion, and grass leaves.
Some leaves are simple while others are
compound.
A simple leaf has one leaf blade attached to a leaf
stalk.
A compound leaf has more than one leaf blade
attached to a leaf stalk. The following instruction
shows examples of simple and compound leaves.
a simple leaf a
compound leaf

TYPES OF STEMS
There are different types of stems.
These include:
o Erect
o Creeping
o Climbing
o Underground

ERECT STEMS
Erect stems stand upright.
Examples of erect stems are those of maize, okra,
bluegum, mango and pawpaw.
The illustration below shows examples of erect
stems.

CREEPING STEMS

Creeping stems grow along the ground and

produce roots as they grow on the ground, for
example, kapinga grass, sweet potato and
strawberry.

The following illustration below shows examples of

creeping stem.
CLIMBING STEMS
Climbing stems have weak stems and they seek
the support of standing objects to secure an
upright position.
They do so by using tendrils and twisting around
another plant.
Examples include pumpkins, Chitedze, kalongonda,
granadilla and white haricot beans (kayera).

The following illustration shows examples of

climbing stems
UNDERGROUND STEMS
Underground stems grow under the ground.
Some examples of underground stems are Irish
potatoes, bananas, bamboos, and many grasses.

The following instruction show example

underground stems.
An Irish potato has curved marks looking like
eyebrows. These are buds. An Irish potato is a
stem because it has buds.
Note that a sweet potato is a root while an irish
potato is a stem.
This is because sweet potato tubers are not
normally used when planting sweet potatoes. Stem
cuttings are used when propagating sweet
potatoes.
TYPES OF ROOTS
There are different types of roots.
These include:
o Tap roots
 o Fibrous roots
o Adventitious roots
o Prop roots
o Aerial roots
o Tuberous roots

A TAP ROOT
A tap root grows deeper and bigger as a plant
grows. In woody stems, other roots branch from
the tap root. Trees and shrubs have tap roots.
They keep the big trees fixed to the ground firmly
to stop them from falling.

The following illustration below shows a tap root

system
FIBROUS ROOTS
Fibrous roots grow spreading from the base of the
stem. The roots are small, thin and normally similar
in size.
Examples include maize plant and grass roots.
The following illustration shows fibrous roots

TUBEROUS ROOTS
Tuberous roots do not have buds.
Examples of tuberous roots are carrots, cassava,
sweet potato and turnips.
The following illustration below shows tuberous
roots

ADVENTITOUS ROOTS
Adventitious roots grow from the base of
underground stem, for example onions.

The following illustration shows adventitious roots.

PROP ROOTS
Prop roots develop from the lower nodes of a plant
and extend down into the soil.
Prop roots can be found growing on plants such as
rice, wheat, oats, sorghum, maize, elephant grass
and bamboo.

The following illustration below shows prop roots.

AERIAL ROOTS
Aerial roots grow on stems of plants such as
kachere and mkundi. These roots grow outside the
soil.

The following illustration below show aerial roots.

UNIT 13 METHODS OF COOKING
STEWING AS A METHOD OF COOKING
Stewing is a method of cooking food in a liquid for
a long time to soften it. The food is cooked below
the boiling point.
Stewing can be done on an open fire, on top of a
stove or in an oven.
ADVANTAGES OF STEWING
 It does not need constant attention
 Tough pieces of meat are made tender.
 No loss of nutrients because the liquid is
served with the food
 The food looks attractive and appetizing

DISADVANTAGES OF STEWING
 Very slow method of cooking
 Uses a lot of fuel

GUIDELINES FOR STEWING

 Cut the food into even small pieces to expose
the maximum surface area to heat
 Keep the temperature just below boiling point
 Add just enough liquid to cover the food
 Use a fitting lid on a container
  Serve the food and liquid together.

SUITABLE FOODS FOR STEWING

Suitable foods for stewing include tough pieces of
meat, fish, beans, peas, fresh and dried fruits. The
following is an example of a recipe using the
stewing method
Stewed beef with vegetables
Ingredients
500g beef 2 onions
2 tomatoes
4 Irish potatoes
2 carrots
200g green peas Salt and pepper Oil for fry

Method

 Clean the meat and cut it into pieces

 Heat oil and brown the meat lightly
 Peel vegetables. Cut potatoes in half and slice
other vegetables
 Add these to the meat and fry lightly. Add
peas.
 Cover with a liquid and season to taste.
 Simmer till meat is tender then serve.
FRYING AS A METHOD OF COOKING
This is a method of cooking food in hot fat or oil.
There are three methods of frying food.
Namely: dry frying, shallow fat frying and deep fat
frying.

 Dry frying
No fat or oil is used in this method. Food cooks in
its own fat.
This method is suitable for very oily foods such as
sausages, bwanoni, mafulufute, ngumbi and oily
fish.

 Shallow fat frying

This method uses just enough fat or oil to cover the
bottom of the frying pan to prevent the food from
sticking to it.
Food is turned over to cook on both sides.
Suitable foods for shallow fat frying include
chicken, eggs, pancakes and fish.

 Deep fat frying

This method requires plenty of fat or oil, about half
of the deep frying pan. The food is completely
immersed or covered with fat or oil.
Suitable foods for deep fat frying include
doughnuts, fritters, chicken, fish and chips.

ADVANTAGES OF FRYING
 No loss of soluble nutrients
 The food looks attractive and has good flavour
 A quick method of cooking
 Fuel is saved

DISADVANTAGES OF FRYING
 Plenty of fat or oil is needed and it is expensive
 Needs constant attention to prevent food from
burning
 The food is not easily digested, if not well
cooked and drained.

Guidelines for frying

 Coat the food if necessary, either in seasoned

flour, eggs and bread crumbs or batter.
 Put the food into the pan carefully to avoid
splashing, and add only a few pieces
  Heat clean fat or oil in a suitable pan at the
correct temperature. This is about 1800C but
varies according to the food.
 When food is cooked, take it out and drain any
excess oil.

The following is an example of recipe using frying

method
Frying banana fritters

Ingredients
4 ripe bananas 15g of sugar
1 egg 125ml milk
Oil for frying 200g flour
Method

 Peel and mash the bananas

 Add sugar and one beaten egg
 Add milk and flour
 Drop a spoonful of batter in hot fat and fry on
both sides
 Sprinkle with sugar and serve.
UNIT 14 MEALS FOR SEDENTARY
WORKERS AND MANUAL
WORKERS
SEDENTARY AND MANUAL WORKERS
People doing various types of work should have
their nutritional needs met properly.
These people may be employed elsewhere or may
be doing different types of work at home. Manual
workers and sedentary workers are two basic
categories of people doing work.

SEDENTARY WORKERS
These are people who are not involved in heavy
work.
Their work is usually light and it is mostly done
while sitting down in one place.
Sedentary workers are usually office workers such
as secretaries, managers, television and radio
presenters, reporters, lawyers, pilots,
administrators, telephone operators and drivers.

Guidelines for planning meals for sedentary workers

 Be nutritionally balanced
  Not contain too much fat or oils as they do not
need too much energy
 Contain foods from all the six food groups to
provide variety in their diet
Below are some sample menus for sedentary
workers

Sample breakfast
Sample lunch or supper
Orange juice Rice Stewed fish Nsima
porridge Coffee Boiled nkhwani
with milk lemonade

Cooking and serving meals for sedentary workers

 Avoid frying food for sedentary workers

because fried foods take a lot of time to digest
 Sedentary workers do not need a lot of energy.
Therefore, cooking methods for their food
should not require a lot of fat or oil
 Cook food using boiling, stewing, roasting,
grilling, baking, and steaming methods
 Vegetables and fruit salads are ideal for
sedentary workers
 Serve meals in small quantities attractively in
clean plates
 Provide a variety of foods at each meal to
avoid monotony
  If the food is to be taken away, pack it in clean
containers

MANUAL WORKERS
Manual workers are people who do heavy work.
These people spend a lot of energy and lose a lot
of water and salt through sweeting.
Examples of manual work include gardening,
chopping wood, moulding bricks and carrying
heavy things such as bags of maize or rice.

Guidelines for planning meals for manual workers

 Contain more energy giving foods

 Contain foods from all the six food groups
 Be nutritionally balanced
 Contain adequate protein, vegetables and
plenty of fluids
 Provide a variety of foods at each meal to
avoid monotony
 Be packed properly in clean containers if it is to
be taken away

Below are sample menus for manual workers

Sample breakfast
Sample lunch or supper
Lemon juice Stewed dried fish Mgaiwa nsima
Mgaiwa Boiled nkhwani with groundnut
porridge Tea flour
with milk Pineapples

Cooking and serving for manual workers

Cooking promotes palatability and digestibility of
foods.
Food for manual workers should be cooked using
suitable methods of cooking. Hence, meals for
manual workers can be boiled, fried, stewed,
roasted or baked.
Combining several foods in one pot helps to
increase energy value of the foods especially if the
foodstuffs used are of high energy value.
Such foods may include groundnut flour in
vegetables or porridge, potatoes in meat, bean or
chicken stew, fats such as margarine and butter in
porridge or on bread and sugar in sweet dishes.

UNIT 15 LAUNDERING A SHIRT

AND A BLOUSE
STAINS
Laundry involve a lot of processes.
One of such processes is removing stains from
garments and articles.
A stain is a discoloured mark caused by spilling of
foods and liquids on garments and articles. These
stains cannot be removed by the normal way of
washing.
There are many different types of stains which can
discolour our garments and articles.

These stains are classified according to their

origins:
 Animal stains: egg, milk, blood and perspiration
 Vegetable stains: tea, coffee, cocoa and grass
 Mineral stains: rust, ink and dyes.
 Other stains: soot, grease, tar and wax.

How these stains are treated depends on the

chemical nature of the stain, the age of the stain,
texture and colour fastness of the fabric stained.
However it is important to remove the stains
before the normal washing of clothes because the
washing process tends to fix some stains.
For good results, it is advisable to identify the
cause of the stains and remove them as soon as
they occur.

STAIN REMOVAL
General principles of stain removal
 When removing stains start with water and
then use reagents. Begin with cold water,
followed by hot water and later boiling water.
 If water alone fails, use soap solution and
washing powders.
 If the stain is stubborn, repeat the steps 1 and
2. If it persists, use bleaches, absorbents such
as salt, blotting paper and solvents such as
paraffin and benzene and methylated spirits.

WAYS OF REMOVING COMMON STAINS

 Tea, coffee and cocoa These are vegetable
stains.

They usually contain acid.

To remove them, pour boiling water through the
stain at once. If it is not removed, use ammonia or
borax and boiling water.
If it persists repeat the process

 Fruit and wine

These are vegetable stains.
For fresh stains, cover with salt at once and pour
boiling water. If unsuccessful, use lemon juice and
salt.
If the stain persists use bleach.

 Egg and blood

These are animal stains.
They contain albumen and are set by hot water.
Therefore, soak in cold water and wash with soap.
If unsuccessful, steep in cold water and salt.

 Paint and tar

If the stain is fresh, rub it gently with a softened
pad moistened with ammonia and paraffin.
Remove all traces of grease and wash the article
thoroughly with hot water and soap.
  Grass
This is a vegetable stain.
Apply methylated sprits, rubbing the stain gently
with a pad of soft cotton.

 Ball point ink

Sponge with methylated spirits. If the stain is
stubborn, use ammonia.

 Chewing gum
Rub with ice-cube to set the chewing gum so it
may be removed.

LAUNDERING A SHIRT AND A BLOUSE MADE FROM

COTTON
Do the following when laundering a shirt and a
blouse:
 Check for torn parts such as holes and split
seams and mend accordingly
 Pre-soak the shirt or blouse in cold water
 Wash thoroughly in warm soapy water,
particularly, around the neckline and armholes
  Rinse thoroughly in warm and then in cold
water
 Hang out to dry
 Press if necessary then air and store

UNIT 16 TECHNOLOGIES FOR DOMESTIC USE

TECHNOLOGIES FOR DOMESTIC USE
The technologies for domestic use are those that
are used in the home.
These technologies include the following:
 A crotchet
 Sewing needles
 Mphero
 Wooden spoons
 A winnower
 A hoe
 and a mortal
 A flour sieve
 An axe
 Knitting needles
 A charcoal stove
 A clay pot
 A pestle
MAKING TECHNOLOGIES FOR DOMESTIC USE
Learners can make different types of technologies
that can be used for domestic use. Making such
technologies involves a number of steps.
These are:
o Identifying the problem
The first step is to identify the problem to be
solved.

o Doing research
The second step is to find out as much information
as possible about the problem. This may involve
research, for example, by asking other people or
reading about the problem.

o Planning
The third step is to plan how you will solve the
problem. This step involves brainstorming,
considering different solutions and choosing an
idea or solution that can be tried.

o Outlining the technological processes

When a solution has been decided upon, you need
to outline the process to be followed when
designing the technology.
This would involve thinking about:
 what exactly the technological device
is expected to do
 what materials are needed to make the
device
 the costs involved
 the size and shape of the device
 who will use my device
 what the production process will
involve
 safety, health or environmental
considerations
o Making the technological device
This step involve getting the necessary tools and
other material to make the technological device
 o Testing the technological device
Once the technological device has been made, it
should be tested to see if it works according to
expectations. If not, the whole process should be
reviewed to identify and rectify any problem.

o Evaluating the technological process

Evaluation should take place at each step of the
technological process in order to assess how the
production is progressing.

UNIT 17 PROPERTY OF LIGHT, HEAT AND

SOUND
PROPERTY OF LIGHT
Light has several properties.
The list below shows some of the properties of
light:
 light travels in a straight line
 light has speed
 light can be reflected
 light can be refracted
 light rays form shadows when blocked
 light rays can be converged or diverged
 light that is white consists of different colours
LIGHT TRAVELS IN A STRAIGHT LINE
This property of light can be proved through
experiments. The action of a pinhole camera and
three identical rectangular cards with tiny holes at
their centres arranged in a straight line proves that
light travels in a straight line.
The following diagram shows what happens when
light enters a pinhole camera and when light is
shone on one rectangular card that is aligned with
other two cards.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Light can travel through a vacuum and some
media that are transparent. Light is reflected
(bounced off) by certain media. Mirrors are good
examples of objects that reflect light. Reflection of
light from smooth surfaces is done in a special
way. A ray that is incident on a mirror surface is
reflected following the laws of reflection.
The diagram that follows shows reflection based on
the law that states that the angle of incidence
(angle between the incidence ray and normal) is
equal to the angle of reflection (which is the angle
between the normal and the reflected ray). The
light that strikes the mirror surface at 900 is
reflected along the same path.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction is the sudden change of direction of
light as it travels from one medium to another of
different optical density. When an incident ray goes
from a less dense medium like air to a denser
medium like a glass block, the refracted ray is
always refracted towards the normal. As the
refracted ray travels from the glass to air, once
again, it is refracted away from the normal.
The diagram that follows shows light travelling
from a less dense medium to a more dense
medium, and then to a less dense medium, once
again.

TECHNOLOGIES THAT USE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

Property of Uses
Technologies light
Microscope Refraction To magnify objects
Periscope Reflection To see things above the
observer or over an
obstacle
Mirror glass Reflection To see an image of oneself
Telescope Refraction To make distant objects to
look bigger
Car mirror Reflection To see what is behind
vehicles
Reflector Reflection To make something visible
Projector Reflection To project images on a
 and screen
refraction
Pair of Refraction To see distance objects
binoculars clearly

PROPERTIES OF HEAT
Heat energy can be absorbed or lost by a
substance. The heat energy lost by one substance
is transferred to another substance even if there is
no contact between them. Heat travels through
various substances at different speeds.
The speed of heat in a substance may depend
upon the nature of the substance and closeness of
the particles in the substance.
As heat flows through substances it can:
 cause expansion of matter
 cause changes of state of matter
 be transferred through a medium
 make things move
TECHNOLOGIES BASED ON THE HEAT
Substances normally expand as heat passes
through them. Thermometers are constructed
based on the expansion and contraction of the
liquid that is used. Some joints are made based on
the principle of expansion and contraction.
There are technologies that have been made to
cool a device so that it contracts for it to fit into the
hole of another device. On expansion, the material
firmly fits into the hole thereby making an
extremely strong joint.
Such joints exist in bicycles, cars and other heavy
machinery. Automatic switches (thermostats) in
electric pressing irons and geysers work on the
principle of expansion and contraction.
Vacuum flasks have been designed to employ
some of the properties of heat. The vacuum flasks
have a glass that has the inner part and its outer
surface silvered.
The silvered surface radiates (emits) very little
amount of heat and absorbs very little heat from
its outer surface since polished (shiny) surfaces are
bad radiators or emitters of heat.

The diagram below shows a vacuum flask.

A vacuum flask
Thermometers, cooling systems in cars and
industries, electric pressing irons and geysers are
some of the technologies that use properties of
heat.
PROPERTIES OF SOUND
Sound is produced by anything that is vibrating.
Just like heat, sound can be absorbed, transmitted
through substances, reflected and refracted.
An echo is a good example of reflected sound.
Sound travels at different speeds in different
materials.
Sound requires a medium for its transfer. Sound
spreads out in all directions from the source of
production.

TECHNOLOGIES THAT USE THE PROPERTIES OF

SOUND
There are a number of technologies that use
properties of sound.
These include musical instruments such as a
xylophone, mabatcha/badza, guitar, drum, flute,
piano, trombone and trumpet.

UNIT 18 FORCES
TYPES OF FORCES

a pull

a push
A force can be a pull or a push that can change the
state of rest of an object. The diagram that follows
shows the illustrations of a pull and a push.

Different bodies can exert a pull or a push on

objects. The earth exerts a force of attraction on
objects. The force the earth exerts on objects is
called the force of gravity or the gravitational
force.
Gravity is defined as the pull of the earth. When
one object moves or tries to slide over another
object, a force to oppose the motion arises.
The force that is produced as a result of sliding or
rubbing two bodies together is known as the
frictional force or friction.
One can also produce an electrostatic force. This
type of force can be produced by rubbing the
plastic case of a ball point against the hair or fur.
When the case is brought close to small pieces of
paper it attracts them.
This happens because of the force of attraction
that exists between the pen and the pieces of
paper. This attractive force is called an
electrostatic force.
The diagram that follows shows a ball point case
picking small pieces of paper.

Magnets also exert forces on each other as well as

on materials that are magnetic. The force which a
magnet exerts is called magnetic force.
The magnets will attract each other if unlike poles
of the magnets face each other. Otherwise, a force
of repulsion will exist when like poles of magnets
face each other.

The following diagrams show attractive and

repulsive forces between unlike and like poles of
magnets.
lines of force around a magnet

A stretched elastic band possesses strain energy.

The band can exert a force on other objects. The
force that the elastic band exerts is called an
elastic force. The forces that have been discussed
so far are just a few examples of the many
different types of forces that exist.

USES OF FORCES
 forces can change the shape of objects
 forces can make objects at rest start moving
 forces can make objects move faster or slower
 forces can make things spin round
  forces can change the direction of moving
objects
 forces can stop moving objects
 forces can produce heat
TECHNOLOGIES THAT USE THE PRINCIPLES OF
FORCE
 Sewing machines
 Cars
 Bicycles
 Aeroplanes
 Musical instruments
 Electric fans
 Boats
 Traps
 Bows and arrows
 Balances
 Mortars and pestles
 Catapults

UNIT 19 NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY

DISEASES

Nutritional deficiency diseases are due to lack or

shortage of a particular nutrient in the diet.
When the body cannot cope with the little amounts
supplied, specific signs and symptoms appear.
Various nutritional deficiency diseases show
different signs and symptoms.
Some of the deficiency diseases which affect
people especially children are night blindness,
scurvy, rickets, anaemia and goiter. These
deficiency diseases can be prevented and treated.

NIGHT BLINDNESS
Night blindness is caused by lack of vitamin A in
the diet. This deficiency disease is characterized by
inability to see in dim light, dry and rough skin, and
skin infections.
SCURVY
Scurvy is caused by lack of vitamin C in the diet
and it is characterized by bleeding of gums, slow
healing wounds, slow growth in children and loose
teeth.

The illustration below shows a person with scurvy

ANAEMIA
Anaemia is caused by lack of iron in the diet and it
is characterized by tiredness, pale hands, pale
mouth, pale skin, pale mucus membranes and pale
eyes and heart palpitations

GOITRE
Goitre is caused by lack of iodine in the diet. It is
characterized by slow growth in children and an
enlarged gland at the front of the neck.

The illustration below shows a person with goitre

RICKETS
Rickets are caused by lack of vitamin D in the diet
and are characterized by soft bones. The teeth are
also affected.
Due to the weight of the body, the soft bones of
the legs bend outwards. Rickets mostly occur in
children.
The illustration below shows a child with rickets
PREVENTIVE MEASURES AND TREATMENT OF
DEFICIENCY
Nutritional deficiency diseases can be prevented
by ensuring that the nutritional needs of various
members of the family, especially children, are met
through a proper diet. As such, families are to eat a
variety of foods in the right amounts. Once
affected by this nutritional deficiency diseases they
can be treated the first step in treating deficiency
diseases is diagnosis. There after the treated can
be corrected supplying the missing nutrients in the
diet. Nutrients supplements are used where the
condition is severe.
Preventive measures and treatment of deficiency
disease
Deficiency Preventive Treatment Suitable foods
disease measures
sources
Night Eating a  Provision Yellow sweet
blindne variety of of foods potatoes, carrots,
ss foods rich in milk, oily fish,
(balanced vitamin cheese, eggs, liver,
diet) A oils, dark green
 including vegetables
foods rich and fruits
in vitamin
A
Scurvy Eating a  Provision Citrus fruits,
variety of of foods potatoes, dark
foods rich in green vegetables
(balanced vitamin
diet) C
including
foods
rich in
vitamin C
Anaemi Eating a  Provision Meat, liver, kidney ,
a variety of of foods peas, beans, dark
foods rich in green vegetables
(balanced iron and
diet) vitamin
including C
foods rich  Use of
in vitamin iron
C tablets or
folic
acid
Goitre Eating a  Provision Iodised salt, sea

variety of of foods foods, sea fish and

foods rich in shell fish
(balanced iodine
diet)  Use of

including
 foods iodised
rich in
iodine salt in
foods
Rickets Eating a  Provision Sunshine, oily fish,

variety of of foods margarine, butter,

foods rich in eggs, milk, cheese
(balanced vitamin
diet) D
including
foods
rich in
vitamin D

UNIT 20 DYEING MATERIALS

DYEING FABRICS AND OTHER MATERIALS
The process of dyeing fabrics and other materials
can be done in different ways depending on the
type of dye to be used.
Dyes come in different names such as dylon, dryad
and reeves. These are suitable for dyeing natural
fibres and good for commercial purposes.
These can be bought from shops. Dyes can also be
made locally. These include boiled concentrated
solution of tea leaves, inks, maroon coloured
leaves of maize, onion skins, red cabbage,
mushrooms, carrot tops, spinach and roots of some
trees, for example n`joka in Yao.
It is essential to know the reaction of different
types of dyes to fabrics and other materials.
Different fabrics and other materials absorb dyes
differently.
Fabrics made from natural fibres, for example,
cotton, linen, and woollen materials dye more
readily than fabrics made from artificial fibres, for
example, nylon and terelyne.
Materials made from natural fibres give best
results for dyeing because they readily absorb
dyes.
Cotton fabrics and garments are the best for
dyeing purposes. Cotton fabrics can easily be
identified by burning a piece of fabric. Cotton
fabrics will burn like wood, producing ash.
If the fabric shrinks, it is not cotton.
Other ways of identifying fabrics and other
materials that are good for dyeing include:
o Dipping a piece of material in a dye
solution and observing for 5 to 10 minutes.
If the fabric gives a deeper shade, it is
good for dyeing. If it is pale, it is not good
for dyeing
o Putting drops of water on a piece of
material. If the material readily absorbs
water, then it is good for dyeing.
PREPARATION OF FABRICS AND OTHER MATERIALS FOR DYEING

The process of dyeing materials

o Wash the material and remove dirt and
soften it
o Decide and prepare the design you want
your material to be.
Here are examples of illustrations of pieces of
fabric that have been prepared for dyeing and how
the fabric looks like after dyeing.

USING ARTIFICIAL DYES

 Dilute 40g of dylon in 1 litre of hot water
 Stir well until the dye is dissolved
  Add 1 tablespoon of kitchen salt to the solution
and 1 packet dylon cold fix (about 50g) or soda
 Stir well until the salt and dylon cold fix or soda
are dissolved.
 Add enough water just to cover the material
 Immerse the material in the solution for 1 hour,
keep on turning the material for the first 10
minutes. This allows the dye to penetrate
deeper into the material.
 Rinse thoroughly in cold water.

Note

o 1 tin (about 40g) of dylon is enough for a

250g piece of fabric. Therefore, use only
what is needed.
o Salt, dylon cold fix or soda are added to fix
the colour

USING NATURE DYES

 Allow some coloured sheaths of maize cob or
tea leaves or roots to boil for about 10 minutes
 Immerse the material into the boiling solution
 Keep on stirring at intervals for 30 minutes
 Add at least a tablespoon full of salt
 Stir until the salt dissolves
 Allow the contents to cool down.
 Rinse the material thoroughly in cold water
Note
The water should be just enough to cover the fabric
to the dyed. Sometimes chemicals are added to
the natural dyes to facilitate the absorption of the
dyes.

UNIT 21 MACHINES
MACHINES THAT USE OF PRINCIPLES OF LEVERS
Levers have a number of functions.
The following table shows some of the machines
that use the principle of levers and their functions.
Function
Lever
Wheelbarrow Carrying loads
Battle opener Opening bottles
Balance Weighing masses
Pliers, spinners Tightening bolts or unscrewing
bolts
Jack Lifting heavy bodies
Pair of scissors Cutting things
Knife Cutting things
Crowbar Lifting things
Nail cutter Cutting fingernails
Pair of tongs, For holding small objects, hot
tweezers objects or dangerous materials
Bicycle brakes For stopping a bicycle
Bole holes For drawing underground water
PULLEY SYSTEMS
Pulley are used to:
 change direction of a force
 reduce the force needed to raise a given load
Pulley systems can be found in garages, curtain
rails, bicycles, cranes, elevators and toys.

UNIT 22 GROWING UP
PHYSICAL AND EMOTIONAL
CHANGES IN ADOLESCENTS

Girls and boys may reach adolescence stage

between the ages of 11 and 15.
Adolescence is the period when boys and girls are
changing from childhood to adulthood. There are
several changes which boys and girls undergo
during this stage.
These include physical, emotional, mental and
social changes.

The following table shows physical and emotional

changes that boys and girls undergo as they grow
up.
Changes in boys

Emotional changes
Physical changes
 Grow taller and  Begin to develop sexual
heavier. Their hands feelings and start getting
and shoulders excited when they see a girl
become bigger and  Interest in girls increases and
stronger. start taking extra care on how
 The skin becomes they look
oily and the face  Develop more self confidence
develops pimples and do not like to be forced to
 Grow hairs in the do things they do not want to
armpits, around the do
genitals and on the  Experience frequent changes
face in their mood
 Produce sperm  Become more sensitive to
 Develop deep voice failure
 Experience wet  Become more sensitive to
dreams remarks from
adults and peers about the
 changes they are going
through.

Changes in girls

Physical changes Emotional changes

 Grow faster, their  Begin to develop sexual
hips get wider and feelings and get excited
their breasts start to when they see a boy
grow bigger.  Interest in boys increases and
 The skin becomes they start taking extra care
oily and the face about how they look
develops pimples  Develop more self
 Hair grows in the confidence and do not like to
armpits and around be forced to do things they
genitals do not want to do. They want
 Experience menstrual to be treated like adults
period  Become more sensitive to
 Their voice becomes remarks from adults and
softer peers about the changes they
are going through
 Experience frequent changes
in their mood
 Become increasingly
sensitive to failure
THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
At puberty, girls will start producing egg cells. An
egg is produced every month by one or both
ovaries. This is called ovulation. Ovulation has a
reproductive function. When the egg cell is
fertilized, the results is pregnancy.

When ovulation is happening, the wall of the uterus

becomes thick as it prepares to receive an embryo
after fertilization. When the egg is not fertilized, it
dies. The wall of the uterus then breaks down
leading to a discharge of bloody material. This
discharge of bloody material is called
menstruation. Menstruation happens every month,
hence it is called menstrual cycle.

Menstruation lasts about 7 days. Menstruation is a

normal thing for girls. It may start at the age of 11
in some girls is as late as the age of 18 in others. A
women menstruates up to the age of 45 to 50.
During menstruation, girls need to take extra care
of themselves. They can do this by:
 taking a bath regularly
 changing absorbent materials such as cotton
wool regularly
 using clean and dry sanitary towels
 washing hands after handling sanitary towels
  wearing clean clothes

EFFECTS OF PREMARITAL SEX

 Unplanned pregnancies
 Contracting HIV and other sexually transmitted
infections
 Early marriages
 Poor performance at school
 Dropping out of school

Typed by Zikomo Masese Banda and Shadrach

Bowa Chabwera (Brother-in-law) Edited by Zikomo
Masese Banda