UNIT 1 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

Scientific investigation is the process in which a

scientist designs and carries out experiments to
obtain information
PLANNING A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
There are a number of things that are involved
when planning a scientific investigation. Planning a
scientific investigation involves the following
things:
 Identifying the problem
 Stating the problem in the form of a question
 Predicting the possible solution to a problem
 Identifying what to observe or measure
(variables)
 Identifying and collecting the resources that
would be required to carry out the
investigation.
 Deciding the steps to be followed in the
process of collecting data

CONDUCTING A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

Once the investigation has been planned, it is then
carried out.
This is when the hypotheses are tested by carrying
out experiments.
Also, the variables to be investigated are
deliberately changed while keeping the other
variables constant.
This is what is meant by controlling and
manipulating variables.
The variables that are changed are observed and
recorded as the investigation is being conducted.
The purpose of carrying out an investigation is to
collect data through observation.
If one is not satisfied with the data collected, it is
necessary to repeat the procedures.
When the data has been collected, it should be
organised in such a way that it is meaningful. The
data may be presented in the form of tables.
The procedures of organising data are referred to
as data analysis. One of the ways of analysing data
is the use of graphs.
After the data has been analysed, there is need to
interpret it.
This may involve determining the relationship
between variables using the analysed data.
The determination of the relationships between
variables include:
 looking for patterns of data in a table
 interpreting the shapes of graph lines
Once the data has been analysed and interpreted,
a conclusion can be drawn based on the results of
the investigation.
The conclusion then becomes the solution to the
problem investigated.
Conducting a scientific investigation involves:
 carrying out the investigation according to
what has been planned
 collecting data and presenting it in a
meaningful way
 analysing the data that have been collected
 interpreting the analysed data
 drawing a conclusion based on the results of
the investigation
 writing a report of the investigation
REPORTING THE FINDINGS OF A SCIENTIFIC
INVESTIGATION
After the scientific investigation has been
completed, it is important to write a report.
The report can include:
o Topic of the investigation
o An introduction
o The methodology (methods used to
conduct the investigation)
o The results (findings)
o The discussion of the results
 o The conclusion
The possible solution to the problem is called a
hypothesis.
Examples of the questions that can be investigated
in science and technology:
 why does a fresh egg sink and a rotten one
float on water?
 what is the speed of sound in air?
 what are the factors that affect the speed of
sound in air?
 how different is the life cycle of grasshopper
from that of a housefly?
 how can a particular variety of maize be
improved in terms of yields?
 how is the pitch of sound affected by different
sizes of bottles?
 which is the most effective biological control of
aphids?
 how can the components of a given mixture be
separated?
Variables are factors that would affect the results
in the investigation. Variables is anything that can
change.
THE PURPOSE OF WRITING A REPORT AFTER
CONDUCTING A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
  to communicate the findings of the
investigation to those who did not take part in
the investigation.
 It acts as a record of what was done
 It gives people the opportunity to learn the
findings, ask questions and comment on the
investigation.

UNIT 2 THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY

SYSTEM
The main parts of human circulatory system and
their function

PARTS FUNCTION
The Heart It pumps blood around the body
The Arteries They carry blood away from the heart
The Veins They carry blood to the heart
The They connect the arteries to the veins
Capillaries

THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

 Blood comes into the heart from all parts of the
body through Posterior and Anterior vena cava
and from the lungs through the Pulmonary
vein.
 The blood goes out of the heart through the
aorta to all parts of the body and through the
pulmonary artery to the lungs.
 When blood comes from different parts of the
body it is dark red in colour because it contains
less oxygen and more waste products such as
carbon dioxide and urea.
 The heart then pumps the blood to the lungs
through the pulmonary artery.
 In the lungs, carbon dioxide is excreted while
oxygen is added to the blood making it look
bright red.
 The blood then goes back to the heart through
the pulmonary vein where it is pumped to all
parts of the body.
When the blood is circulating throughout the body,
some of the following things happen:
 excretion of waste products such as urea from
the kidneys
 diffusion of digested food particles around the
intestines from where they are transported to
the liver
It is the liver regulates or controls how much food
should be transported by the blood. The liver also
stores excess food.
COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
Blood is composed of:
  Plasma which is the liquid part of the blood
 Red blood cells which transport oxygen
 White blood cells which defend the body
against disease causing organisms
 Platelets which help in the process of blood
clotting.
BLEEDING
Bleeding is the process whereby blood oozes from
the body.
CAUSES OF BLEEDING
 High blood pressure rapturing blood vessels
especially in the nostrils
 Disease
 Tissue damage (injury)
EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE BLOOD LOSS FROM THE
BODY
 Anaemia
 Death
WAYS OF CONTROLLING BLEEDING
 Applying direct pressure on the injured part of
the body
 Raising the injured part so as to reduce the
amount of blood flowing to it.
 Clotting of blood (this is done naturally by the
body)
Where there has been excessive loss of blood, a
person may be given blood from other people
through a process called blood transfusion.
This is why it is important that people should
donate blood to hospitals so as to save the lives of
others in cases of emergency.

UNIT 3 THE HUMAN BREATHING

SYSTEM
Breathing is a process through which air is pushed
in and out of the lungs.
The air which enters the body contains a lot of
oxygen which later diffuses into the blood stream
through the lungs.
The air which goes out of the body contains a lot of
carbon dioxide which has diffused from the blood
into the lungs.
For breathing to take place, there are several parts
and structures that are involved. For example,
nostrils, windpipe (trachea), lungs, ribs, and the
diaphragm.
BREATHING MECHANISM
The breathing mechanism works in two phases
which are Inspiration and Expiration.
INSPIRATION
This is a process of breathing in air and is also
referred to as inhalation.
During inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and
becomes flat, the ribs move up and out due to the
contraction of the external intercostal muscles.
Due to the movement of the ribs, the volume of the
thorax (chest cavity) increases.
Air pressure inside the chest cavity decreases
thereby making it lower than the atmospheric
pressure.
This causes the air to rush into the lungs
EXPIRATION
This is a process of breathing out air and is also
referred to as exhalation.
During expiration, the diaphragm relaxes and
moves upwards into the thorax, forming a dome
shape.
The ribs move down and inwards due to the
relaxation of the external intercostal muscles Due
to the inward movement of the ribs, the volume of
the thorax decreases.
The air pressure inside the chest cavity therefore
increases, making it higher than the atmospheric
pressure.
This forces air out of the lungs.
When the air enters through the nose (nostrils), it
passes through the trachea (windpipe), then
through the bronchus, then into the lungs through
the bronchioles.
Finally, it goes to air sacs or alveoli where the
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes
place.

PROBLEMS AND CARE FOR THE HUMAN BREATHING

SYSTEM
Problems that can affect breathing system are:
 Smoking
  Air pollution
 Diseases
 Suffocation
 Smothering
WAYS OF CARING FOR THE HUMAN BREATHING
SYSTEM
 Avoid Smoking
o Tobacco smoking is dangerous to the

breathing system
o It can lead to diseases such as lung cancer,

asthma, bronchitis and tuberculosis

o Tobacco also contains a dangerous

chemical known as nicotine

o Smoking other substances such as Indian

hemp and traditional medicines can lead to

the same effects. So smoking is hazardous
to health and must be avoided.

 Avoid air pollution

o Being in a places where air is heavily

polluted can lead to problems that can

affect the breathing system.
o It is important to avoid areas where the air

is polluted.
 Eat a balanced diet and go for regular medical
check-ups to prevent diseases that can affect
breathing system
 o Diseases such as cancer, asthma,
bronchitis and tuberculosis (TB) can affect
breathing system
 Live in well ventilated places to avoid
suffocation
o Suffocation is a situation whereby air

cannot pass out of the lungs either through

choking or strangulation

 Avoid covering oneself with air proof materials

to prevent smothering
o Smothering is a situation where air cannot

get into the mouth or nose, for example, if

clothing or plastic bag covers the face.

UNIT 4 IMPROVING THE

NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FOOD
IMPROVING THE NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FOOD
Various foods contain different types of nutrients.
For instance, meat contains proteins, fats, vitamins
and mineral elements. The nutritional value of food
refers to the major nutrients the food contains.
Improving the nutritional value of food means
enriching the food with other nutrients by
preparing the foods together.

Ways of improving the nutritional value of food

o Combining several foods when cooking
o Adding enriching food to dishes
o Overcooking fish to soften the bones so
that they can be eaten together with the
flesh
o Cooking some foods in their skins or
together with the skin
o Using one pot meals

Factors to consider when planning, preparing,

cooking and serving dishes with improved
nutritional value
 The method of cooking
 Colour, texture and flavour of food
 Season of the year
 Ensure that the meals are nutritionally
balanced

THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF POOR NUTRITION ON

THE FAMILY, COMMUNITY AND THE NATION
  Malnutrition
 Stunted growth among children
 Poor mental capacity
 Increased risk of chronic illnesses
 High mortality rate among children
 Low productivity in everyday activities
 Strain on the economy of the country
 Low standards of living

THE POSITIVE EFFECTS OF GOOD NUTRITION ON

THE FAMILY, COMMUNITY AND THE NATION
 Healthy population
 Proper growth in children
 High productivity in everyday activities
 Good nutritional status of the population
 High standards of living

UNIT 5 MEALS FOR INVALIDS,

CONVALESCENTS, VEGETARIANS
AND ELDERLY PEOPLE
People can be categorized into different groups
depending on their nutritional needs. These
include:
 o Invalids
o Convalescents
o Vegetarians
o The elderly
 Invalids
Invalids are people who are ill
 Convalescents
Convalescents are people recovering from an
illness
 Vegetarians
Vegetarians are people who do not eat meat or
animal products
 The elderly
The elderly are people above the age of 65 years
MEALS FOR INDIVIDUAL NUTRITIONAL NEEDS
INVALIDS
Invalids use less energy therefore they require
fewer carbohydrates and fats.
Their meals should contain more proteins and
protective foods for the replacement of damaged
tissues and cells.
GUIDELINES TO CONSIDER WHEN PLANNING MEALS
FOR AN INVALID
 The meal should be easy to digest
 Liquid diet should be given
 Following doctor's instructions on meals
 Taking into account particular likes and dislikes
for food
 Not serving leftover food to avoid
contamination
 Paying careful attention to food hygiene
 Preparing food away from the patient
 Serving meals in a tray and in small portions

Convalescents
The guidelines for planning meals for
convalescents are similar to those of the invalids.
The only difference is that the convalescent's
appetite is better and serving is easier.

Vegetarians
There are two types of vegetarians.
o Lacto-vegetarians
o Strict vegetarians
Lacto-vegetarians are those who eat vegetables
and animal products such as eggs, milk, cheese,
yoghurt, ghee and sour milk (chambiko).
Strict vegetarians are people who eat vegetables
only.

Reasons for becoming vegetarians

 Religion
 Health
 Animal welfare
 Taste
 Allergy

Planning meals for vegetarians can be difficult

because of lack of proteins, vitamins A and D,
calcium and iron from animal sources.

POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN PLANNING MEALS FOR

VEGETARIANS
 Providing sufficient proteins from animal
products for lacto-vegetarians
 Using plenty of vegetable proteins such as
peas, beans and groundnuts for strict
vegetarians
  Providing foods rich in oils and fats from plant
sources
 Using a variety of methods of cooking and
serving with different combinations to bring
variety to vegetarian diets
 Serving large portions for maximum supply of
proteins

Elderly people
Elderly people need a special diet because their
bodies do not function as efficiently as when they
were young.

GUIDELINES FOR PREPARING PLANNING MEALS

FOR THE ELDERLY PEOPLE
 An adequate supply of calcium and vitamins is
needed for healthy bones and preventing
infections
 Iron is needed as elderly people may suffer
from anaemia
 Food should be easy to eat because their teeth
may not be very strong
 Ensuring a good supply of dietary fibre to help
in the digestion of food
 Meals should contain more fruits, vegetables
and less fat
  Providing plenty of fluids in the form of water
and other beverages
 Meals should be served attractively

UNIT 6 IMPROVING A
TRADITIONAL KITCHEN
TYPES OF KITCHENS
  The modern kitchen
 Traditional kitchen

These kitchens are found in both urban and rural

areas.
THE MODERN KITCHEN
The modern kitchen is part of the main house. It is
found inside the house.
Though a modern kitchen is built as part of the
main house, the outside walls must have sufficient
windows for good lighting and ventilation to avoid
eye strain.
The kitchen should also be closed off from the rest
of the house to prevent cooking odours from
entering the rest of the rooms in the house.

MAIN FEATURES OF A MODERN KITCHEN

 Preparing centre
 Cooking centre
 Storage centre
  Washing centre
THE TRADITIONAL KITCHEN
The traditional kitchen is the most common type of
kitchen in Malawi.
TYPES OF TRADITIONAL KITCHENS
 The open-air kitchen
 An enclosed kitchen

THE OPEN-AIR KITCHEN

This type of kitchen is usually in the open outside
the house.
It is common in the dry season mainly to boil water
for domestic purposes and cook food. The following
illustration on the next page shows an open-air
kitchen.
AN ENCLOSED KITCHEN
This kitchen is in the form of a hut and is located
outside the main house. It is constructed of
materials such as poles, bricks, reeds and mud.
The roof is made of poles and thatched with grass.
In some cases, the kitchen does not have windows.
As such, the main source of ventilation is the door.

The three-stone fireplace is the one commonly

used as the cooking centre.
Both open and enclosed kitchens have the kitchen
centres located far away from each other. This
arrangement is not good.
A lot of time and energy is spent walking between
the centres. This makes the traditional kitchen not
efficient.

The centres are:

 The storage centre
 The preparation centre
 The cooking centre
 The washing centre
COMPARISON OF A MODERN AND A TRADITIONAL
KITCHEN

Traditional kitchen
Modern kitchen
 expensive to  it is cheap and easy to construct
construct  sometimes there is little ventilation
 adequate  poor lighting
ventilation and  sometimes there is limited space
lighting  no working surface
 enough space  easy to maintain
 has working
surfaces
 expensive to
maintain

STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF A TRADITIONAL

KITCHEN
The strengths of a traditional kitchen are;
 easy to construct
 easy to maintain
LIMITATIONS OF TRADITIONAL KITCHEN
 a lot of smoke is produced
 the food cooked in a three-stone fireplace can
have a smoky flavour if not cooked properly
 there is wastage of fuel energy
  space is limited
 the traditional kitchen does not have work
surfaces and there is no running water.

WAYS OF IMPROVING THE TRADITIONAL KITCHEN

 making a kitchen with a window and a chimney
 fixing surfaces and shelves to an already
existing kitchen
 making a drying rack outside the kitchen for
drying pots and plates
 constructing a mud stove with more than one
cooking place to save fuel and time
CONSTRUCTING A MUD CUPBOARD
The materials and equipment required for
constructing a mud cupboard are:
 Poles
 Soil
 Bamboo
 Water
 Nails
 Panga knives
 Buckets
 Strings
 A piece of rope
 A hoe
CONSTRUCTING A SHELF
The materials and equipment required for
constructing a shelf are
 Bamboo strips
 Reeds
 Grass
 Millet or maize stems
 Sticks
 Poles
 Pieces of string

CONSTRUCTING A DRYING RACK WITH A SOAK PIT

The materials and equipment required for
constructing a drying rack are:
 Poles
 Bamboo strips
 Pieces of string
 A hoe
 Chilaya (a tool for digging hoes)
 Panga knives
 Nails
 A hammer
UNIT 7 IMPROVING THE QUALITY
OF PRODUCTS
Some of the locally produced products in the
community such as wood carvings, mats, clay pots,
mortar and hoe handles may not be of high quality.
It is therefore important to improve their quality.
Quality guarantees that the products are of a high
standard.
There are many ways of improving the quality of a
product. These ways include:
 improving the smell
 improving the taste
 improving the appearance
 improving the colour
 improving the volume
 improving the shape
 packaging
 decorating
 labelling
The following table shows some suggestions of how
the quality of products can be improved:

THE IMPORTANCE OF IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF

PRODUCTS
 Products of high quality can help to build
confidence in the consumer.
 The producer is assured of high sales at a
better price.
  Quality assurance ensures that the products
are manufactured consistently and are
attractive.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF IMPROVING THE QUALITY
OF PRODUCTS
 the products may become expensive and slow
to sell
 some materials used for improving the quality
of the products may not be found locally and
can be expensive

UNIT 8 FOOD PROCESSING

Food processing refers to the methods that are
used to change raw ingredients into food products
for human and animal consumption.
REASONS FOR PROCESSING FOOD
 improving flavour, texture and appearance
 preserving the food
 improving the quality of food
 preventing wastage
 improving the livelihood of people
WAYS OF PROCESSING FOOD
There are two main ways of processing food. These
are primary and secondary processing.
PRIMARY PROCESSING
Primary processing involves raw ingredients for
sale, consumption or making them ready for
cooking.
Examples include:
 grinding grain into flour
 sorting and washing vegetables
 extracting oil from seeds and nuts
 soaking cassava
 fermenting cereals such as millet, sorghum and
making for making chimera
 soaking mphale to make flour
 pounding cereals such as rice and maize

SECONDARY PROCESSING
Secondary processing involves turning basic
processed foods into new products.
Examples include:
 making margarine from oil
 making bread, cakes and biscuits from flour
 making jam from fruits
 making juices from fruits
 making thobwa from chimera
 making thobwa, starch, nsima from cassava
flour
  making chambiko/cheese from milk
 making peanut butter from groundnuts
ADVANTAGES OF FOOD PROCESSING
 improving the taste, flavour and appearance of
food
 preserving the food
 improving the quality of food
DISADVANTAGES OF FOOD PROCESSING
 loss of nutrients during processing
 some of the methods used in processing food
are not hygienic
 some methods used in processing can lead to
wastage
 food processing can lead to increase in the cost
of food

UNIT 9 REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN

BEINGS
THE PROCESS OF CONCEPTION IN HUMAN BEINGS
Human life begins at the moment of conception.
During sexual intercourse, a man ejaculates
millions of sperms contained in a liquid called
semen. The sperms are deposited in the vagina.
From there, they swim up to the uterus through the
cervix into the fallopian tubes to meet the egg
(ovum).
The sperm unites with the egg.
This is called conception or fertilisation.
The union of the sperm and egg results in the
formation of a single cell called a zygote.
Once the successful sperm has entered the egg, no
other sperm can get in. Eventually, all the
unsuccessful sperms die.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO
Once fertilisation has taken place, the zygote
passes from the fallopian tube to the uterus. As it
does so, it develops into an embryo.
It takes about five days for the embryo to reach the
uterus to which it is attached.

.
This is called implantation
A membrane known as the amnion encloses the
embryo in a fluid-filled cavity.
The fluid protects the embryo, supports it and
allows it to move freely during growth. During birth
the fluid lubricates and reduces friction in the
vagina.
During implantation the placenta develops in the
walls of the uterus.
The embryo is attached to the placenta by a tube
called the umbilical cord.
FUNCTIONS OF THE PLACENTA
 it allows dissolved food substances and oxygen
to diffuse from the mother's blood into that of
the embryo
 it allows waste products such as urea and
carbon dioxide to diffuse from the blood
capillaries of the embryo to the mother's blood
stream
 it allows antibodies to diffuse from the
mother's blood into the blood capillaries of the
embryo. The antibodies protect the embryo
against diseases.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOETUS
The embryo continues to grow and forms tissues
and organs.
After eight weeks, when all the organs are formed,
the embryo is called foetus. By the fifth month, the
heart can be heard beating through a stethoscope.
By the end of the sixth month, the baby has grown
eyelashes and eyebrows.
During the first six to seven months, the foetus
moves freely in the uterus and its movements can
be felt by the mother.
The placenta continues to grow as the foetus grows
bigger.
About nine months from conception, the baby is
ready to be born.
THE SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF PREGNANCY
 menstruation stops to occur
 morning sickness
 increase in body weight
 enlargement of breasts and abdomen
In some cases the following signs and symptoms of
pregnancy can also occur
 vomiting
 nausea
 being choosy about food
 feeling dizziness
 swelling of legs
 craving for unusual food and other substances
like soil and sour things
 change in appetite
 teeth problems due to loss of calcium to the
baby
 changing moods
 changes in the pigmentation of the skin
 anaemia
 maternal morbidity
Some of the signs and symptoms will disappear in
the early stages of pregnancy, but others will
disappear soon after delivery.
While the above signs and symptoms are indicators
of pregnancy, it is important to have a medical
examination for confirmation.
THE NEEDS OF A PREGNANT WOMAN AND AN
UNBORN BABY
DIETARY NEEDS
 a balanced diet
 plenty of clean and safe drinking water and
other fluids but not alcoholic drinks
HEALTH NEEDS
 undergoing regular medical check-ups at
antenatal clinics
 taking regular baths and wearing clean clothes
 not smoking or taking of drugs without
prescription by a medical doctor
PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS
 love
 care
 understanding from all people around her
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
 proper attire such as loose clothes and flat
shoes
 regular moderate physical exercises
CARE FOR THE BABY
Caring for the baby involves:
 following good feeding habits
 the provision of complementary feeding at the
appropriate age of the baby
 weighing the baby to monitor growth and
development at a clinic or health centre
 immunisation against diseases such as polio,
tuberculosis (TB) and measles
 provision of vitamin A and deworming tablets
 diagnosis and treatment of infections
 regular baths and wearing of clean clothes
 adequate sleep
THE COMMON DISEASES OF CHILDREN AND THEIR
EFFECTS COMMON DISEASES OF CHILDREN
 whooping cough
 tetanus
 TB
 malaria
 diphtheria
 polio
 measles
 diarrhoeal diseases such as dysentery

EFFECTS OF THE DISEASES IN CHILDREN

  paralysis and deformity of limbs in the case of
polio
 deafness in the case of measles
 dehydration in the case of diarrhoeal diseases
 pneumonia
 anaemia
 death resulting from any of these diseases

PREVENTION OF THE COMMON DISEASES OF

CHILDREN
 immunisation against polio, whooping cough,
TB, tetanus, diphtheria and measles
 following general rules of hygiene against
diarrhoeal diseases
 sleeping under a treated mosquito net to
prevent malaria

THE IMPORTANCE OF UNDER-FIVE CLINICS

 routine check-ups on the health of children
 routine monitoring of the weight of children
 giving advice on feeding, vaccination and
nutrition for both the mother and the baby
 administering BCG vaccine to prevent TB, DPT
vaccine to prevent diphtheria, whooping cough
 and tetanus, and other vaccines to prevent
polio and measles
 provision of vitamin A
 treatment of common infections

FAMILY PLANNING
Family planning is practicing some form of birth
control to space out births and limit the size of the
family.
SOME REASONS FOR FAMILY PLANNING
 it can improve the well-being of families
because couples can have fewer children who
can be provided with enough food, clothing and
schooling
 women can protect themselves from
unplanned pregnancies
 it helps to save the lives of children because
parents can properly take care of them
 it can help nations to develop because the
people's economic situation improves greatly
in countries where women have fewer children
FAMILY PLANNING METHODS
 natural methods
 use of condom
 use of contraceptive pill
 Vasectomy
  Spermicides
 The diaphragm
 Intra-uterine device (IUD)
 Tubal ligation (TL)
 Norplant implants

NATURAL METHODS
The natural methods of family planning depend on
knowing when ovulation occurs.

USE OF CONDOM
A male condom is worn on an erect penis before
sexual intercourse.
or
A female condom is inserted in the vagina before
sexual intercourse. This prevents sperm from
reaching the egg.
USE OF CONTRACEPTIVE PILL
Contraceptive pills are taken each day between
menstrual periods. The pills suppress ovulation and
so prevent conception.
VASECTOMY

This involves a surgical operation in which the

man’s sperm ducts are cut and the ends sealed or
tied.

SPERMICIDES
Spermicides are chemicals in the form of a cream,
gel or foam that are used to kill or immobilise
sperms.
THE DIAPHRAGM
This is a rubber disc that can be placed in the
vagina before sexual intercourse. It covers the
cervix and so prevents sperms from entering the
uterus.
INTRA-UTERINE DEVICE (IUD)

This is a small metal or plastic strip bent into a loop

or coil that is inserted in the uterus where it
prevents implantation of the embryo.

TUBAL LIGATION (TL)

This involves sterilising a woman by an operation in
which the oviducts are cut and tied.
This operation does not affect the ovaries, sexual
desire or menstruation, but sperms cannot reach
the egg.
The eggs that are released break down in the
upper part of the oviduct.
NORPLANT IMPLANTS
This is a set of six small plastic capsules that are
placed under the skin of a woman’s upper arm.

UNIT 10 SOLUTIONS AND

MIXTURES

MIXTURES
When two or more types of substances are put
together, a mixture can be formed. Mixtures can be
formed in a number of ways.
These include:
 mixing a liquid with another liquid
 mixing a solid with another solid
 mixing a solid and a liquid
 mixing a liquid and a gas
 mixing a gas and another gas

In some mixtures, the components can easily be

seen like a mixture of maize flour and water. Such
mixtures are called suspensions
In some mixtures, like salt and water, its
components cannot be recognised. Salt disappears
in water. The mixture appears as if it were one
substance. Such mixtures are called solutions.
When sugar is mixed with water and stirred, it
disappears in the water. The visible particles of
sugar break down into invisible particles. These
particles spread throughout the water producing a
clear solution. This process is called dissolving.
A substance that dissolves in another substance is
called a solute. A substance in which something
dissolves is called a solvent.
Substances that dissolve in water are said to be
soluble in water. Those that do not dissolve in
water are said to be insoluble in water.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF SOLUBILITY OF
SUBSTANCES IN WATER
 size of particles
 temperature
 stirring
 nature of substance
SEPARATION OF MIXTURES
Components that form mixtures can be separated
using different methods.
METHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURES
 handpicking
 winnowing
 sieving
 decanting
 filtration
 evaporation
 distillation
 magnetism

HANDPICKING
Large components in a mixture can be separated
by picking.
For example beans can easily be handpicked from
a mixture of beans and sand.
WINNOWING
This method is used to separate solid mixtures.
During winnowing the lighter solids are carried
away by sand. The heavier ones remain in the
winnower.

SIEVING
Solid mixtures can be separated using this method.
Smaller particles pass through the sieve while the
bigger ones remain behind. Solid particles can also
be separated from a liquid using this method.
For example tea leaves from tea.
DECANTING
When a liquid forms a clear boundary with another
liquid one liquid can be poured off leaving the
other liquid behind.
A mixture of water and paraffin or suspensions can
be separated using this method.

FILTRATION
Filtration is a method of separating a solid
substance from a liquid or a gas using a filter. The
liquid or gas passes through the filter while the
solid ones remain behind.
The substance that passes through a filter is called
a filtrate.
The substance that does not pass through a filter is
called a residue.

EVAPORATION
A solution is heated gently to evaporate the liquid
part and leave behind the solid part in the
container.
For example a solution of salt and water can be
separated using this method.

DISTILLATION
This is used to separate liquid mixtures with
components of different boiling points.
The liquid that boils first evaporates and its gas is
passed through a delivery tube via a condenser
where it is cooled and changed into a liquid again.
This liquid is then collected in the container as a
distillate, for example kachaso.

MAGNETISM
Magnetism can be used to separate magnetic
materials from non-magnetic ones.
The magnet attracts magnetic materials only from
the mixture leaving the non-magnetic ones behind.
For example iron particles cab be removed from
sand in this way.
UNIT 11 METHODS OF COOKING
Methods of cooking can be categorized into dry
and moist heat methods. Dry methods include
frying, baking and roasting.
Moist methods include boiling, steaming and
stewing.

BAKING METHOD
This is a method of cooking food using dry heat in
an oven or in a pot.
When baking using a pot, hot charcoal is placed on
top and underneath or hot sand is placed beneath
and hot charcoal on top.
Examples of the food that can be cooked using
baking method include scones, cakes,
chigumu/chikondamoyo, chimimina, biscuits,
pudding, fish and root vegetables.
ADVANTAGES OF BAKING FOOD
 food does not break up if cooked well
 no soluble nutrients are lost
 the food looks attractive
 flavour is improved

DISADVANTAGES OF BAKING FOOD

  uses a lot of fuel
 most baking ingredients are expensive
 needs careful attention
 not suitable for cooking food for the sick

ROASTING METHOD
Roasting is cooking food with a little oil or fat in an
oven or saucepan or without oil or fat over glowing
charcoal fire.

Examples of food that can be roasted include meat,

fish, green maize, potatoes and cassava.

ADVANTAGES OF ROASTING
 the food looks attractive
 a cheap method of cooking food
  only few soluble nutrients are lost
 the flavour of the food is improved

DISADVANTAGES OF ROASTING FOOD

 incorrect roasting can harden the inside
proteins
 roasting causes food to lose much of its
moisture
 not suitable for cooking food with a high
percentage of water like root vegetables
 does not make food tender
 the method demands more attention
 the food shrinks during roasting
 over-roasting burns or spoils the food

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN BAKING AND ROASTING

FOOD
 they are both dry methods of cooking food
 cooking can be done inside an oven or in a
saucepan over a fire
 in both methods cooked food is attractive
 the flavour of the food is improved
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BAKING AND ROASTING
FOOD
  oil in baking is used for greasing baking tins so
that the food does not stick to the tin whereas
oil in roasting is used to aid stewing
 ingredients in baking are more expensive than
in roasting

UNIT 12 TECHNOLOGIES FOR

CONSERVING THE ENVIRONMENT
MEANING OF ENVIRONMENT
The term 'environment' refers to the total
surrounding of living things. It includes land, soil,
water, air, vegetation, animals and buildings.

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT
The environment is vital for the survival of living
things.
All living things depend on the environment for
basic necessities such as food, shelter, air, warmth
and water.
For living things to survive, they need a sustainable
environment.
ACTIVITIES THAT CAN LEAD TO THE DESTRUCTION
OF THE ENVIRONMENT
 deforestation
  setting bushfires
 overgrazing
 poor land husbandry practices
 poor waste disposal
 excessive use of inorganic fertilisers,
herbicides and pesticides
 emissions of harmful gases
 poaching
 charcoal production
 use of inefficient energy stoves
 discharge of untreated sewage into water
bodies

EFFECTS OF DESTROYING THE ENVIRONMENT

 desertification
 erratic rains leading to droughts and floods
 global warming
 adverse change in weather and seasons
 outbreak of diseases such as cancer and
cholera
 low agricultural output leading to famine
 soil erosion
 scarcity of water
 decrease of animal population
 siltation
 loss of tourism
TECHNOLOGIES FOR CONSERVING THE
ENVIRONMENT
 solar driers
 solar cookers
 biogas
 fuel saving stoves
 compositing
 solar panels (photovoltaics)
 solar heaters
 A-frame
 paper recycling
 briquettes
 dam

MAKING A SOLAR HEATER/COOKER

Materials needed for making a solar hear or cooker
are:
 Two cardboard boxes, one slightly bigger than
the other
 One cardboard sheet for the lid. This must be
large enough to cover the top of the finished
heater
 One roll of aluminium foil
 Black paint or charcoal paste
 1 cup of glue
 A sheet of glass or transparent plastic paper
  A knife

UNIT 13 ELECTRICITY AND

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
There are many sources of electricity. These are
primary and secondary sources.
Primary sources produce electricity directly, that is,
by connecting a source to a load. Secondary
sources produce electricity through an
intermediary such as a generator.
Some of the sources of electricity are:
 wind power
 geo-thermal power
 hydro-power
 chemical energy
 thermocouple which is a junction of two
different metals
 solar energy

USES OF ELECTRICITY
 heating
 ironing
 cooking
  lighting
 cooling
 cleaning
 drying
 communication
 entertainment
 mixing things
 propelling machines
 air conditioning
 washing

Devices that use electricity must be part of a

complete circuit.
The symbols are used to represent parts of the
electric circuits such as cells, bulbs, switches, wires
or connectors and fuses.
The symbol for a cell has one long line
representing the positive terminal and the short
one for the negative terminal.

A cell

SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

A series circuit is constructed by connecting
components such that they lie along one
conducting path.

If an electric circuit has more than one conducting

path, it is called a parallel circuit.

A series circuit

a parallel circuit
A parallel circuit is better than a series circuit
because in a parallel circuit:
 the components can be controlled separately
 each component uses the total voltage from
the source

HOW BULBS GIVE LIGHT

A bulb gives light when, for example, it is
connected to a cell.
The electric current that flows in the electric circuit
causes the bulb to give light.
The electric current in the tungsten wire in the bulb
meets resistance which results in the production of
heat.
The tungsten wire glows and gives off light
because of the heat.

WAYS OF GENERATING ELECTRICITY USING

LOCALLY AVAILABLE RESOURCES
Electricity can be generated by using locally
available resources.
UNIT 14 FAMILY SIZE, INCOME
AND FOOD SUPPLY
FAMILY SIZE
Family size refers to the number of people in a
family. Some families are generally big while
others are small.

INCOME
This is the amount of money one gets regularly as
payment for work or from trading, sale of farm
produce or other forms of livelihood.
FOOD SUPPLY
This is the amount of food available for
consumption.
Food can be made available to a family by
producing their own or buying. This can ensure
food security at the household level.

RELATIONSHIP AMONG FAMILY SIZE, INCOME AND

FOOD SUPPLY
Family size determines the amount of food to be
available to family members for consumption.
The amount of food available to a family depends
on the amount of money available for buying food
or how much food the family can produce.

UNIT 15 LAUNDERING CLOTHES

AND BED LINEN
TYPES OF FABRICS
Fabrics from which clothes and bed linen are made
are classified into two main groups. These are
natural and synthetic fibres.

NATURAL FIBRES
These are made from plants, animals and minerals.
For example:
 plant fibres - cotton and linen
 animal fibres - wool, silk and leather
 mineral fibres - fibreglass, aluminium and
asbestos

SYNTHETIC FIBRES
These are fibres that are made by people.
Examples include polyester, nylon, rayon and
acetate. These are made from chemicals.

LAUNDERING CLOTHES AND BED LINEN

When laundering clothes and bed linen, the
following are required: water, soap, bleaches,
starch and stain removals.
Laundry equipment that can be used include pails,
basins, bathtubs, sinks, pegs, line on which clothes
can be dried, pressing iron, ironing table or ironing
board, mats, ironing stands, angers, ironing
blankets and sheets.

The main processes in laundry are sorting,

mending, soaking, washing, drying, pressing, airing
and storing.
It is important to sort out articles according to
colour, degree of dirt, types and uses of fabric.
UNIT 16 HIV AND AIDS
AIDS is a killer as well as a contagious disease.
AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome. The disease is caused by a virus called
HIV.
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus.
The virus destroys the immune system of the body
making it prone to different infections. The word
human means that the disease affects people only.

HIV TRANSMISSION
HIV can be transmitted in the following ways:
 unprotected sexual intercourse with an
infected person
  infected pregnant mother passing the virus to
the child during pregnancy, birth or
breastfeeding
 through blood transfusion when the donor is
infected
 transfer of the virus through the blood of an
infected person to an uninfected person
through sharing of skin cutting objects such as
razor blades and needles

COMMON INFECTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH HIV AND

AIDS
 TB
 meningitis
 cancer
 skin infections

HIV AND AIDS PREVENTION

HIV and AIDS can be prevented in the following
ways:
 abstinence from sex
 being faithful to one life-long uninfected sexual
partner
 using condoms correctly and consistently
during sexual intercourse
  avoiding having more than one sexual partner
 avoiding certain behaviours such as taking
intoxicating drugs and substances
 avoiding sharing skin cutting objects such as
razor blades and needles
 infected females should avoid getting pregnant
or should seek medication so that the virus is
not transmitted to the unborn child
 avoiding cultural practices that can lead to the
transmission of HIV such as chokolo and
kulowa kufa
HOW TO TAKE CARE OF PEOPLE LIVING WITH HIV
AND AIDS
A person with HIV and AIDS should have a
balanced diet that can help one to remain strong
and healthy.
The following should be avoided:
 processed foods
 foods containing preservatives, artificial
flavours or artificial colourants
 canned foods
 junk food
 alcoholic drinks
 smoking

People living with HIV and AIDS should be given

food such as the following:
  meat
 dairy products
 fish
 seafood
 cereals
 food containing fats and oils
 vegetables, garlic and onions

REFERENCES

Malawi Institute of Education (2009), Science &

Technology Teachers` Guide for standard 8,
Domasi Malawi Institute of Education (2009),
Science & Technology Learners Book for standard
8, Domasi