5 CM tiriuum modeling for repetitive lattice structures

Ahmed K Noor
George Washington University, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton VA

T h e status and some recent developments of continuum modeling for repetitive

lattice structures are summarized. Discussion focuses on a number of aspects
including definition of an effective substitute continuum; characterization of the
continuum model; and the different approaches for generating the properties of
the continuum, namely, the constitutive matrix, the matrix of mass densities, and
the matrix of thermal coefficients. Also, a simple approach is presented for
generating the analytic expressions a n d / o r numerical values of the continuum
properties. Sample numerical results are presented to demonstrate the effective-
ness of the continuum modeling approach. Future directions of research on
continuum modeling are identified. These include needed extensions and applica-
tions of continuum modeling as well as computational strategies and modeling
techniques.

CONTENTS transporting, and assembling in space, lattice structures have

1. Introduction attracted considerable attention for use in large-area space
2. Why Continuum Modeling? structures such as the space station, large space mirrors, anten-
3. Definition and Key Elements of a Substitute Continuum Model nas, multipurpose platforms, and power systems for supporting
3.1. Local deformations space operations. A main feature for many of the large-area
3.2. Ordinary versus micropolar continua lattice structures, such as those considered for space applica-
3.3. Characterization of the substitute continuum model tions, is the repetition of a basic pattern or configuration many
3.4. Comments on continuum models times. Different patterns and configurations for repetitive lattice
4. Development of Substitute Continuum Models for Stress Analysis structures are described in two monographs (Refs 20 and 60), as
and Free Vibration Problems well as in several articles in the recent Journal of Space Struc-
5. Comments on the Foregoing Approach for Developing Continuum tures initially published by Elsevier Applied Science Publishers
Models and currently published by Multiscience Pubhsliing Company,
6. Application of Continuum Models to Stability Problems England.
7. Numerical Studies
The state-of-the-art in the analysis, design and construction
7.1. Free vibration and bifurcation buckling of beamlike lattices
of lattice structures until 1976 is reviewed in two survey papers
7.2. Free vibrations of platelike lattice grids
(Refs 18 and 64). The currently used approaches for analyzing
8. Other Reported Applications of Continuum Modeling
large repetitive lattices can be grouped into four classes (see
8.1. Geometrically nonlinear problems of beamlike lattices with
pinjoints Table I), namely:
8.2. Beamlike lattices with material damping
8.3. Stress, free vibrations and buckling problems of beamlike (1) direct method,
lattices with rigid andflexiblejoints (2) discrete field methods,
8.4. Stress and free vibration problems of single-layer grids (3) periodic structure approaches,
8.5. Use of continuum models for system identification and control (4) substitute continuum approaches.
law design of lattice structures
9. Future Directions of Research on Continuum Modeling In the first approach {direct method) the structure is analyzed
9.1. Needed extensions and new applications as a system of discrete finite elements, and the methods of
9.2. Computational strategies and modeling techniques solving structural framework problems are applied. Since the
10. Concluding Remarks periodic nature of the structure is generally not utilized, the
References direct method has the obvious drawback of being computation-
ally expensive for large lattices. This is particularly true when a
buckling, a vibration, or nonlinear analysis is required. Reduc-
1. INTRODUCTION tion methods could be applied for buckling and nonlinear
Lattice structures have been used for many years in span- problems to alleviate this drawback (Refs 82-84).
ning large areas with few intermediate supports. These struc- The second approach (discrete field methods) takes ad-
tures can combine low cost with liglit weight and an esthetically vantage of the regularity of the structure and involves writing
pleasing appearance. Also, due to their ease of packaging, the equilibrium and compatibility equations at a typical joint of

Appl Mech Rev vol 41, no 7, July 1988 285 © Copyright 1988 American Society of Mechanical Engineers

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 286 Noor: Continuum modeling for repetitive lattice structures Appl Mech Rev vol 41, no. 7, July 1988

TABLE I. APPROACHES FOR ANALYZING REPETITIVE LATTICE STRUCTURES

Approach Drawbacks Possible remedial actions

Direct method: Computationally very Use of reduction methods
Structure analyzed as a expensive for large lattices for buckling and nonlinear
system of discrete finite problems (Refs 82 and 84)
elements

Discrete field methods: Development and solution

Equilibrium and com- can be substantial for complex
patibility equations are lattice configurations
written at a typical joint
Taylor series expansions
are used to develop
differential equations

Periodic structure approaches: Not efficient for complicated Combine with substitute
Substructuring, combined use configurations and/or for continuum approach
of finite elements, and transient response calculations
transfer matrix methods
Exact representation of Limited to beamlike lattices
stiffness of individual with simply supported ends or
members ring configuration with rigid
central mast

Substitute continuum approach Local deformation effects Include local deformation

not accounted for modes in the development
Ordinary continuum not suitable Use micropolar continua
for lattices with rigid joints

the lattice and either solving the resulting difference equations ing for large lattice structures. The present survey paper is an
directly, or using truncated Taylor series expansions to replace attempt to fill this void. Specifically, the objectives of this paper
the difference equations by differential equations (see, for exam- are:
ple, Refs 27, 92, and 96, and the three monographs, Refs 19, 28,
and 121). This approach works well for simple lattice configura- (a) to assess the effectiveness of the currently used ap-
tions, but becomes quite involved for lattices with complex proaches for continuum modeling;
geometry. (b) to present a simple and rational approach for develop-
The third group of methods, referred to as periodic structure ment of continuum models for large lattice structures:
approaches, are based on either: (1) the combined use of finite (c) to identify the future directions of research which have
elements and transfer matrix methods, which is efficient only high potential for realizing the advantages of continuum
for rotationally periodic (ie, cyclically symmetric) structures or modeling.
lattices with simple geometries (Refs 67, 123, and 124), or (2)
the exact representation of the stiffness of an individual mem-
The scope of the present survey includes thermoelastic stress
ber from which the analysis of beamlike lattices with simply
analysis, buckling, free vibration, and geometrically nonlinear
supported edges can be performed (Refs 4-6).
problems of large lattice structures. Beamlike and platelike
The fourth approach is based on using a smearing technique repetitive lattices with pin and rigid joints are considered.
to replace the actual lattice by a substitute continuum model Continuum modeling of lattices with flexible joints is also
that is equivalent to the original structure in some sense, such as discussed.
the constitutive relations, the strain energy, and/or kinetic
energy (see, for example, Refs 3, 22, 23, 29, 30, 33, 40, 41, 43,
44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 55, 58-61, 69-73, 75, 77-81, 83, 85, 88, 2. WHY CONTINUUM MODELING?
95, 98,100, 104, 105,108-111,113, 122,127, and 128). The use
of continuum models to simulate the behavior of planar lattice Before an assessment is made of the different approaches for
beams dates back to the previous century (see Ref 116, p 483). developing continuum models, the following three advantages
It has gained popularity only in recent years and has been of using the continuum modeling approach for analyzing repe-
applied to a variety of other discrete systems and phenomena titive lattice structures are identified:
including solid and liquid crystals, dislocations and defects,
composite materials and biological systems (see Refs 21, 62, 87, (1) It offers a practical and efficient approach for analyzing
106, and 115). large lattice structures. This is particularly true for
The number of publications on continuum modeling of beamlike and platelike lattices, wherein a dimensionality
. repetitive lattice structures has been steadily increasing. Despite reduction can result in a substantial reduction in the
the availability of some survey papers (for example, Ref 3) and number of degrees of freedom.
monographs (Refs 60 and 107), there is a need to broaden (2) Provides a simple means of comparing structural, ther-
awareness among practicing engineers and research workers of mal, and dynamic characteristics of lattices with differ-
the recent developments in various aspects of continuum model- ent configurations and assessing the sensitivity of their

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 Appl Mech Rev vol 41, no 7, July 1988 Noor: Continuum modeling for repetitive lattice structures 287

responses to variations in material and geometric proper- The last two characteristics are perhaps the most important
ties. in terms of recent developments, and are discussed in the next
(3) Provides an effective tool for parameter and system two sections.
identification, and for feedback control system design of
lattice structures. This is because in these situations only
the global behavior of the large lattice structure is of 3.1. Local deformations
interest, and the detailed deformation in each member is
The local deformations of two axially loaded planar trusses
not needed.
are shown in Fig 2. The first truss has double lacing and a
single-bay repeating cell. The second truss has single lacing and
It is interesting to note that in the precomputer and first- a double-bay repeating cell. The chord members of the first
generation computer eras an opposite path to continuum mod- truss remain straight as shown on the top sketch. On the other
eling was followed, namely, replacing small segments of the hand, the actual deformation of the single-laced truss has the
two- (and three-) dimensional continuum by discrete analogues zig-zag pattern shown on the top right sketch. On the average,
consisting of one-dimensional members (ie, repetitive lattices, however, the chord members remain straight. Early continuum
see, for example, Refs 50, 68, 74, 99, and 130). models averaged these deformations, thereby substantially over-
estimating the axial stiffness. Recent continuum models, for
lattices with more than one bay in their repeating cells, do
3, DEFINITION AND KEY ELEMENTS OF account for the local deformations (see Refs 77, 78 and 81).
A SUBSTITUTE CONTINUUM MODEL
A number of definitions have been given for the substitute
continuum model. Herein an effective continuum model is de- 3.2. Ordinary versus micropolar continua
fined as a continuum which has the following characteristics: A contrast between the ordinary and micropolar continua is
made in Fig 3. For an axially loaded, pin-jointed truss member
(1) the same amount of thermoelastic strain and kinetic the transverse motion is completely characterized by the joint
energies are stored in it as those of the original lattice displacements. The member rotation t|/ is related to the joint
structure when both are deformed identically; displacements w, and w-. Therefore, the appropriate continuum
(2) the temperature distribution, loading and boundary con- to use in modeling pin-jointed trusses is the ordinary continuum
ditions of the continuum simulate those of the original for which the displacement field completely characterizes the mo-
lattice structure; tion of the structure.
(3) for beamlike and platelike lattices the continuum models On the other hand, for a rigid-jointed member, the trans-
are one-dimensional beams and two-dimensional plates, verse motion is characterized by both the joint displacements w,
respectively (see Fig 1); and vv as well as the joint rotations #, and 0- which are
(4) local deformations are accounted for; independent degrees of freedom. Therefore, the appropriate
(5) lattices with pin joints are modeled as classical continua, continuum to use in modeling rigid-jointed flexural members is
and lattices with rigid (and/or flexible) joints are gener-
ally modeled as micropolar continua.

Double-laced lattice truss Single-laced Eallice trus:

Lattice structure and

actual deformation

Repealing cell and

strain state within
repeating cell

^m
Deformation
Beamlike lattices Continuum beam mode! predicted by classical
continuum (based on
uniform strain state
within repeating cell)

FIG. 2. Local deformations in planar lattice trusses subjected to

axial loading P.

Truss member (pin joints) Beam member {rigid joints)

Deformation i~- L -^:j "• L --• ~t
pattern
Double layered tetrahedral [Link] lattice

i L v
9p ~~^S$X j

Rotations
Continuum plate model V .i<w,».,
L 1 1 Bj,6- (joint, rotations)

Appropriate Ordinary Micropolar

continuum (displacement field only) (independent displacement
and rotation iseids)

Single-layer hexagonal grid

FIG. 3. Deformation patterns for pin-jointed and rigid-jointed

FIG. 1. Continuum models for beamlike and platelike lattice structures. one-dimensional members.

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 288 Noor: Continuum modeling for repetitive lattice structures Appl Mech Rev vol 41, no. 7, July 1 ygjj

one whose motion is characterized by both a displacement field include:

and an independent rotation field (referred to as microrotation
field). The micropolar continuum is such a continuum. (a) relating the force [Link] characteristics (or both)
of a small segment of the lattice to those of a small
segment of the continuum (Refs 42, 43, 45, 57-61, and
3.3. Characterization of the substitute continuum model 98);
The substitute continuum model is characterized by the (b) using the discrete field method to obtain the governing
thermoelastic constitutive relations and density parameters difference equations of the lattice and either solvino
which are determined in terms of the geometric and material them directly or converting them to approximate differ-
properties of the original lattice structure. The thermoelastic ential equations (Refs 24-26, 28, 91-94, 96, 102, 103,
constitutive relations and density parameters of the continuum 114, and 121);
can then be used to determine: (a) the thermoelastic strain and (c) applying homogenization techniques (based on using
kinetic energies; (b) the governing differential equations; and multiple-scale asymptotic expansion), see Refs 8, 9, 15,
possibly (c) equivalent discrete finite element models. and 66);
(d) using energy equivalence concepts; the potential and
kinetic energies of a typical (repeating) cell of the lattice
3.4. Comments on continuum models are equated to those of the continuum, after expanding
the nodal displacements of the lattice in a Taylor series.
The following two comments regarding continuum models
seem to be in order:
The latter approach was applied to a number of beamlike
and platelike lattices. Computerized symbolic manipulation was
1. For some lattices the substitute continuum models may
used to generate analytic expressions for the stiffness and
not have much resemblance to those commonly used in
density parameters of the continuum (see Refs 75-78, 80. and
engineering practice, and for complicated lattices the
81). More recently, an equivalent approach was proposed for
continuum models may be fairly complicated.
generating the properties of simplified one- and two-dimen-
2. The accuracy of the predictions of the continuum ap- sional continuum models of beamlike and platelike lattice
proximation increases with the increase in the number of trusses with pin joints, which does not require the use of
repeating cells (or modules) constituting the original lattice computerized symbolic manipulation (see Refs 85 and 86).
structure. Rather, numerical values of the stiffness coefficients and density
parameters are obtained by using a small FORTRAN program
on an IBM PC. The listing of this program is given in Ref 86.
4. DEVELOPMENT OF SUBSTITUTE CONTINUUM The approach has high potential for use with a variety of lattice
MODELS F O l STRESS ANALYSIS AND FREE configurations, and is outlined subsequently. The three key
VIBRATION PROBLEMS elements of the approach are:
A number of approaches have been proposed for developing
continuum models, and for determining the appropriate con- 1. introduction of kinematic and temperature assumptions
stitutive relations and density parameters. These approaches to reduce the dimensionality of the continuum;

For a typical (repeating) cell input

©Coordinates of nodes
• Direction cosines, connectivities, and
material properties of different members

Phase 1 » Express axial strain of each member in terms of three-dimensional

3-D continuum strains (strain components in the coordinate directions)
Continuum I Generate stiffness coefficients of three-dimensional continuum by
summing contributions from different members
FIG. 4. Steps involved in the ge
eration of the stiffness coefficients f
simplified one- and two-dimension
continuum models of beamlike at
Phase 2 9 Introduce kinematic assumptions platelike lattice structures.
1-or2-D © Identify strain parameters for one-(or two-) dimensional
Continuum continuum
© Generate stiffnesses of the one-(or two-) dimensional continuum
by using matrix transformations

Phase 3 © Partition strain vector into three subvectors of retained, neglected

Simplified strain parameters, and parameters for which associated stresses
1-or2-D are neglected
Continuum • Perform static condensation to obtain stiffness coefficients of
_J>ijTTpjjfjejJ_OjTg^^

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 Appl Mech Rev vol 41, no 7, July 1988 Noor: Continuum modeling for repetitive lattice structures 289

2. expansion of each of the nodal displacements, strain Phase 2—Generation of thermoelastic stiffnesses and density
components, and temperature in a Taylor series; parameters of the beam and plate continua
3. generation of three transformation matrices which relate
nodal displacements, axial strains and temperatures of Step 4. For beamlike and platelike lattices reduction in
individual members of the repeating cell to the displace- dimensionality is achieved by introducing kinematic and tem-
ments, strain and temperature parameters of the con- perature assumptions regarding the variation of the displace-
tinuum. ment components, strain components, and temperature in the
plane of the cross section (for beamlike lattices) or in the
thickness direction (for platelike lattices).
A schematic representation of the sequence of steps involved
The vectors of nodal displacements and strain components
in the generation of the stiffness coefficients for simplified one-
and the temperature of member k are expressed in terms of the
and two-dimensional continuum models is given in Fig 4. The
corresponding continuum parameters by means of transforma-
application of the procedure to thermoelastic stress and vibra-
tion matrices as follows:
tion analyses of lattices with pin joints consists of the three
major phases described in the following three sections:
(6)

Phase 1—Generation of the thermoelastic stiffnesses of a (7)

repeating cell
Step 1. A repeating cell (or module) is isolated from the T{k)=[Tjk>]{T}c, (8)
lattice grid. The axial strain, temperature, and consistent mass
matrix of a typical member, k, of the repeating element are where {u},., {«},., and {T)c are the vectors of displacement
given by eik\ T{k) and [m{k}], respectively. parameters, strain parameters, and temperature parameters used
Step 2. The axial strain z{k) of member k is expressed in in describing the beam (or plate ) continuum; (Tj*'], [F/**], and
terms of the vector of strain components in the coordinate [rf A ) ] are transformation matrices.
directions through the following matrix equation: Step 5. The stiffness matrix, matrix of density parameters,
and thermal load vector of the continuum are given by
Ak)
= [*<*>]{€}<*', (1)

where m , = ~ I (EAL)w[T^y[R^]'[Rn[Tt{k)], (9)

members

€
22
€
33
[M]C = - Z [ir]'[m<*>)[r<*>] (10)
l-}( (2) hers
members
Yl2
Yl3
1
E
( M c = o (aEALyk)[R^]'[T^]{T}c, (11)
members

[* ( A , ] = [/ 2 Im In (3)
where 0 is a characteristic geometric property of the repeating
cell (length of the repeating cell for beamlike lattices and
€ u , e22, and £33 are the axial strains in the coordinate direc-
planform of the repeating cell for platelike lattices).
tions; yu, yu, and y23 are the shearing strains; and (/, m, n)
are the direction cosines of the member.
For simplicity, in the present study the strain state is as-
sumed to be uniform within each repeating cell. Variation of the Phase 3—Generation of properties of simplified beam
strain state within the repeating cell can be accounted for by and plate continua
expanding {e} ( A ) in a Taylor series about the center of the
repeating cell. The number of terms in the Taylor series expan- Step 6. Simplified continuum models are obtained by parti-
sion is equal to the number of independent deformation modes tioning the displacement and strain parameters of the con-
of the repeating cell. tinuum as follows:
Step 3. The stiffness matrix and the thermal load vector of
the repeating cell are generated using the following equations:
(12)
w<.=
[K]= E (£4LW]'[*< (4)
members

{"}, (13)
{Pr = £ (aEAL) (A) [R ( *>]'r< (5)
members
where {« a } are the strain parameters to be retained in the
where E, A, L, and a are the elastic modulus, cross-sectional simplified model, {tc2} are the strain parameters associated
area, length, and coefficient of thermal expansion of member k, with the neglected stress resultants (or internal forces), {e c3 }
and superscript t denotes transposition. The thermoelastic stiff- are the strain parameters to be omitted, and { uA } and {uc2 }
nesses of the equivalent three-dimensional classical continuum are the displacement parameters associated with the retained
are obtained by dividing the right-hand sides of Eqs. (4) and (5) and neglected mass coefficients, respectively. The stiffness ma-
by the volume of the repeating cell. trix, matrix of density parameters, and thermal load vector of

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 290 Noor: Continuum modeling for repetitive lattice structures Appl Mech Rev vol 41, no. 7, July 1988

the continuum are partitioned accordingly: matrices [C], [m], and {Cr} numerically using the FOR.
TRAN program listed in Ref 86 on an IBM PC.
Kn Kn K
n 3. Higher-order continuum models can be obtained by using
*1,= Kn K23 (14) more strain and displacement parameters than {e(1} and
symtn K)3 { u d } . The additional parameters may be needed for the
accurate prediction of the detailed displacement and stress
Mn Mn distribution in the lattice.
[M]c = (15)
symtn M22 4. Similar procedures for generating the characteristics of
the continuum model are presented in Refs 29, 30, 70,
P-n) and 71. In the first two cited references the use of
{Pr}c = - P-ri)- (16) transformation matrices in developing the continuum
PTJ characteristics is discussed. In Refs 70 and 71 the thermo-
elastic stiffness coefficients of the continuum model are
The effective thermoelastic coefficients of the simplified con- obtained by applying the tensor transformation relations
tinuum models are obtained by deleting the rows and columns to the unidirectional stiffness and thermal coefficients of
associated with {«,..,} and by expressing {ec2} in terms of each of the individual members constituting the repeating
{c rf }(using static condensation). The resulting constitutive ma- cell. The three-dimensional continuum coefficients gener-
trix and thermal load vector have the following forms: ated are equal to the stiffness matrix and thermal load
vector [K] and {PT} of Eqs (4) and (5), each divided by
[C]=[Ku]-[Kl2][K22]-l[K21], (17) the volume of the repeating cell.
{CT} = {PT1} -[K^iK^y'iP^}. (18)
The density parameters of the simplified continuum are
obtained by neglecting the terms associated with {u t . 2 }, that is, 6. APPLICATION OF CONTINUUM MODELS TO
STABILITY PROBLEMS
M = [Mn (19)
The dominant criterion in the design of lightweight lattice
Step 7. The thermoelastic strain energy density of the con- trasses is the onset of elastic instability. For finely divided
tinuum can be written in the following form: lattice trusses the failure mode is usually that of general (sys-
£/(.= U0- Ux-U2, (20) tem) instabilily rather than local snap-through of a single joint
or member buckling. The approach presented in the preceding
where U0 is the isothermal strain energy density and Ul and U2 sections can be extended to the general (global) stability analy-
are the contributions to the strain energy of the linear and sis of lattice structures. This is accomplished by equating the
quadratic terms in the temperature parameters. The expressions potential energy due to initial stresses of the original lattice to
for U0 and Ux are that of the continuum, from which expressions for the geomet-
^ = iKi}'[C]{ecl}, ric stiffness coefficients of the continuum are obtained in terms
(21) of the geometric and elastic properties of the original lattice
structure. The procedure is outlined subsequently.
The expression for U2 is not presented herein since U2 is
inconsequential in the development of the properties of the 1. A repeating cell is isolated from the lattice grid. The
continuum models. geometric stiffness matrix of a typical member k of the
Step 8. The kinetic energy density of the continuum is given repeating cell referred to the coordinates of the repeating
by element is given by [G<k)].
2. The nodal displacements of member k are expressed in
® = *{«c-l}'['»]{« r f }, (22) terms of the continuum displacement parameters and
their derivatives with respect to the spatial coordinates by
where a dot refers to derivative with respect to time.
means of the following transformation:
The foregoing approach has been applied in Ref. 86 to the
development of continuum models for beamlike and platelike { « r = [riA,]{A},, (23)
lattice trusses with pin joints.
where { A }c is the vector ofjiisplacement parameters and
its spatial derivatives and [Tlk)] is a transformation ma-
trix. Equation (23) is obtained by expanding the nodal
5. COMMENTS ON THE FOREGOING APPROACH FOR displacements of member A: in a Taylor series about the
DEVELOPING CONTINUUM MODELS center of the repeating cell.
The following comments regarding the procedure for devel- 3. The geometric stiffness matrix of the continuum is given
oping continuum models seem to be in order: by

1. The selection of the strain parameters (e c l ), {« t . 2 }, and

[g], = (i/Q) I [ r ^ n ^ W ] . ^
members
{e f3 } can be based on a sensitivity analysis of the re-
sponse with respect to each of these parameters. 4. Simplified continuum models are obtained by partitioning
2. For simple lattice configurations, the constitutive matrix the vector {A} c and the matrix [g]c as follows:
[C], the matrix of density parameters [m], and the vector Aa
of thermal loads { CT } can be obtained in symbolic form (25)
We' Lc2j'
using a computerized symbolic manipulation language
such as MACSYMA. However, for more complicated #11 £l2
(26)
configurations, it is more convenient to generate the #21 822

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 Appl Mech Rev vol 41, no 7, July 1988 Noor: Continuum modeling for repetitive lattice structures 291

where { A d } and {A c2 } are the displacement parameters : Coupling terms neglected

associated with the retained and neglected geometric stiff- ! Coupling terms included

ness coefficients, respectively. The geometric stiffness

coefficients of the simplified continuum are given by
[g] = [&,]• (27)
Note that the foregoing continuum approach for stability
analysis assumes that the individual members of the lattice
remain straight and stable during buckling. Local member
instability and snap-through buckling of a single joint are
not predicted by the present theory. Applications of con-
tinuum modeling and finite difference calculus to the stabil-
ity problems of several lattice configurations are reported in
Refs 11-14, 26, 37, 54, 80, 81, 108, 119, and 127.
8 9 10
Mode nun b^r
a) Ten-bay Truss
7. SAMPLE NUMERICAL RESULTS
The effectiveness of using continuum models in simulating
the static, free vibration, and buckling responses of lattice type
structures has been demonstrated in several publications (see,
for example, Refs 13, 17, 60, 73, 77, 78, 80, 85, 96, 107, 113, and
128). Herein, sample results are presented for the free vibration
and buckling problems of beamlike and platelike lattices.

7.1. Free vibration and bifurcation buckling of beamlike lattices

The first set of results is for the free vibrations of the
orthogonal tetrahedral truss with pin joints shown in Fig 5. The
structure is a candidate for the primary truss support structure
for the space station. The continuum model for this structure is
a Timoshenko-type beam model whose elastic and dynamic Mode number
characteristics are given in Ref 81. b) Thirty-bay Truss
Because of the unsymmetry of the basic configuration, the
continuum model is anisotropic in the sense that both the FIG. 6. Accuracy of minimum frequencies from continuum beam
extensional and the shear effects, as well as the bending and models for the cantilevered beamlike lattice structure shown in Fig 5.
twisting effects, are coupled. For the sake of comparison, the
predictions of the Timoshenko type beam model are given
along with those of the continuum model in which all the
coupling stiffness and density parameters ere neglected. Figure
6 gives an indication of the accuracy of the lowest 10 frequen-
cies obtained by the two continuum models. As can be seen
from Fig 6, the predictions of the continuum models with the
coupling terms included are highly accurate. The maximum
error in the lowest 10 frequencies for the 10-bay truss is 4.73%.
E = 6.895x10 10 Pa
G = 2.652 x 1 0 1 0 Pa
p =2768 kg/m3
L = b = 0.75 m

FIG. 7. Vierendeel girder and its repeating cell (see Ref. 80).
Cross
section Length Designation
area

Longerons A L The error reduces to less than 1.5% when the number of bays
i
increases to 30. On the other hand, neglecting the coupling
Diagonals Ad d
terms results in overestimating the stiffness of the structure,
Battens A
b b thereby increasing the vibration frequencies and reducing the
maximum displacements. This effect is very pronounced for the
vibration frequencies associated with the higher modes. For the
b=L=5m 10-bay truss, when the coupling terms are neglected, the maxi-
A = 2.359x10~4m2 mum errors in the lowest 10 frequencies are over 65%.
The second set of results is for the bifurcation buckling of
P = 1743.8 kg/m3
axially-loaded spatial vierendeel girder with rigid joints shown
E = 2.482x10 Pa (longerons and battens) in Fig 7. The continuum model for this structure is a micropolar
= 2.557 x10 11
Pa (diagonals) beam whose stiffness characteristics are given in Ref 80. Figure
8 shows the lowest two bifurcation buckling modes of a 10-bay
FIG 5. Orthogonal tetrahedral beamlike lattice. lattice. The predictions of the micropolar beam model are given

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 292 Noor: Continuum modeling for repetitive lattice structures Appl Mech Rev vol 41, no. 7, July 1988

» " 3 x X ) = 1.330 Nnwtons (1.330) K>"3 x X 5 = 1.807 Newtons (1.823) > (1.248) Sy'r- >2 = 2.064(2.087)

FIG. 8. Buckling mode shapes lor the axially-loaded cantilevered

vierendeei girder shown in Fig 7 (number of bays = 10, numbers in
parentheses refer to exact buckling loads, and other numbers are
micropolar beam buckling loads).

,j 4 260 (4.249) 4 - ^ 768 (4.792)

,K4^

J 527 (5.573) = 6.303 (6.2981

FIG. 10. Vibration mode shapes for cantilevered hexahedral grid

shown in Fig 9. Numbers in parentheses are exact frequencies (//z);
other numbers are continuum plate frequencies.

\-
rrr—
A ; = 8 0 x 10 m . E - 7 1 7 x 1 0 " Pa L De S 1 g
"i

Ab = 50x10"6m2 T
—
A d -. 10 x 1 0 - 6 m 2 r
. ... I_i = 6.93 m
2
A v , , 0 » , 0 - 6 m „ t . 1 V P d - P v

L =7 5 m = 2768 k g - m 3
i i -1
l_2 = 8.5 m
h = 7.5 m

FIG. 9. Double-layered hexahedral platelike lattice truss and its

repeating cell (see Ref. 86).

along with those obtained by direct finite element analysis of

the actual lattice (shown between parentheses).
FIG. 11. Hexagonal grid (see Ref. 73).
7.2. Free vibrations of platelike lattice grids

The predictions of the continuum models for two classes of

platelike lattices are shown herein. The first is a cantilevered
hexahedral double-layered grid (see Fig 9). The second is a
simply-supported single-layer hexagonal mesh grid (see Fig 11).
The continuum models for both grids are taken to be shear-
flexible Reissner-Mindlin type plate models. The elastic and
dynamic characteristics of the two plate models are given in
Refs 86 and 73. ox.11. = (9.255) co. = (20.313)
11
9.377 Hz 20.436 Hz
An indication of the accuracy of the lowest six modes for the
double-layered grid are shown in Fig 10, and the lowest four
modes for the hexagonal mesh grid are shown in Fig 12. The
standard of comparison in each case is taken to be the vibration
frequencies obtained by the direct finite element solutions of
the actual grid. The maximum errors in the continuum model
predictions are well below 2%.

to =(25.916) : (36.966)
8. OTHEM REPORTED APPLICATIONS OF 21 25.710 Hz 22 37.152 Hz
CONTINUUM MODELING
FIG. 12. Vibration mode shapes for simply supported hexagons'
Among the reported applications of continuum modeling grid shown in Fig 11. Numbers in parentheses are exact frequencies
not discussed in the preceding sections are the following. (Hz); other numbers are continuum plate frequencies.

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 Appl Mech Rev vol 41, no 7, July 1988 Noor: Continuum modeling for repetitive lattice structures 293

8.1. Geometrically nonlinear problems of beamlike lattices 9.1. Needed extensions and new applications
with pinjoints
The needed extensions include incorporating effects of joint
In Refs 1 and 17 incremental stiffness matrix of the equiv- flexibility and damping into the continuum model.
alent continuum is used to account for the large-displacement The new applications include:
nonlinear effects in beamlike lattices. Applications of this ap-
proach are made to static, large deflection analysis, large-ampli- 1. random periodic structures (structures with random varia-
tude free vibration analysis, as well as buckling and postbuck- tions in material properties, geometric characteristics, or
ling analysis. periodicity),
2. nonlinear structural dynamics and wave propagation
problems,
8.2. Beamlike lattices with material damping
3. multidisciplinary optimization problems (eg, simulta-
Planar beamlike lattices with members having viscous damp- neous optimization of structures and control systems).
ing are modeled as continuum Timoshenko beams in Refs 2 and
112. The global damping characteristics are determined in terms
of the damping coefficients and dimensions of the truss mem- 9.2. Computational strategies and modeling techniques
bers. With regard to computational strategies and modeling tech-
niques, the following two areas appear to have high potential
for research:
8.3. Stress, free vibrations, and buckling problems of beamlike
lattices with rigid and iexible joints
(a) Hybrid modeling approaches include combination of
Micropolar continuum models are developed in Refs 11-14, either (1) continuum/repetitive structure approach for
53, 54, 79, and 80 for the static, free vibrations, and buckling handling lattice structures with arbitrary boundary con-
problems of planar- and spatial beamhke lattices with rigid ditions, or (2) continuum/discrete structure approach
joints. The study made in Ref 80 shows that ordinary shear- for specialized problems such as stress concentration.
flexible continuum beam models are found to be adequate for (b) Application of operator splitting/reduction technique for
predicting the global response characteristics of lattices which analyzing complicated continuum models. Operator split-
do not need to have rigid joints for their kinematic stability. An ting/reduction techniques are very effective techniques
exception to this is the case when very small diagonal members for generating the response of a complex structure (eg,
are used. The incorporation of joint flexibility in the continuum anisotropic continuum model) using large perturbations
model is discussed in Ref 97. from the response of a simpler structure (eg, correspond-
ing orthotropic model).

8.4. Stress and free vibration problems of single-layer grids Reduction techniques have been shown to be related to the
Finite-difference calculus has been extensively used in preconditioned conjugate gradient iterative method. The pre-
analyzing the stress, free vibrations, and buckling problems of conditioning matrix is taken to be the matrix of the simpler
planar and cylindrical gridworks (see, for example, Refs 31, 32, structure; and the preconditioned residuals provide sensitivity
35, 36, 65, 89, 90, 101, 117-120, 125, and 126). Ordinary information of the response with respect to the complicating
continuum plate models are developed in Refs 43 and 73 for factors (eg, anisotropy).
predicting the response of single-layered grids with rigid joints.
The transverse motion of the grids are predicted accurately by
these models. On the other hand, the accurate prediction of the 10. CONCLUDING REMARKS
in-plane motion of single-layer grids with rigid joints requires
The status and some recent developments in continuum
the use of micropolar continuum (see Refs 11-14, 34, 37-39,
modeling of large repetitive lattice structures are summarized.
53, 54, 56, 110, 118, 125, and 126).
Discussion focuses on a number of aspects including definition
of an effective substitute continuum, characterization of the
continuum model, and the different approaches for generating
8.5. Use of continuum models for system identification and
the constitutive matrix and the matrix of mass densities of the
control law design of lattice structures
continuum. Also, a simple approach is presented for generating
In view of the significant reduction in the number of struc- the continuum properties. The approach can be used in con-
tural parameters obtained by replacing the actual lattice struc- junction with computerized symbohc manipulation to generate
ture by a continuum model, a number of recent studies have analytic expressions for the continuum properties, or in a small
performed the control and/or system identification analysis to FORTRAN program to determine the numerical values of these
either the governing partial differential equations, or the sys- properties. Sample numerical results are presented to demon-
tems of ordinary differential equations resulting from discretiza- strate the effectiveness of the continuum modeling approach.
tions of the simple continuum model (see Refs 10, 16, 52, 63, The status of continuum modeling for repetitive lattice struc-
and 129). tures can be summarized in the following:

1. For pin-jointed beamlike and platelike lattices, effective

9. FUTURE DIRECTIONS OF HESEARCH ON
and verified ordinary continuum models exist for linear
CONTINUUM MODELING
thermoelastic stress and free vibration problems. Bifurca-
Continuum modeling is likely to play a significant role in the tion buckling loads associated with general instability
analysis, design, and control of large space structures, and for (global buckling modes) can also be predicted accurately
this to happen a number of extensions and computational by continuum models. Applications of continuum model-
strategies need to be developed. ing to nonlinear static and dynamic problems is limited.

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 294 Noor: Continuum modeling for repetitive lattice structures Appl Mech Rev vol 41, no. 7, July 1933

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Ahmed K Noor is Professor of Engineering and Applied Science.

He received his B.S. degree with honors from Cairo
(Egypt) in 1958, and his M, S. and Ph. D. from the Universitr
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1961 and 1963, respectivelr.
taught at Stanford University, Cairo University (Egypt), Univer-
sity of Baghdad (Iraq), and the University of New South Wales
(Australia) before joining George Washington University, He has
edited eight books and authored numerous papers in the fields of
structural mechanics, computational mechanics, and new comput-
ing systems. Currently, he is Associate Editor of lhe Journal of
Applied Mechanics and serves on the Editorial Board of several
intemationaljoumals, He is a Fellow of the American Socielyof
Mechanical Engineers, an Associate Fellow of the American
Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, a founding member of
the Intemational Association of Computational Mechanics, and a
member of several other professional societies. He served on a
number of committees of the National Research Council/National
Academy of Engineering including Large Space Systems, Compu'
tational Mechanics, and Aeronautical Technology in the Year
2000. He has been active in ASME for many years and served
as the chairman of the Committee on Computing in Applied
mechanics.

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