➢ COURSE: BOTANY 112: GENERAL BOTANY

➢ DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

• Email: cherono57@[Link]
• Phone: 0712698599
 Objectives

Purpose of the Course: To equip the students with adequate practical and theoretical
knowledge in botany
Expected learning outcomes: By the end of the course, the learner should be able to:

i. Recognize the general characteristics of the various divisions of the plant kingdom

ii. Describe the anatomy and morphology of gymnosperms and angiosperms

iii. Identify the different parts of a flower

iv. Explain briefly the life processes of plants including photosynthesis, respiration,
movement of materials; growth and differentiation.
Evaluation
Recommended Text Books

1. Bilgrami, K.S., Srivastava, L.M., and Shreemali, J.L. [Link] of Botany.

2nd Ed. Vikas Pub. Hse Pvt Ltd.

2. Gurrevitch, J. (2006). The ecology of Plants. Sinover Association publishers

3. Imgrowill, M (1992). Diversity and Evolution of Land Plant. Boca Raton., Florida.
Chapmann and Hall.

4. Kent, M. (2010). Advanced Biology. Oxford University press.

5. Koelling, C. (2016). Plant Anatomy, morphology and Physiology. Syrawood

Publishing House. ISBN-13: 9781682863268
 Class ◼ Definition of Botany

Outline ◼ History of Botany

PART I ◼ Scope of Botany
Introduction to Botany

What is Botany?
o Definition: The scientific study of plants, including their structure, growth,
reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, and evolutionary relationships.

o It is a branch of biology, the science which deals with living things, both plants
and animals. Biology in turn, may be considered as one of the natural sciences,
which deal with nature – in its broadest sense.

o Importance of Botany: Essential for agriculture, environmental conservation,

medicine, and understanding ecosystems.
Historical Overview of Botany
• Ancient Civilizations
o Egyptians: Use of plants for medicine and agriculture; records of plant use in hieroglyphics.
o Greeks: Aristotle’s classification of plants; Theophrastus's contributions as the "father of botany."
• Middle Ages
o Theophrastus's "Historia Plantarum" laid the groundwork for plant classification.
o Herbal medicine became prominent; monasteries preserved knowledge of medicinal plants.
• Renaissance and Enlightenment
o Advancements in plant anatomy with the invention of the microscope by Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek.
o Carl Linnaeus's system of binomial nomenclature (1753) standardized plant naming.
• 19th to 20th Century
o Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution influenced botanical studies.
o The rise of phytochemistry and plant physiology as distinct fields of study.
Key Figures in Botany
Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C.)
o Early classification of plants based on observable characteristics.
Theophrastus (371 – 287 B.C.)
o Wrote detailed descriptions of over 500 plants; considered the "father of botany.“
o His publication “Historia Plantarum” is of most interest to botanists, for here all
known plants were classified and named for the first time.
Pliny (AD 23 – 79)
o His publication, “Natural History” which was a compendium of facts and fancies
about living things and is a great storehouse of botanical information.
Carl Linnaeus (1st century B.C.)
o Developed a hierarchical system for classifying organisms; introduced the binomial
system of naming species.
Charles Darwin
o Influenced plant studies with his theory of natural selection.
Characteristics of living organisms

Definition of Living Organisms:

Organisms that exhibit life processes, including growth, reproduction, and response to stimuli.

Importance of Studying Characteristics:

Understanding what defines life helps in the study of biology and botany.

Cellular Organization
Key Point: All living organisms are composed of cells.
o Unicellular: Made up of a single cell (e.g., bacteria, yeast).
o Multicellular: Composed of multiple cells with specialized functions (e.g., plants,
animals).
Cont…Characteristics of living organisms
1. Growth and Development
Key Point: All living organisms both plants and animals grow and develop over time.
o Growth: Increase in size and mass. Usually accompanied by increase in numbers and size of cells due to cell
division and enlargement
o Development: Changes in the organism's structure and function over its lifecycle.
Examples: Germination of seeds, flowering in plants.

2. Reproduction
Key Point: Living organisms have the ability to reproduce.
o Asexual Reproduction: Offspring are produced from a single parent (e.g., budding in plants).
o Sexual Reproduction: Offspring are produced from the combination of genetic material from two parents (e.g.,
flowering plants).
3. Respiration – All living organisms respire continuously, taking in oxygen from the atmosphere and giving out carbon
dioxide. The oxygen taken up is used in the breakdown of organic matter to release energy stored up in the food
materials.
Cont…Characteristics of living organisms
4. Metabolism
Key Point: Living organisms undergo chemical reactions to maintain life.
o Anabolism: Building up of complex materials from simpler units (e.g., photosynthesis in
plants).
o Catabolism: Breaking down of complex materials into simpler units (e.g., respiration).

5. Nutrition – Living organisms require a regular supply of food materials for growth and energy
production which they take up from the environment as nutrients in the process of nutrition. Two
types of nutrition broadly known:
o autotrophic nutrition which involves uptake of simple element and compounds and
building up complex organic matter (e.g., photosynthesis) used by the organisms.
o heterotrophic nutrition (involves taking up complex food materials from the
environment).
Cont…Characteristics of living organisms
6. Responses to environmental stimuli/Homeostasis
Key Point: Living organisms maintain a stable internal environment.
o Definition: The process of self-regulation to maintain equilibrium (e.g.,
temperature, pH, light, gravity).
Examples:
o Water regulation in plants through transpiration.
o Nutrient uptake and distribution.

7. Cellular structure – All living organisms are composed of small structural units called
cells. Cells contain a complex semi-fluid living material known as protoplasm which is
composed of many organic and inorganic constituents, the nucleus and other cellular
organelles.
Cont…Characteristics of living organisms

8. Adaptation Through Evolution

Key Point: Living organisms evolve over time to adapt to their environment.
o Definition: Changes in traits over generations through natural selection.
Examples:
o Adaptations in plant species to different habitats (e.g., drought-resistant
plants).
 Distinction between Plants and Animals

Higher plants and animals are readily distinguished from one another by their possession of
definite organs (particularly the organs of locomotion, respiration, etc) for discharge of definite
functions. Difficulty is however experienced in the case of lower simple plants and animals.

The Fundamental Divide: Kingdom Plantae vs. Kingdom Animalia

Energy Production Structure & Mobility

Plants are nature's food factories, producing their own nutrients Plants remain anchored in place with rigid cell walls providing
through photosynthesis by harnessing sunlight. Animals, by structural support, while animals have evolved flexible bodies
contrast, must actively hunt, forage, or graze to obtain the energy and sophisticated muscular systems that enable them to move
they need to survive. freely through their environments.
Plant Cell Structure

Rectangular, organized cells with visible

chloroplasts (green), thick cell walls, and
prominent central vacuoles creating a structured
tissue pattern.

Animal Cell Structure

Irregular, flexible cells without chloroplasts,

featuring only cell membranes and multiple small
vacuoles with varying shapes and sizes.

[Link]
Energy and Nutrition: Autotrophs vs. Heterotrophs

Plants: Self-Sufficient Autotrophs Animals: Dependent Heterotrophs

Plants are the ultimate self-sustaining organisms, Animals cannot create their own food and must
synthesizing glucose from sunlight, carbon dioxide, consume plants, fungi, or other animals to obtain the
and water through photosynthesis. They store excess nutrients and energy they require. They store energy
energy as starch in roots, stems, and seeds for future efficiently as glycogen in liver and muscle tissues.
use.

Energy Storage: Plants convert glucose into starch for long-term storage, while animals use
glycogen, which can be broken down rapidly when energy is needed quickly for movement or
survival.

[Link]
General distinguishing features between Plants and Animals

▪ Regions of growth – Regions of growth are localized in plants, i.e. apical growth at
the root and stem apices, and intercalary (interior) growth, while in animals, growth
is not localized to any regions with all parts growing simultaneously.

▪ Unlimited growth – In plants growth proceeds until death while in animals' growth
tend to be limited after attaining some maximum size and characteristic form.
Animals tend to cease growing sometimes at old age before death.

▪ Chlorophyll – This photosynthetic green pigment is characteristic of plants except

fungi and some obligate plant parasites. It is absent in animal cells.
Cont… distinguishing features between Plants and Animals

▪ Cellular envelope – Plant cells are covered by cell wall which is absent in
animals. Animal cells are covered by plasma membrane which is also present in
plant cells.

▪ Mode of nutrition – While higher plants are autotrophic and therefore,

synthesize organic matter through photosynthesis, animals are generally
heterotrophic, feeding on already synthesized organic matter.

Plants in addition take up chemical nutrients (food) in solution form only while
animals ingest solid food.

▪ Movements – Higher plants grow fixed to the ground or attached to some support
or substratum and cannot move from one place to another, whereas animals move
freely.
 Class ◼ Definition of Botany

Outline ◼ History of Botany

PART I ◼ Scope of Botany
 Scope of Botany

Botany, the study of plants can be divided into several overlapping fields, all of which
have Zoological counterparts

1. Morphology – this is the study of form and structure of plants. It is usually

divided into;

➢ External morphology – which is the study of external forms and appearances of

the different organs of plants such as roots, stems, leaves, flowers, etc.
➢ Internal morphology – the study of the internal structure of plants
➢ Anatomy – Is the microscopic study of the internal organs of the plant body
➢ Histology – Is the detailed microscopic study of the internal organs of plant body
➢ Cytology – Is the minute study of the cell proper and has greatly developed in
recent years.
Scope of Botany

2. Palynology – the study of structure of pollen grains

3. Plant Physiology – Is the study of the processes occurring in plants and of the
functions of plant parts. Many plant physiologists now concern themselves chiefly
with the chemical processes occurring in plants; they might equally well be called
biochemists or plant biochemists

4. Plant Ecology – the study of the relation between plants and their environment.
Plant ecology may be divided into;

➢ Autecology – which deals with individual plants, usually emphasizing the effect of
the environment on the plant, rather than vice versa.
➢ Synecology – deals with plant communities including both the influence of the
environment on the community and the influence of the community on the
environment.
Scope of Botany

5. Plant geography – the study of the distribution of plants and plant communities,
which is in large a branch of synecology.

6. Genetics – Is the study of heredity. The principles of genetics are so similar in

plants and animals that there is no clear division between plant geneticists and
animal geneticists.

7. Plant pathology – Is the study of plant diseases, their causes, and cure.

8. Paleobotany – the study of plant fossils. Paleobotany may be considered to be a

branch of Paleontology, the study of fossils of all kinds, but the latter term
(paleontology) is frequently used to refer primarily to the study of animal fossils.
 Scope of Botany

9. Systematic Botany or Taxonomy – Is the study which deals with the classification, identification, and
arrangements of plants according to their relationship.

10. Pteridology – Is the study of ferns and fern-like plants

11. Bryology – Is the study of bryophytes (Mosses and Liverworts)

12. Mycology – Is the study of fungi

13. Phycology or Algology – Is the study of algae

14. Bacteriology – Is the study of bacteria

15. Economic Botany – the study of the economic importance of plants. This field is closely allied to
agriculture, the culture of plants and/or animals for food or other economic use. A very specialized type of
agriculture, in which plants are grown in tanks of water to which the necessary mineral nutrients have been
added, is called hydroponics
 A GENERAL SURVEY OF PLANT KINGDOM

◼ A. CRYPTOGAMS:
▪ Thallophyta
Class i. Bacteria
ii. Algae
Outline iii. Fungi
iv. Lichens
PART II ▪ Bryophyta
▪ Pteridophyta

◼ B. PHANEROGAMS (or SPERMATOPHYTA):

▪ Gymnospermae
▪ Angiospermae :

i. Dicotyledonae
ii. Monocotyledonae
General classification of the plant kingdom

(Seedless) (Seed bearing)

 Cryptogams: The "Hidden Reproducers"
▪ The term "cryptogam" derives from Greek words
meaning "hidden marriage," referring to their concealed
reproductive organs. Unlike flowering plants,
cryptogams reproduce through spores rather than seeds,
representing some of the earliest forms of plant life on
Earth.

▪ These are lower non-flowering plants, i.e. they do not

produce any flowers or seeds and reproduce their kind by
special unicellular bodies called spores.
[Link]
A. CRYPTOGAMIA

Cryptogams are flowerless or seedless more primitive lower plants.

1. Thallophyta – plant not forming embryos, which include Schizomycetes

(bacteria), Phycophyta (Algae), Mycophyta (Fungi), and Lichens.
2. Bryophyta – are plants without vascular tissues, and include Liverworts
and Mosses
3. Pteridophyta – are higher Cryptogams where the plant body is
differentiated into stem, roots and leaves and possess vascular bundles.
Key Characteristics of Thallophytes

They include the Bacteria, Algae, Fungi, and lichens.

1 2

Simple Thallus Body Spore Reproduction

The plant body is an undifferentiated thallus Reproduction occurs primarily through spores
that may be unicellular, colonial, or or fragmentation, with most species favoring
multicellular—but never organized into asexual methods for rapid colonization
complex organs

3 4

Unicellular Sex Organs Diverse Nutrition

Unlike higher plants, sex organs are single- Some are autotrophic like algae (making their
celled and completely lack protective jacket own food), while others like fungi are
layers around reproductive cells heterotrophic (absorbing nutrients) [Link]
 Classification of Thallophyta

Thallophytes are divided into major groups based on their nutritional mode, pigmentation, and cellular organization:

Algae Fungi Lichens Bacteria

Photosynthetic and Non-photosynthetic Unique symbiotic Sometimes classified as
autotrophic organisms heterotrophs that absorb partnerships between primitive thallophytes
containing chlorophyll, nutrients from dead or algae and fungi working due to their simple
found in aquatic living organic matter together as one organism cellular organization
environments

[Link]
 A. Bacteria (Kingdom MONERA)
i. BACTERIA (Kingdom MONERA)

▪ Bacteria display the lowest level of organization found in plants.

▪ The cells may be solitary or united in colonies (coenobia). They lack a true nucleus surrounded by a
nuclear membrane; and are thus called prokaryotes.

▪ Bacteria are omnipresent and they are found in soil, air, and water. They include both autotrophic and
heterotrophic types.

Bacteria are found in three major forms:

∙ Coccus – are spherical forms
∙ Bacillus – are rod-shaped
∙ Spirillum- are spiral ones
∙ Vibrio – are coma-like
 Nutrition in Bacteria
➢ Heterotrophic Bacteria: lack chloroplast and, therefore, most of them are unable to synthesize their
food and are dependent on other sources for their food. Heterotrophic bacteria may be;
a. Saprophytic – when they obtain food from dead organic matter
b. Parasitic – when they obtain their food from a living source
➢ Pathogenic bacteria: Those bacteria which are capable of causing diseases
➢ Autotrophic bacteria: Have the capacity to synthesize their food and are distinguished into two
groups:
a. Chemosynthetic bacteria – which obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic compounds like ammonia,
nitrate, etc. The energy thus obtained is used for the synthesis of carbohydrates in the presence of CO2
and water.
b. Photosynthetic bacteria – these include the purple sulfur bacteria and green-sulfur bacteria. These
bacteria are found in environments which have hydrogen sulphide and they are able to synthesize
carbohydrates by combining hydrogen sulphide and CO2 in the presence of light.
➢ Aerobic bacteria: The bacteria which need oxygen for their life, while those which can exist without
oxygen are called anaerobic bacteria.
Reproduction in Bacteria
i. Fission – This takes place when environmental conditions are favourable. In this case the bacterial
cell enlarges and the protoplasm divides in two equal segments by invagination of two grooves
from opposite sides. Subsequently the two protoplasmic segments separate and form two new cells .

ii. Asexual reproduction – this may take place by two methods;

a. By Conidia formation – this take place in filamentous bacteria like Actinomycetes. At the tip of
every filament small rounded conidia are produced in chains and each conidium is capable of
forming a new filament.

b. By endospore formation – Endospores are special type of reproductive bodies which are formed by
Bacilli alone. At the time of endospore formation the Bacillus enlarges and loses its flagella. The
protoplasm concentrates in the middle portion of the cell and subsequently develops a thick wall around
it which is known as endospore. Endospores are highly resistant to adverse conditions but germinate
into a new cell upon the return of favourable conditions.

iii. Sexual reproduction – this takes place in bacteria through conjugation, transformation, and
transduction.
Thank you for your
attention !
 2nd CLASS
26.11.2025
▪ CAT 1- 3rd December 10:30-11:45 am

Take away Assignment:

• Discuss the general characteristics of Lichens and algae: including their
nutrition and reproduction, classification, economic importance and
harmful effects- use that day 10th December submission on 17th
December

Group Discussion
• Discuss the general characteristics of pteridophyte, body structure, life
cycle, similarities with the other groups within the CRYPTOGAMIA-
Presentation 17th December
 FUNGI- Major Characteristics
▪ Fungi are found everywhere, with a majority being microscopic but some like the mushrooms and puff-balls are so big
that they can easily be seen by the naked eye.

▪ Like other thallophytes fungi also lack root, stem, and leaf.

▪ They are devoid of chlorophyll pigments, and therefore, are incapable to synthesize their own food.

▪ Their body may be single-celled (e.g. yeasts), or multicellular (Penicillium, Agaricus, etc).

▪ Due to absence of chlorophyll, they depend on other sources which may be either dead or living.

▪ Fungi may be divided into: [Link] (Saprobes) – these obtain their food from dead plant or animals

b. Parasites – those which obtain their food from a living source (host)

Common Examples:
Bread mold (Rhizopus) spreading across forgotten food
Edible mushrooms like button and portobello varieties
Yeast (Saccharomyces) essential for baking and brewing
Fungal Structure: Hyphae and Mycelium

Hyphae: Building Blocks

Most fungi are multicellular, composed of thread-like filaments called hyphae. These microscopic tubes grow at their tips, branching and
extending through their substrate.

Mycelium: The Network

Hyphae interweave to form a dense network called mycelium, the main vegetative body of the fungus. This underground web can span
underground web can span vast areas.

Chitin Cell Walls

Cell walls are made of chitin, the same tough material found in insect exoskeletons, providing structural support and protection.
protection.

Unicellular Yeasts
Yeasts break the mold as unicellular fungi that reproduce through budding, forming small daughter cells that separate from the parent.
from the parent.
[Link]
Key Characteristics of Fungi

1 2 3

Heterotrophic Nutrition Non-Motile and Non-Vascular Spore-Based Reproduction

Fungi must absorb nutrients from organic Unlike animals, fungi cannot move from place Fungi reproduce via microscopic spores
matter in their environment. They secrete from place to place. They lack vascular tissues spores produced through both sexual and
powerful enzymes that break down complex tissues like those in plants, relying instead on and asexual means, ensuring widespread
molecules externally before absorption. instead on diffusion for nutrient transport. widespread dispersal and genetic diversity.
transport. diversity.

4 5

Animal-Like Storage Complex Life Cycles

Fungi store energy as glycogen, the same carbohydrate used by animals, Many fungi exhibit alternation of generations, cycling between haploid
by animals, rather than starch like plants—highlighting their unique haploid and diploid phases, which increases adaptability to changing
unique evolutionary position. changing environments.

[Link]
Modes of Nutrition in Fungi
Fungi have evolved three primary nutritional strategies, each allowing them to exploit different ecological niches and form various relationships
with other organisms.

Saprophytic Fungi Parasitic Fungi Symbiotic Fungi

Nature's recyclers that feed on dead organic Living on hosts and extracting nutrients, often Mutualistic partnerships where both
organic matter. Examples include Penicillium nutrients, often causing harm. Puccinia causes organisms benefit. Lichens combine fungi
Penicillium (bread mold) and Aspergillus, causes rust disease in crops, while athlete's with algae, while mycorrhizae associate with
Aspergillus, breaking down fallen leaves, dead athlete's foot fungus affects human skin. plant roots, enhancing nutrient absorption.
leaves, dead wood, and organic waste. skin.
[Link]
Reproduction in Fungi

▪ Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually.

▪ Fragmentation, budding, sporangial formation, conidial formation, are among the

common asexual reproduction methods.

▪ In lower fungi, the reproductive cells may be motile and bear flagella.

▪ Fungi are distinguished into four classes;

i. Class: Phycomycetes
ii. Class: Ascomycetes
iii. Class: Basidiomycetes
iv. Class: Deuteromycetes

[Link]
Class 1: Phycomycetes

▪ These are called the lower fungi. Majority of these are aquatic, some are amphibious,
whereas others are terrestrial.

▪ Their somatic phase is either a unicellular thallus or a non-septate (coenocytic) mycelium.

▪ Asexual reproduction is either by sporangiospores or sometimes by conidia.

▪ The sporangispores are formed within a sac-like structure called sporangium, borne on specialized
structure called sporangiophore.

▪ In aquatic species, the sporangiospores are motile, hence called the zoospores.

▪ The zoospores are provided with one or two flagella for motility.

▪ The conidia are formed externally on morphologically differentiated hyphae called conidiophores

[Link]
Class 2: Ascomycetes

This class comprises both saprophytic and parasitic forms. The distinguishing
characters include;

➢ Septate mycelium with chitinous cell walls

➢ Production of sexual spores called ascospores inside sac-like bodies called asci (sing. Ascus).

➢ Generally, there are eight ascospores in each ascus.

➢ The asci are formed as a result of sexual reproduction and may have highly specialized
fructifications known as ascocarps.

➢ There is complete absence of motile cell in this class.

[Link]
Class 3: Basidiomycetes
▪ This is a class of fungi comprising both saprophytic and parasitic forms.

▪ Some of the serious plant parasites like rusts and smuts belong to basidiomycetes.

▪ The distinguishing characters of this class include;

➢ Septate mycelium
➢ Production of sexual spores called basidiospores outside a club-shaped
structure called a basidium.

▪ Usually, there are four basidiospores on each basidium. There is also a complete absence of
motile cells.

Class 4: Deuteromycetes
▪ This class comprises fungi reproducing exclusively by asexual means, usually by conidia.

▪ They are also referred to as “imperfect fungi” because of the lack of perfect or the sexual
stage.
[Link]
Economic Importance of Fungi
Fungi are related to both the useful and harmful activities to which man is directly concerned.

Useful Aspects
1. Direct utilization of fungi as food – Many Agaricales are directly used as food. Agaricus campestris is
edible mushrooms and cultivated for its fructifications. The fruiting bodies are quite fleshy and eaten directly
as vegetable or with rice as „pulao’.

2. Used as manure – Fungi with bacteria take part in the decay of organic plant and animal waste which is very
essential for removing debris from our environments, for supplying carbon dioxide necessary for photosynthesis
by green plants, and for providing humus, an important soil constituent for healthy plant growth.

3. Processing of food – A few species of Penicillium are being used in processing of food. Penicillium
camemberti is used in ripening of Camembert cheese and P. roueforti in ripening of Roquefort cheese.

4. Production of antibiotics – Penicillium is the source from which the antibiotic Penicillin is extracted.
Penicillin was first discovered in P. notatum Westling and for a time this was the species from which penicillin
was extracted. Later, P. Chrysogenum Thom was also found to be a good source of Penicillin.
[Link]
Economic Importance of Fungi

5. Beer and wine – Strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae are commonly used in the
manufacture of beer. Yeasts cause the characteristic changes in flavour.

6. Preparation of medicines – The famous drug, ergotine, used as a drug of obstetric purposes to
induce uterine contractions in cases of delayed childbirth; ergot is obtained from Claviceps
purpurea, the causal organism of plant disease, ergot of rye. Saccharomyces cerevisiae are
employed in the synthesis of yeast tablets, rich in vitamins

[Link]
Harmful Aspects
1. Plant pathogens – Various parasitic fungi act as causal organisms and infect hundreds of species and
varieties of plants of economic value. These diseases cause heavy losses to cultivated crop plants.

2. Decay of timber – Many species of polyporus and other Basidiomycetes cause damage and decay to
timber wood and sufficient losses are caused.

3. Destruction of paper industry – Many species of Basidiomycetets cause wood decay if suitable
environmental conditions prevail. Many fungi destroy paper of books and newspapers in moist condition.

4. Spoilage of food stuffs – Penicillium digitatum causes rotting of citrus fruits. Many fungi such as Mucor,
Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium, cause damage to milk and milk products. To avoid this damage to
the milk normal pasteurization is necessary before distribution to consumers. Mucor mucedo and
Aspergillus are responsible for bread spoilage.

5. Medical mycology – Several important human diseases are caused by different species of fungi.
Aspergillus fumigatus and A. glaucus are responsible for lung disease called „aspergillosis‟. The
dermatophytes are fungi which cause diseases of the skin of man. The diseases they cause are grouped
under the general term dermatomycoses and are commonly known as ringworm, athlete‟s foot etc. [Link]
 2. BRYOPHYTA

▪ Bryophyta is a Greek term (Bryon = moss, phyton = plant), used as a collective name for such lower
plants which have amphibious habitat.

▪ They are able to live on land as well as in water. The group, therefore, goes well with the name of
“amphibians of plant kingdom” owing to the amphibious habitat of these plants.

[Link]
General characteristics of Bryophytes

i. Habitat
The plants grow predominantly in amphibious habitat though some forms like Riccia, Reilla etc., are
aquatic. Some like Sphagnum grow in bogs (wet and soft grounds).Porella spp. can grow on rocks
and bark of trees and can withstand without water for several months.

ii. Structure
The plants show two morphologically distinct heteromorphic generations, i.e. gametophytic and
sporophytic generations. The gametophytic generation is the most dominant phase of life cycle and
in general the term „plant body‟ is used to represent this phase. The gametophytes are well
developed, green and autotrophic to which the sporophytes are attached and are physically and
physiologically (nutritionally) dependent.

[Link]
Bryophyte Structure: Simple but Specialized

Dominant Gametophyte No True Organs

The green, photosynthetic body is haploid (n) and represents the Bryophytes lack true roots, stems, and leaves. Instead, they possess
represents the primary life stage, distinguishing bryophytes from possess rhizoids—hair-like structures for anchorage and water
from vascular plants. water absorption.

Minimal Tissue Layers Variable Forms

Moss leaves are remarkably thin, often just one cell layer thick, Liverworts display flattened thallus forms, while some mosses like
thick, facilitating efficient gas exchange and light capture. mosses like Dawsonia can reach impressive heights up to 60 cm.
60 cm.

[Link]
Reproduction in Bryophytes

▪ The bryophytes reproduce both by vegetative and sexual methods.

Vegetative reproduction; is by special structures such as tubers, gemmae, etc.

In sexual reproduction, the male reproductive organ is called antheridium which produces the male
gametes called antherizoids.

The female reproductive organ, the archegonium produces the non-motile egg.

The reproductive organs (both male and female) are borne on the dorsal surface of the thallus in the
median groove.

[Link]
ALTERNATION OF GENERATION

▪ This refers to a situation where the plant passes through two successive generations –
gametophytic with haploid (n) chromosomes and sporophytic with diploid (2n) chromosomes-
to complete its life history.

▪ The sex organs (the antheridia and archegonia) develop on the gametophyte. These produce the
gametes which fuse (fertilization) to form a zygote. The zygote divides to form an embryo
which is not liberated but is retained within the archegonium where it develops into a
sporophyte.

▪ The sporophyte is physiologically and physically dependent on the gametophyte. The

sporophyte consists of a foot, seta, and capsule.

▪ In the capsule, spores are formed after meiosis. These spores (called meiospores), are all similar
in shape, size and ratio, and hence the plant is homosporous. The nonmotile spores germinate
directly into new gametophytic plants.

[Link]
[Link]
Classification of Bryophytes

The bryophytes are divided into three classes;

1. Class: Hepaticopsida – these include Merchantia and Riccia.

2. Class: Anthocerotopsida, e.g. Anthoceros.

3. Class: Bryopsida (Musci), e.g., Funaria, Moss, etc

[Link]
 Similarities between Bryophytes and Algae
Bryophytes resemble Algae in their structure and mode of life. They are probably more akin to green
Algae (Chlorophyceae) in the features listed in the box below:

1. The plant body is thalloid

2. Plants are autotrophic
3. Reserve food material is starch
4. Vascular tissues are absent
5. True roots are absent
6. Gametophyte is the dominant phase of the life cycle
7. Spermatozoids are motile and flagellated
8. Cell wall is made up of cellulose
The above similarities put Bryophytes near green Algae (Chlorophyceae)
[Link]
 Differences between Bryophytes and Algae

1. The Bryophytes are mostly terrestrial with preference to damp shady places, wheras the Algae are
mostly aquatic.

2. Asexual reproduction is completely absent in Byrophytes (but vegetative reproduction is sometimes

common). In algae, Asexual reproduction is the common method during which zoospores are formed.

3. In Bryophytes, sexual reproduction is invariably of Oogamous type; while in Algae, sexual

reproduction varies from Isogamy, Anisogamy, to Oogamous types.

4. In Bryophytes, the zygote germinates into sporophyte immediately after fertilization without being
liberated and undergoing any resting period. In algae, the zygospore is liberated and undergoes a resting
period.

5. The Byophytes exhibit sharply defined heteromorphic type of alternation of generation.

6. In Bryophytes, the sporophyte, though well developed is dependent physically and nutritionally on the
gametophyte. In Algae, the sporophyte constitutes the reduced and independent stage in the life cycle.
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Economic Importance of Bryophytes
1. Ecological Importance –A few bryophytes play an important role in checking the soil erosion. They are
capable of holding the soil by their extensive carpets, and prevent the soil erosion to
some extent.

2. Packing material – Most of the mosses are used as packing material after being dried. They make a fairly
good packing material in the case of glass ware and other fragile goods. Especially the dried peat mosses
(Sphagnum spp.) are used to pack bulbs, cuttings and seedlings for shipment.

3. Used in seed Beds - Since the peat mosses have remarkable power to absorb and hold water like sponge,
they are extensively used in seed beds and green houses to root cuttings. The peat mosses (Sphagna) are also
used to maintain high soil acidity required by certain plants.

4. As a source of Fuel – The peat is also potential source of coal. In colder parts of the world where peat
reaches its greatest development, the lower layers of peat become carbonized, and after he ages have passed,
to become available to human
kinds in the form of coal.
5. Absorbent Bandages – The Sphagnum plants are slightly antiseptic and possess superior absorptive
power. On account of these properties they may be used for filling absorbent bandages in place of cotton, in
hospitals [Link]
B. PHANEROGAMS (SPERMATOPHYTA)

The Phanerograms or Spermatophytes (or „seed‟ plants) are divided into two sub
divisions;

1. Gymnospermae – which are plants with naked seeds.

2. Angiospermae – which are closed seeded plants.

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1. GYMNOSPERMS
▪ Gymnosperms (Greek – gymnos = naked; sperma = seed) are those plants characterized by the possession of
naked ovules, i.e., the ovules are not enclosed inside the ovary of the carpel but are borne exposed on the leaf-
like megasporophylls.

General characteristics of Gymnosperms

▪ Habitat: The gymnosperms are found extending throughout the temperate, tropical and even in arctic zones.
Most of the gymnosperms are xerophytes.

The plant body

▪ (Adult sporophyte) – The gymnosperms are predominantly woody plants represented by trees, shrubs or rarely
climbers. The visible plants, that represent the sporophytic generation, are generally evergreen and of moderate
size.
▪ The plants possess tap roots. In some cases roots show symbiosis with fungi, e.g., mycorrhizal roots of Pinus.
The stems are erect, branched or unbranched and woody. The leaves of gymnosperms may be of one kind (i.e.
monomorphic) or of two kinds (i.e. dimorphic);
i. foliage leaves that are all invariably evergreen and may be simple or compound,
ii. Scale leaves that are minute and deciduous. [Link]
Reproduction in Gymnosperms

▪ In most gymnosperms, the reproductive organs are aggregated in the form of

compact cones (strobili).

▪ Cones may be either male (microsporangiate) or female (megasporangiate),

rarely bisporangiate.

▪ Male and female cones are homologous to male and female flowers that
bear microsporophylls (stamens) and megasporophylls (carpels).

▪ The male strobilus produces the pollen while the femalestrobilus produces
the ovules (eggs). The haploid cells represent the gametophytic generation.

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Reproduction in Gymnosperms

▪ The Gametophyte – The plants are heterosporous, i.e., they bear two types of spores. Gametophytic
(haploid) generation is much reduced.

▪ Fertilization takes place by the fusion of male and female nuclei resulting in the formation of zygote.

▪ The zygote develops into an embryo which is differentiated into root, stem and leaf.

▪ Since there is no closed ovary, true fruits like those of angiosperms are absent in gymnosperms.

▪ The developed seeds may remain dormant for sometime or may germinate immediately without
undergoing a period of rest. Seed coat ruptures, radicle grows downwards and develops primary tap root
while the plumule grows upright and develops into stem.

▪ Gymnosperms are closely related to higher cryptogams (pteridophytes) on the one hand and to the
angiosperms on the other, and thus they form an intermediate group between the two.

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 Similarities between Gymnosperms and higher Cryptogams (Pteridophytes)
1..Both groups show a regular alternation of generations with gradual reduction and loss of
independence of gametophyte from higher to gymnosperms, and gradual increase in the complexity of
the sporophyte
2. There is clear differentiation of the plant body into root, stem and leaves
3. They both have compound leaves and circinate veination
4. They have xylem of the vascular bundle with only tracheids (and no vessels except Gnetales) and
phloem without companion cells
5. There is gradual differentiation of sporophylls (micro- and mega-) and of spores – microspore and
megaspore (heterosporous condition) in the higher cryptogams leading to the complete differentiation of
the same in gymnosperms, and the segregation of the sporophylls from the vegetative region and their
arrangement in the form of cones (strobili)
6. There is development of ciliate spermatozoids in lower gymnosperms (Cycads), as in cryptogams
7. Formation of the suspensor in gymnosperms during the stages of embryo development, as in
Selaginella.
8. There is retention of the megaspore within the megasporangium (permanently in gymnosperms but
for a short period only in Selaginella) and the development of the archegonia in the female gametophyte
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Differences between Gymnosperms and higher Cryptogams (Pteridophytes)

[Link] are commonly large sized trees, shrubs, or climbers. Pteridophytes on the
contrary are relatively smaller in size and are more commonly hygroscopic

2. Gymnosperms have taproots whereas the roots of Pteridophytes are adventitious

3. Gymnosperms possess aerial stems, whereas the stems of Pteridophytes are mostly
underground

4. Excessive secondary growth occurs in higher gynosperms (Conifers). This is a distinct

anatomical advancement over Pteridophytes.

5. Seed formation is not common in Pteridophytes whereas in gymnosperms seeds are

produced.

[Link]
Similarities between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
Since both gymnosperms and angiosperms are seed-bearing plants, they have certain
striking resemblances and differences:
1. In both the dominant stage is represented by the sporophyte plant which is differentiated into root, stem
and leaves
2. Protection of the mature male and the female gametophytes and also the young developing sporophyte
from desiccation and injury by the presence of integuments – the protective covering of the ovules
3. Provision of the nourishment or the food supply to the growing embryo by the presence of endosperm
4. Freedom from external water for the transference of the male gametes or the spermatozoids to the female
gamete or the egg cell
5. Presence of pollen grains and pollen tubes
6. Presence of vascular cambium and the cork cambium in the root and stem leading to secondary growth or
increase in thickness duet to addition of secondary vascular tissues (secondary xylem and secondary
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phloem) and periderm formation

Differences between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

Besides the absence of ovary, style and stigma in the gymnosperms there are certain other characters by
which the gymnosperms can be differentiated from angiosperms:

1. Angiosperms after pollination the pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of the carpel while in
gymnosperms they directly reach ovule

2. The male and female gametophytes in angiosperms are much reduced

3. In gymnosperms the female gamete or the egg cell is enclosed inside the venter of the archegonium as in
Pteridophytes but in angiosperms archegonia are absent and the female gamete is present inside the embryo
sac.

4. In gymnosperms only a single fertilization is seen i.e., the fusion of the male gamete with the egg cell
while in angiosperm double fertilization is seen i.e., out of the two male gametes, one fertilizes the egg cell
to produce the embryo while the other fertilizes the secondary nucleus to produce the endosperm

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 Differences between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

5. In gymnosperms the endosperm is haploid (n) and a pre-fertilization structure while in the angiosperms it is
triploid (3n) and a post-fertilization structure

6. The xylem or wood of the gymnosperm lacks the presence of large xylem elements known as vessels
except in Gnetales and possess only the xylem tracheids. The angiosperm wood shows the presence of both
xylem vessels and tracheids

7. The phloem in gymnosperms lacks the presence of companion cells, while in angiosperms the companion
cells always accompany the sieve tube elements

8. In gymosperms the pollination is typically by wind (anemophilous pollination) while in angiosperms

besides anemophily, hydrophily, entomophily and zoophily are also found.

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2. ANGIOSPERMS
▪ The angiosperms are flowering closed seeded plants (angeion = case; sperma = seed). The
angiosperms are further divided into two classes;

a. Dicotyledonae
b. Monocotyledonae

▪ This division of angiosperm s into these two classes is based on the following characteristics:

1. In dicotyledons the embryo bears two cotyledons; whereas in monocotyledons it bears only one.

2. In dicotyledons the primary root persists and gives rise to the tap-root; while in
monocotyledons the primary root soon perishes and is replaced by a cluster of adventitious
(fibrous) roots.

3. Venation is reticulate in dicotyledons but parallel in monocotyledons.

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2. ANGIOSPERMS cont….

4. In dicotyledonous stem the vascular bundles are arranged in a ring and are collateral and open, i.e.,
they contain a strip of cambium which gives rise to secondary growth; while in the monocotyledonous
stem, the bundles are scattered in the ground tissue and are collateral and closed, and hence there is
no secondary growth.

5. In monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous and more or less oval; whereas in dicotyledons,
they are less numerous and wedge-shaped.

6. In the dicotyledonous root the number of xylem bundles varies from 2 to 6, seldom more, but in the
monocotyledonous root they are numerous, seldom a limited number (5 to 8).

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Thank you for your
attention !
Part III: GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF PHANEROGAMS
(GYMNOSPERMS AND ANGIOSPERMS)