C H A P T E R

7 Diffraction

7.1 INTRODUCTION
It is a matter of common experience that the path of light entering a dark room through a hole
in the window illuminated by sunlight is straight. Similarly, if an opaque obstacle is placed
in the path of light, a sharp shadow is cast on the screen, indicating thereby that light travels
in straight lines. But it has been observed that when a beam of light passes through a small
opening (a small circular hole or a narrow slit) it spreads to some extent into the region of
the geometrical shadow also. If light energy is propagated in the form of waves, then similar
to sound waves, one would expect bending of a beam of light round the edges of an opaque
obstacle or illumination of the geometrical shadow. Diffraction phenomena are part of our
  " 1            ¯ 
the sun rises behind it, the light streaks that one sees while looking at a strong source of light
with half shut eyes and the colored spectra (arranged in the form of a cross) that one sees
                    
compact disc etc are all examples of diffraction effects. Diffraction sets a limit to the image
formation ability of optical instruments.

7.2 DIFFRACTION
Diffraction phenomenon is a common characteristic of all kinds of waves. It is a matter of
common experience that sound waves readily bend around walls and buildings. When waves
pass near an obstacle (barrier), they tend to bend around the edges of the obstacle. The bending
of waves around an obstacle and deviation from a rectilinear path is called diffraction.
Dependence of the phenomenon on wavelength
Fig. 7.1 illustrates the passage of waves through an opening. When the opening is large
compared to the wavelength, the waves do not bend round the edges. When the opening is

l << d l=d
l >> d
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 7.1
173
174 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

small, the bending effect round the edges is noticeable. When the opening is very small (of
the order of one wavelength), the waves spread over the entire surface behind the opening.
The opening acts as an independent source of waves, which propagate in all directions. The
diffraction effect is observable quite close to the opening when the size of the opening is very
small. When the opening is large, diffraction effect is observed at greater distances from the
opening. In general diffraction of light waves become noticeable only when the size of the
obstacle is comparable to a wavelength of light.
Diffraction pattern
Diffraction of light waves is not readily apparent since light wavelength is very small compared
to any physical obstacle. If an opaque obstacle is placed in the path of light, a sharp shadow is
cast on the screen, giving the impression that light travels in straight lines. Similarly, the path
of light entering a dark room through a hole in the door is seen to be straight. Thus, rectilinear
propagation of light is apparent in day-to-day experience. However, careful experiments reveal
that light passing through a tiny opening such as slit or aperture produces alternate regions of
darkness and brightness beyond the region of geometric shadow. Such alternate bright and
dark bands are known as the diffraction pattern. The bright central portion is known as a
central maximum and it is bounded on either side by a series of secondary maxima separated
by dark bands, called minima; each successive bright band becomes less intense proceeding
outward and away from the central maximum. The presence
of the bright region clearly indicates that light has reached
there, showing thereby bending of light beam. The maxima
and minima are created by interference of diffracted light
waves. Diffraction phenomenon in optics is a fundamental
demonstration that light behaves like a wave. But the
diffraction pattern in the geometrical shadow of an obstacle
is not commonly observed because the light sources are not
point sources and secondly the obstacles used are of very Fig. 7.2
large size compared to the wavelength of light.
A simple way to observe diffraction
A simple way to observe diffraction of light is by holding our hand in front of a strong light
                  "
3                    
   " 1        !     >" ›"œ"
Appearance of maxima and minima is due to
interference of secondary wavelets
In general, diffraction occurs whenever a portion of a
wave front is obstructed in some way. The basic idea
that explains diffraction is based on Huygens theory. The
behaviour of light beyond the screen with an aperture
can be qualitatively explained with the aid of Huygens’
Principle. The portion of the wave front that is incident on
the opaque portion of the screen is obstructed while a small
portion of the wave front is allowed to pass through the
aperture (see Fig. 7.3). Every point on this portion of the
wave front acts as a center of spherical secondary wavelets.
Constructing the envelope of these secondary wavelets, we Fig. 7.3
Diffraction 175

                 
the aperture.
Fresnel fused the Huygens’ principle with the Young’s concept of interference of waves
and explained the occurrence of alternate bright and dark bands as due to the superposition
and interference of waves. The points on the primary wave front are mutually coherent and the
secondary waves emitted by them are therefore coherent (and are also of the same frequency
as that of the primary wave) and interfere.

7.3 DISTINCTION BETWEEN INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION

The main differences between interference and diffraction are as follows:
Interference Diffraction
1. Interference is the result of interaction of light 1. Diffraction is the result of interaction of light
coming from different wave fronts originating coming from different parts of the same wave
from the source. front.
œ" Interference fringes may or may not be of the œ" Diffraction fringes are not of the same width.
same width.
3. Regions of minimum intensity are perfectly 3. Points of minimum intensity are not perfectly
dark. dark.
4. All bright bands are of same intensity. 4. All bright bands are not of same intensity.

7.4 THE TWO TYPES OF DIFFRACTION

1              ² >    
Fraunhoffer diffraction.
1. Fresnel diffraction: In this type of diffraction, the source of light and the screen are
           †  >" ›"¡‰" —     
to make the rays parallel or convergent. The incident wave front is not planar. As a
result, the phase of secondary wavelets is not the same at all points in the plane of the
obstacle. The resultant amplitude at any point of the screen is obtained by the mutual
interference of secondary wavelets from different elements of unblocked portions of
wave front. It is experimentally simple but the analysis proves to be very complex.
Screen Slit Screen
Slit
P

(a) (b)

Fig. 7.4: Conditions for (a) Fresnel diffraction and (b) Fraunhoffer diffraction
œ" Fraunhoffer diffraction: In this type of diffraction, the source of light and the
             †  >" ›"¡‰" 1 
conditions required for Fraunhoffer diffraction are achieved using two convex
lenses, one to make the light from the source parallel and the other to focus the light
176 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

after diffraction on to the screen. The incident wave front as such is plane and the
secondary wavelets, which originate from the unblocked portions of the wave front,
are in the same phase at every point in the plane of the obstacle. The diffraction is
produced by the interference between parallel rays, which are brought into focus
with the help of a convex lens. This problem is simple to handle mathematically
because the rays are parallel.

7.5 FRAUNHOFFER DIFFRACTION AT A SINGLE SLIT

—       >" L2
7.5 to obtain Fraunhoffer diffraction by
   " 1    —1  —œ keep L1
A
the source and the screen effectively
  " 1      q
P
beam parallel while the second makes
B C
the screen to receive the parallel rays
     " —   
a single narrow slit AB of width d
Fig. 7.6:
perpendicular to the plane of the page.
—                O. According
to the considerations of geometrical optics, a sharp image of the slit is expected to form at
P in the focal plane of the lens. However, what we obtain on the screen is a slit image of
maximum brightness at the center, followed by the secondary maxima on the either side of
gradually decreasing intensities, with distance. This intensity distribution on the screen is
   >     " —          
unique distribution of intensity in the image of a single slit.
7.5.1 Formation of Maxima and Minima

O P

(a) (b)

Fig. 7.6: Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit (a) Conditions at the central maximum. The rays
parallel to axis come to focus at P giving a bright band. (b) Typical diffraction pattern consisting of
        

Fig. 7.6 shows a plane wave front (parallel rays) incident on the slit AB. A small part AB is
sliced off from the incident wave front. According to Huygens’ principle, each point on AB
acts as a source of secondary wavelets. It would then be appropriate to replace the wave front
AB with a string of point sources. As all points on AB are in phase, the point sources will
be coherent. Hence, light from one portion of the slit can interfere with light from another
portion and the resultant intensity on the screen will depend on the direction T. The secondary
wavelets travelling parallel to OP come to focus at P. The waves from points equidistant from
‘O’ and situated in the upper and lower halves OA and OB start in phase. They will travel the
same distance in reaching P. The optical path difference is therefore zero and the waves will
Diffraction 177

be in phase at P. They reinforce each Q

other to produce an intensity maximum
A
at P. It is at the centre of the diffraction q
pattern and is called zero order central d
maxima. 2
N q
For any other point like Q on O
l/2
P
the screen (Fig. 7.7), the light from d
different parts of the aperture travels 2

different distances and the difference l B l M

increases as we consider points at
increasing distance from P. The path Fig. 7.7:       
difference between the waves reaching pattern-Each point on the sliced portion AB of the
the points from different parts of the  
aperture increases gradually. that originate at points separated by
d/2 distance are 180° out of phase and interfere
Now consider the secondary waves destructively.
travelling in a direction making an
angle T with OP. These secondary waves are brought to focus by the lens at a point Q, which
will have a maximum or minimum intensity, depending on the path difference between the
waves arriving at Q from different points on the wave front AB. It is convenient to divide the
wave front AB into two halves AO and OB. A line AM is drawn perpendicular to the direction
of the diffracted rays. Waves ON and BM are in phase at the slit. Wave BM travels farther
than ON.
The path difference between these wavelets = ON = (d–œ‰ T.
If ON = O–œ             ®" 1   
for any two waves that originate at points separated by (d–œ‰      
from such points will be O–œ" >        =&     
point in the lower half OB. The path difference between the waves from these corresponding
points will be O–œ"    R
from the upper half AO interfere destruc-
tively with waves from the lower half
OB, if A
d λ q
sin θ = d/3
2 œ l q
i.e., sin T = O/d (7.1) d/3O 2

Therefore, the intensity at Q is zero l

d/3
and a dark band called the    
l
minimum is produced at Q. A similar B 3l
2
dark band occurs at Qc below P at an
Fig. 7.8:   
angular distance T governed by the diffraction pattern
equation (7.1). It is also called the  
order minimum. We may divide the slit into four parts, six parts and so on. Arguments similar
to the above show that a dark band occurs whenever
sin T ‘ œO/d, 3O/d, 4O/d, 5O/d, .... etc.
They are known as second order minimum, third order minimum, etc. In general minima
          ²
sin Tm = mO/d     †›"œ‰
where m ‘ ‡ œ • """"
178 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

More generally, the condition for minima may be expressed as

d sin T = ± m O †›"œ‰
In addition to the central maximum there are secondary maxima, which lie in between the
secondary minima on either side of the central maximum. These are located in a direction in
which the path difference ON is an odd multiple of O–œ"    
ON = d sin T ‘ †œm + 1)O–œ
In general the secondary maximum are given by
⎛ 2m + 1 ⎞ λ
sin Tm = ⎜ ⎟ condition for maxima (7.3)
⎝ d ⎠2
Thus, the diffraction pattern due to a single slit consists of a central bright maximum
+          "
7.5.2 Intensity Distribution in Diffraction Pattern Due to a Single Slit
—              d" —   
this slit width d is divided into N parallel strips of each of width 'x.
Each strip acts as a secondary source of radiation giving out wavelets leading to a
characteristic distribution of intensity at a point Q. The position of the point Q in the Fig. 7.7
     T" 1    ¯       'x sin T
The resultant of all the wavelets reaching Q can be estimated by integration.
—       ®        
y0 = A cos Z t
Amplitude of the wavelet from the width dx at A, when it reaches Q is (A dx).
2π 2π
Phase of this wavelet at Q = ωt + × OQ = ω t + × x sin θ
λ λ
where x is the distance of Q from O, the mid point of the slit.
The disturbance caused at Q by the wavelet is given by
⎡ 2π × sin θ ⎤
dy = A dx cos ⎢ωt + ⎥⎦
⎣ λ

The total disturbance at Q by all wavelets from the slit of width a is given by
+a/2 + a/2
⎡ 2π x sin θ ⎤
y = ∫ dy = ∫ A cos ⎢ω t +
⎣ λ ⎥ dx
⎦
−a / 2 − a/2

2π sin θ ⎡ 2π x sin θ ⎤
— = k. Therefore, cos ⎢ω t + ⎥ = cos(ω t + kx)
λ ⎣ λ ⎦
But cos(Zt + kx) = cos Zt · cos kx – sin Zt · sin kx
+a /2
? y = ∫ A[cos ω t ⋅ cos kx − sin ω t ⋅ sin kx ]dx
− a /2
+a/2 +a/2
y = ∫ A [ xos ω t ⋅ cos kx] dx − ∫ A [sin ω t ⋅ sin kx] dx
−a / 2 −a / 2
+a/2 +a/2
y = A cos Z t ∫ cos kx dx − A sin ω t ∫ sin kx dx
−a / 2 −a / 2
Diffraction 179

+a/2 +a/2
⎡ sin kx ⎤ ⎡ − cos kx ⎤
y = A cos ω t ⎢ ⎥ − A sin ω t ⎢ ⎥
⎣ k ⎦ −a / 2 ⎣ k ⎦ −a / 2

⎡ ⎛ ka ⎞ ⎛ ka ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ ka ⎞ ⎛ ka ⎞ ⎤
⎢ sin ⎜ 2 ⎟ + sin ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ cos ⎜ 2 ⎟ − cos ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥ + A sin ω t ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎥
y = A cos ω t ⎢
⎢ k ⎥ ⎢ k ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

⎡ ⎛ ka ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 2π ⋅ sin θ ⋅ a ⎞ ⎤
⎢ 2 sin ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ sin ⎜ 2λ
⎟⎥
⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥ = 2 A cos ωt ⎢ ⎝ ⎠⎥
y = A cos ω t
⎢ k ⎥ ⎢ 2π ⋅ sin θ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ λ ⎥⎦

⎡ ⎛ π a sin θ ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ πa sin θ ⎞ ⎤
⎢ sin ⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎢ sin ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥ cos ωt = ⎢ Aa ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥ cos ω t
y = ⎢A (7.4)
⎢ π sin θ ⎥ ⎢ π a sin θ ⎥
⎢⎣ λ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ λ ⎥⎦
or y = ATcos Z t
The quantity in brackets gives the amplitude AT of the resultant disturbance at Q.
For T = 0, AT = A0 = Aa.
⎡ ⎛ π a sin θ ⎞ ⎤
⎢ sin ⎜ λ
⎟⎥
⎝ ⎠ ⎥ cos ω t
y = A0 ⎢ (7.5)
⎢ π a sin θ ⎥
⎢⎣ λ ⎥⎦
π a sin θ
— D = .
λ
⎡ sin α ⎤
? y = AT cos Zt = A0 ⎢ ⎥ cos ω t
⎣ α ⎦
⎡ sin α ⎤
? AT = A0 ⎢ ⎥ (7.6)
⎣ α ⎦
Intensity distribution is given by 2
⎡ sin α ⎤
I = I0 ⎢ ⎥ (7.7)
⎣ α ⎦
where I0 is the intensity of principal maximum at T = 0. 2
⎛ sin α ⎞
Thus, the intensity at any point on the screen is proportional to ⎜ ⎟ . A phase
⎝ α ⎠
d  œS corresponds to a path difference of O" 1       œD is
given by 2π
œD = a sin θ (7.8)
λ
where a sin T is the path difference between the secondary waves from A and B (Fig. 7.5).
π
D= a sin θ (7.9)
λ
180 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

⎛ sin 2 α ⎞
Thus, the value of D depends on the angle of the diffraction T. The value of ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ for
⎝ α ⎠
   Õ         l
l
point under consideration. Fig. 7.9 represents max

the intensity distribution. It is a graph of

⎛ sin 2 α ⎞
⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎟ (along the Y-axis), as a function of
⎝ α ⎠
l2 l1 l1 l2
D   Õ †  Á ‰"
–3p –2p p p 2p 3p
9         
to the central band and its intensity is far
grater than that of any other maxima. The
intensity of the secondary maxima falls off
rapidly as one moves away from the centre.
Fig. 7.9
1          
  ‡–œœ       ‡–ˆ‡           " 1 
secondary maxima are too faint to be visible ordinarily.
7.5.3 Linear Width of the Principal Maximum
If x         Intensity
minimum from the center of the
principal maximum, then the width of
the central maximum is
W ‘ œx
If the lens L is very near to the slit
or the screen is far away from the lens,
and f is the focal length of the lens,
then OP = f is very large (Fig. 7.6a). As Slit width
a result, decreases
x
sin T =
f
Distance along screen
λ
6       T = Fig. 7.10:      
d     
x λ fλ
? = or x = (7.10)
f d d
Hence, the linear width of the central maximum is given by
œfλ
W ‘ œx = (7.11)
d
Note that when the slit width d >> O, we see on the screen uniform illumination in the
shape of the slit. As the slit width is reduced, the illumination starts to spread out and dark
bands become visible. Further, the width of the central maximum increases as the slit narrows,
as illustrated in Fig. 7.10.
1                    
by
Diffraction 181

3λ
sin T1 =
2d
x 3λ
Therefore, in this case =
f 2d
3fλ
and x= †›"‡œ‰
2d
Example 7.1: Š                       
either side of the central zero maximum is 4.4 mm as observed on a screen at a distance of 0.7
m. The wavelength of light used is 5890Å. Calculate the slit width.
f λ (0.7m) (5890 × 10−10 m)
Solution: The slit width, d = = = 0.09 mm
x 4.4 × 10−3 m
Example 7.2: Parallel light (5000 Å) is normally incident on a single slit. The central
maximum fans out at 30° on both sides of the direction of the incident light. Calculate the
slit width. For what width of the slit the central maximum would spread out to 90° from the
direction of the incident light?
Solution: In a Fraunhoffer diffraction pattern due to single slit of width a, the direction of
minima are given by
a sin T = ± m O m ‘ ‡ œ •É"
Therefore, the angular spread of the central maximum on either side of the incident light
is given by
sin T = O/a
Here T = 30° so that sin T = 0.5 and O = 5000 Å = 5 × 10–5 cm.
λ 5 × 10−5 cm
? a= = = 1 × 10–4 cm
sin θ 0.5

For T = 90°
λ 5 × 10−5 cm
? a= = 5 × 10–5 cm = 5000 Å
sin 90 1
Example 7.3: :           '            
formed in the Fraunhoffer diffraction pattern of a slit 0.3 mm wide (O = 5890Å).
Solution: In a single slit Fraunhoffer’s pattern, the directions T of the minima are given by
a sin T = ± m O m ‘ ‡œ•É"
>              m = 1.
 ? a sin T = O
λ 5890 × 10−8 cm
 sin T = = = 0.00196
a 0.03 cm
? T = 6°·7’
The angle of diffraction Tc             
central maximum is approximately given by
a sin Tc = 3O–œ"
3λ 3
? sin Tc = = × 0.00196 ‘ "œ‹¡
2a 2
Tc = 10c
182 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

7.6 FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION AT DOUBLE SLIT

Fig. 7.11

In Fig. 7.11(a), AB and CD are two rectangular slits parallel to one another and perpendicular
to the plane of the paper. The width of each slit (open portion) is a and the width of the
opaque portion is b" —       X|         
  "          =      " —  
        ÁÂ" &        
parallel to OP come to focus at P. Therefore, P corresponds to the position of the central bright
maximum.
In this case, the diffraction pattern has to be considered in two parts (i) the interference
phenomenon due to the secondary waves emanating from the corresponding points of the two
slits and (ii) the diffraction pattern due to the secondary waves from the two slits individually.
For calculating the positions of interference or maxima and minima, the angle is denoted as
Õ   Õ                 
direction of the incident light.
(i) Interference maxima and minima: —        
       Õ      "
9  Öle CAN (Fig. 7.11 b)
CN CN
sin T = =
AC a + b
or CN = (a + b) sin T
If this path difference, CN is equal to odd multiples of O–œ T gives the direction of
minima due to interference of the secondary waves from the two slits.
λ
? CN = (a + b) sin Tn = (2n + 1) (7.13)
2
Putting n ‘ ‡ œ •      Õ1 ՜ Õ3, etc, corresponding to the directions of
minima can be obtained.
From equation (7.13)
(2n + 1)λ
 Õn = (7.14)
2(a + b)
=              Õc such that the
path difference is even multiples of O–œ  Tc gives the direction of the maxima due to
interference of light waves emanating from the two slits.
λ
? CN = (a + b) sin Tcn = œn
œ
Diffraction 183

nλ
or sin Tcn = (7.15)
( a + b)
Putting n ‘ ‡ œ •   Tc1, Tcœ, Tc3 etc corresponding to the directions of the maxima can
be obtained.
From equation (7.14), we get
3λ
sin T1 =
2(a + b)
5λ
and sin Tœ =
2(a + b)
λ
? sin Tœ – sin T1 = (7.16)
( a + b)
λ
Similarly, it can be seen from eq. (7.15), that sin Tќ – sin TÑ1 = .
( a + b)
Thus, the angular separation between any two consecutive minima (or maxima) is equal
λ
to . The angular separation is inversely proportional to (a + b), the distance between
( a + b)
the two slits.
(ii) Diffraction maxima and Minima: —       
in a direction inclined at an angle T with the initial direction of the incident light. If the path
 6X  #  À         T will give the direction
of the diffraction minimum (Fig. 7.11 b). That is, the path difference between secondary
           †""  &  6‰  #  À" 8 
the wave front on AB to be made up of the two halves, the path difference between the
           #  À–œ" 1    c due to the
wave front incident on AB is zero. Similarly, for the same direction of the secondary waves,
the effect at Pc due to the wave front incident on the slit CD is also zero. In general,
a sin Tn = nO
l2/lq

Single-slit
Interference diffraction term
term

O
Distance along screen
(a) (b)

Fig. 7.12

Putting n ‘ ‡ œ •      T1, Tœ, T3 etc, corresponding to the directions of

diffraction minima can be obtained.
Intensity distribution due to the Fraunhoffer diffraction at two parallel slits is shown in
>" ›"‡œ †‰" 1       #        
184 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

dotted curve represents the diffraction maxima and minima. In the region originally occupied
by the central maximum of the single slit diffraction pattern, equally spaced interference
maxima and minima are observed. The intensity of the central interference maximum is four
times the intensity of the central maximum of the single slit diffraction pattern. The intensity
of other interference maxima on the two sides of the central maximum gradually decreases.
In the region of the secondary maxima due to diffraction at a single slit, equally spaced
interference maxima of low intensity are observed. A typical diffraction pattern obtained on
     >" ›"‡œ †‰"
7.6.1 Expression for Resultant Intensity
—                        T.
By Huygens’ principle, every point in the slits AB and CD sends out secondary wavelets in
all directions. From the theory of diffraction at a single slit, the resultant amplitude due to
wavelets diffracted from each slit in a direction T is
⎡ sin α ⎤
AT = A0 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ α ⎦
In the case of double slit, we have
interference of two waves of amplitude AT each,
2π
having a phase difference G = d sin θ . The
λ
resultant amplitude R is given by (see Fig. 7.13) Fig. 7.13
ONœ = OMœ + MNœ “ œ†=X‰†X|‰  |X—
2 2
⎡ A sin α ⎤ ⎡ A sin α ⎤ ⎡ A sin α ⎤ ⎡ A0 sin α ⎤
Rœ = ⎢ 0 ⎥ +⎢ 0 ⎥ + 2⎢ 0 ⎥⎢ ⎥ cos δ
⎣ α ⎦ ⎣ α ⎦ ⎣ α ⎦⎣ α ⎦
2 2
⎡ A sin α ⎤ ⎡ A0 sin α ⎤ ⎛ 2 δ ⎞
= 2⎢ 0
α ⎥ (1 + cos δ) = 2 ⎢ α ⎥ ⎜1 + 2 cos 2 − 1⎟
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎝ ⎠

2 sin 2 α δ
or Rœ = 4 A0 2
cos 2
α 2
sin 2 α δ sin 2 α
? I = 4I0 cos 2 = 4 I 0 cos 2 β (7.17)
α 2 α
where E = G–œ"
Thus, the resultant intensity at any point depends on two factors –
sin 2 α
(i) The factor I 0 is the same as that derived for a single slit Fraunhofer
α
diffraction. It represents the intensity variation in the diffraction pattern due to any
individual slit.
(ii) The factor cosœE gives the interference pattern due to waves overlapping from the
two slits.
The resultant intensity at any point on the screen is given by the product of these two
factors and will be zero when either of these factors is zero.
Diffraction 185

Maxima and minima:

⎛ sin 2 α ⎞
1. The diffraction term I 0 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ gives the central maximum in the direction T = 0
⎝ α ⎠
having alternate minima and secondary maxima of decreasing intensity on either
side.
The angular positions of minima are given by,
sin D = 0,
D = ± mS, m ‘ ‡œ•É""
π a sin θ
i.e. = ± mS
λ
mλ
or sin T = ± m ‘ ‡œ•É""   !"
a
The angular positions of secondary maxima approach to
3π 5π 7 π
D = ± ,± ,± , ..........
2 2 2
œ" &      † œE), the intensity will be maximum when
cosœE = 1.
i.e., cosœE = 1, where n ‘  ‡ œ •É""
π d sin θ
? = ± nS  when n = 0, T = 0. (7.18)
λ
Thus, the central maximum of interference pattern lies along the direction of incident
light. This is called the principal maximum of zero order. The central maximum of
diffraction pattern also lies along this direction. At this point all the waves arrive with the
same phase. Hence, the intensity of central 2
sin 
maximum is the highest. 2

The intensity will be maximum when
cosœE = 0
δ π =0 
i.e., = ± (2n + 1) –3 –2 – 2 3
œ 2 (a)
π d sin θ π
= ± (2n + 1)
2
? cos 
λ 2
λ
d sin T = ± (2n + 1) (7.19)
2
It can be shown that for small values of T, –2 – 0  2 
the maxima and minima are equally spaced. If (b)
a is kept constant and d is varied, the positions
of maxima and minima due to diffraction 2
sin  2
4A02 cos 
remain unchanged while those due to 
2

interference undergo a change. Fig. 7.14

represent the intensity distribution determined
⎛ sin 2 α ⎞ (c)
by the factor cosœE and I 0 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎟
⎝ α ⎠ Fig. 7.14
186 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

respectively. The resultant of these curves is shown in Fig. 7.14. The resultant is obtained by
             "
The entire pattern may be considered as consisting of interference fringes due to
interference of light from both the slits, their intensity is being modulated by the diffraction
occurring at individual slits.

7.7 DIFFRACTION DUE TO N-SLITS—DIFFRACTION GRATING

(NORMAL INCIDENCE)
—            |      a. The
separation between consecutive slits is d = a + b, where a is the width of the open portion
and b is the width of the opaque portion. Such a device consisting of a large number of
parallel slits of equal width and separated from one another by equal opaque spaces is called
a diffraction grating. The distance d        ¯     
grating period.
Rowland (1848-1901) produced transmission gratings by ruling extremely close,
equidistant and parallel lines on optically plane glass plates with a diamond point. The rulings
(diamond scratch) scatter light and are effectively opaque while the parts without ruling
transmit light and act as slits.
6                  
are reproduced from the original ruled gratings. The replica gratings are made by pouring a
thin layer of collodion solution over the surface of a ruled grating and the solution is allowed
 " 1            " 1    
the impression of the rulings of the original grating in the form of ridges. The ruled lines,
which scatter light, act as opaque spaces whereas the spaces between them which transmit
      " 1               
plane transmission grating. The number of lines on a plane transmission grating is of the
order of 6000 lines per cm.
7.8 PLANE DIFFRACTION GRATING - THEORY
M
M
A A Q
B a
C b a B M
b C N

P
q P

H K
L H N
N
( ) (b)
Fig. 7.15
—                   †>" ›"‡¢
‰          &68É" —         &6 
equal to a and opaque portion BC be equal to b. The distance (a + b) = d and is called the
grating constant or grating period" —          
O be incident normally on the grating surface. Then all the secondary waves travelling in the
same direction as that of the incident light will come to focus at the point P on the screen. The
             —" 1        
waves reinforce one another corresponds to the position of the central bright maximum.
Diffraction 187

Now let us consider the secondary waves travelling in a direction inclined at an angle T
with the direction of the incident light (Fig. 7.15 b). The waves travel different distances and
it is obvious that there is a path difference between the waves coming out from each slit and
bending at an angle T. These secondary waves come to focus at the point Q on the screen. The
intensity at Q will depend on the path difference between the secondary waves originating
from the corresponding points A and C of two neighbouring slits. In the Fig. 7.15 (b), AB = a
and BC = b. The path difference between the secondary waves starting from A and C is equal
to AC sin T.
But AC = AB + BC = a + b
Path difference = AC sin T
= (a + b) sin T
The point Q will be of maximum intensity if this path difference is equal to integral
multiples of O. It means that all the secondary waves originating from the corresponding
points of the neighbouring slits reinforce one another and the angle T gives the direction of
maximum intensity. In general
(a + b) sin Tm = mO †›"œ‰
where Tm is the direction of the mth principal maximum. If (a + b) sin T = O, we obtain
maximum intensity at Q. When (a + b) sin T ‘ œO, there will be again a maximum and so on.
6            ®        
and so on.
Similar maxima and minima are obtained on the other side of central maximum. Thus, on
each side of the central maximum at P, principal maxima and minimum intensity are observed
due to diffracted light. The position of mth minimum is given by
(a + b) sin Tm ‘ †œm + 1)O–œ" †›"œ‡‰
7.8.1 Intensity Distribution
When illuminated by a beam of monochromatic radiation, the system produces N wavelets at
sin α
an angle T, each of the amplitude AT = A0 . The phase difference between successive
α
2π d sin θ
wavelets is G = .
λ
The resultant amplitude can be expressed as
y = AT[cos Zt + cos(Zt + G) + cos(Zt “ œG) + ... + cos(Zt + NG)]
Expressing the amplitude terms as real parts of complex numbers, we have
jδ ⎡1 − e jN δ ⎤
y = ATejZt ⎢⎣1 + e + e2 jδ + ......⎥ = Aθ e jω t ⎢ jδ ⎥
⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 − e ⎥⎦
3                   ¯ "
jN δ
2 ⎡ (1 − e )(1 − e− jN δ ) ⎤ 2 ⎡1 − cos N δ ⎤
I = Aœ = Aθ ⎢ jδ − jδ ⎥ = Aθ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ (1 − e )(1 − e ) ⎥⎦ ⎣ 1 − cos δ ⎦

N ⎡ N πd sin θ ⎤
sin 2 δ sin 2 ⎢ ⎥⎦
2 2 = A2 ⎣ λ
= Aθ θ
δ ⎡ πd sin θ ⎤
sin 2 sin 2 ⎢
2 ⎣ λ ⎥⎦
188 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

⎡ N πd sin θ ⎤
sin 2 ⎢ ⎥⎦
⎛ sin 2 α ⎞ ⎣ λ
or I = I 0 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎟
⎝ α ⎠ sin 2 ⎡ πd sin θ ⎤
⎢⎣ λ ⎥⎦

⎛ sin 2 α ⎞ sin 2 N γ
or I = I 0 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎟ 2
†›"œœ‰
⎝ α ⎠ sin γ
π d sin θ
where J = .
λ
⎛ sin 2 α ⎞
The expression for intensity is a product of two terms. The term I 0 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎟ represents
⎝ α ⎠
sin 2 N γ
the intensity distribution due to a single slit diffraction. The second term represents
sin 2 γ
the distribution of intensity due to interference produced by waves from N equally spaced
point sources.
Principal Maxima
When sin J = 0, that is J = ± nS (n ‘  ‡ œ • """"‰
sin N γ
We have sin NJ = 0 and hence becomes indeterminate.
sin γ
&  —`  ` 
sin N γ
Lt = ±N
α → mπ sin γ
2
⎡ sin N γ ⎤ œ
Therefore, Lt ⎢ ⎥ =N
α → ± mπ ⎣ sin γ ⎦
⎛ sin 2 α ⎞ 2
7        #"†›"œœ‰   I = I 0 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎟
N , which is maximum.
⎝ α ⎠

Thus the resultant intensity of maxima is

⎛ sin 2 α ⎞ 2
I = I 0 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎟
N " †›"œ•‰
⎝ α ⎠
Fig. 7.16 shows the intensity distribution
determined by the factor
⎛ sin 2 α ⎞ sin 2 N γ
⎜⎜ 2 ⎟
⎟ and
⎝ α ⎠ sin 2 γ
respectively. The resultant of these curves is obtained
           
every point.
Fig. 7.16
Diffraction 189

As the maxima are very intense, they are called principal maxima" 9    
resultant intensity of any of the principal maxima in the diffraction pattern, we have to
⎛ sin 2 α ⎞
multiply the square of the number of the slits (Nœ) with the factor I 0 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ , which is the
intensity due to a single slit. ⎝ α ⎠
The direction of the principal maxima are given by sin J = 0, that is J = ± n S.
or d sin T = ± nO †›"œ¡‰
This equation is known as the grating equation.
If we put n = 0, we get T = 0. This is the direction in which waves from all slits arrive
in phase and produce a bright central image. This maxima is called the zero order principal
maxima. If we put n ‘ ‡ œ •""""             
principal maxima respectively. Therefore, the direction of occurrence of principal maxima is
given by
nλ nλ
sin Tn = =
d a+b
or sin Tn = nNO †›"œ¢‰
1
where N = is the number of ruled lines per unit width of the grating.
a+b

Minima
The intensity is zero when sin NJ = 0, or NJ = ± mS
N π d sin θ
or NJ = = ± mS
λ
or N · d sin T = ± mO †›"œˆ‰
Here, m can take all integral values except 0, N œN, 3N, etc because these values give the
positions of principal maxima. The positive and negative signs indicate that the minima of a
given order lie symmetrically on both the sides of the central principal maxima.
9    #"†›"œˆ‰  m = 0 gives principal maximum of zero order while m =
‡ œ •""""†N – 1) give the minima. Then m = N       " 1  
  !          †N – 1) minima. Similarly, it
can be shown that there are (N ¤ ‡‰          
maxima and so on. Between two such consecutive minima, the intensity has to be maximum,
and these maxima are known as secondary maxima. The secondary maxima are not visible
in the grating spectrum, as the number of slits is very large.
7.8.2 Missing of Orders
{                    
while the second order spectrum is missing. Such a situation arises when for a given angle
of diffraction T1 the path difference between the diffracted rays from the extreme ends of one
slit is equal to an integral multiple of O. Suppose the path difference is O. Then each slit can
be considered to be made up of two halves, and the path difference between the secondary
waves from the corresponding points in the two halves will be O–œ" 1       
interference.
Mathematically, we express this as
(a + b) sin T = nO †›"œ›‰
For single slit diffraction, the condition for minima is
a sin T = mO †›"œ³‰
190 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

9                   
     " Q #" †›"œˆ‰  †›"œ›‰   
a+b n
=
a m
a+b
i.e., n= m †›"œ‹‰
a
The above is the condition for the nth order spectrum to be absent.
If we wish to suppress the second order spectrum, then n ‘ œm ‘ œ†l m = 1).
a+b œm
Then, = =œ
a m
or a + b ‘ œa
a=b
Thus, if the width of each slit a is equal to the width b of the ruling, the second order
spectrum will be absent.
7.8.3 Maximum Number of Orders Possible
The grating equation d sin T = ± nO may be rewritten as
d sin θ sin θ
n= =
λ Nλ
The maximum value that T can take is 90° and hence the maximum possible value of sin
T is 1. It implies that
1
(n)max Ê (7.30)
Nλ
The above relation (7.30) gives the maximum number of orders that would be seen in the
spectrum produced by a plane transmission grating having N lines per unit width.
7.8.4 Determination of Wavelength of Light with a Plane Transmission
Grating
The wavelength of spectral lines can be determined using a diffraction grating and a
spectrometer. The slit of the collimator in the spectrometer is illuminated by an appropriate
   †      ‰     ¯      
are made
(i‰ 1          ¯     " 1    
Schuster’s method using a prism.
(ii‰ 1      ¯   normal incidence. To do this, the telescope is set in
line with the collimator such that direct image of the slit is obtained at the position
               " |    
collimator and the telescope are in the same line. The position of the telescope is
noted from the circular scale. Then the telescope is turned through 90º from this
position and clamped. In this position the axis of the telescope is perpendicular to the
    †  œ  >" ›"‡›‰" 1          
at the centre of the prism table such that the grating surface is obtained in the centre
        " 1          
collimator are incident at an angle 45º on the grating surface because the axis of
the collimator and the telescope are perpendicular to each other (step 3). The prism
table is now rotated through 45º in the proper direction so that the grating surface is
normal to the incident light faces the telescope (step 4). The prism table is clamped
in this position. The above steps are shown in Fig. 7.17.
Diffraction 191

Telescope Collimator
Collimator
Step 1
Step 4

Collimator
Telescope

Telescope Collimator

Step 5
Step 2

45° Collimator
pe Collimator
co
Telescope

les
Te
Step 6

Step 3
Fig. 7.17
(iii) On viewing through the telescope (step 5), the grating spectrum is observed (Fig.
›"‡³‰" 9       +        
sides. To measure T for a spectral line of a given order, the telescope is focused on,
       †  ˆ‰" 1           ¯ 
such that the line falls on the intersection of the cross-wires. Then the readings of
both the verniers are noted. Then the telescope is taken to the other side of the direct
            " 1  
              œT for that line. From this
the diffraction angle T is found. The procedure is repeated for higher orders.
R2 Second
V2 order
t
R1 Firser
V1 ord rd nd st st nd rd
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 order
Central
S Image Telescope
Collimator V1
Firs
Grating R1 ordetr
V2 S
ec
R1 ord ond
er
Fig. 7.18
(iv) Knowing the value of d(or N) and n, the wavelength O can be calculated from the
grating equation d  Õ ‘ nÀ"
If the source of light emits radiations of different wavelengths, then the grating disperses
                 " 1  
                  
and using the grating equation, the wavelength of the spectral lines can be calculated.
192 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

With a diffraction grating, the wavelength of the spectral line can be determined very
accurately. The method involves only the accurate measurement of the angles of diffraction.
As the angles are large they can be measured accurately with a properly calibrated
spectrometer. Further, as the method does not involve measurements of very small distances
†          ‰      À    "
7.8.5 Dispersive Power of Grating
Q                    
diffraction of any two neighbouring spectral lines to the difference in wavelength between the
    " 9                
change in wavelength. The diffraction of the nth order principal maximum for a wavelength,
O, is given by the equation
(a + b‰  Õ ‘ n À
Differentiating this equation with respect to T and O, we get
(a + b‰  Õ dT = n dÀ
dθ nN ′
or = (7.31)
dλ cos θ
From equ.(7.31) it is clear that the dispersive power of the grating dT/dO is (i) directly
proportional to the order of the spectrum, n (ii) directly proportional to the number of lines per
cm, N cand (iii) inversely proportional to cos T. Thus, the angular spacing of any two spectral
              " 7  
dispersion of the lines is more with a grating having a larger number of lines per cm. Thirdly,
the angular dispersion is a minimum when T = 0. If the value of T is not large, the value of
cos T         +        " 1    
that the angular dispersion of any two spectral lines is directly proportional to the difference
in wavelength of the spectral lines. A spectrum of this type is called a normal spectrum.
If the linear spacing of two spectral lines of wavelengths O and O + dO is dx in the focal
      ¯        
dx = f dT
where f       ¯ " 1      
dx dθ fnN ′
= f = †›"•œ‰
dλ d λ cos θ
fn N ′
or dx = ⋅ dλ
cos θ
The linear dispersion is useful in studying the photographs of a spectrum.
Example 7.4: A plane diffraction grating has the value of grating constant equal to 15 × 10-4
cm. Calculate the position of the third order maximum for O = 2.4 × 10–4. (R.G.P.V.-2007)

nλ 3 × 2.4 × 10−4 cm
Solution: sin Tn = = ‘ "¡œ›
d 15 × 10−4 cm
Hence, T3 = sin–1 †"¡œ›‰ ‘ 25.28°.
Example 7.5: A grating has 15 cm of the surface ruled with 6000 lines/cm. What is the
       >
Solution: Total rulings on grating surface, N = 15 cm × 6000 lines/cm = 9 × 104
Resolving power, R = m N = 1 × 9 × 104 = 9 × 104.
Diffraction 193

Example 7.6: In a grating spectrum, which spectral line in 4th order will overlap with 3rd
order line of 5491Å?
Solution: The grating equation is
(a + b) sin T = nO
If the n order of wavelength O1 (say) coincides with the (n + 1)th order of Oœ, then
th

(a + b) sin T = nO1 = (n + 1)Oœ.

Here n = 3, O1 = 5461Å, (n + 1) = 4, Oœ = ?
nλ1 3 × 5461 × 10−8 cm
? Oœ = = = 4096 × 10–8 cm = 4096Å.
n +1 4

7.9 RESOLVING POWER

3   ¯                   
             " 9  ¯       
we say that the details are not resolved by the eye. Optical instruments are used to assist the
     ¯   " 1           ¯ 
   ¯   resolution. The ability of an optical instrument to produce distinctly
      ¯             resolving power.
9               ¯    
¯     ¯        "
7.9.1 Rayleigh’s Criterion
The theory of optical instruments is based on the laws of geometrical
optics and rectilinear propagation of light. These laws are only approxi-
  " 3         ¯   
 ¯                
produces a diffraction pattern instead of a point image. This diffraction
pattern is a bright disc surrounded by alternate dark and bright rings (see l
1.22
Fig. 7.19). It is known as Airy’s disc" 9     ¯  D
close to each other, then two diffraction patterns are produced, which Fig. 7.19: Airy
                Disc
   †  >" ›"œ‰"
1             ¯   *  
       ¯
lying close to each other may be regarded as
separated if the central maximum of one falls
        †>" ›"œ‡
b). In other words, when the central bright
        
of the other, the two images are said to be
  †  >" ›"œ ‰" 1   #
to the condition that the distance between the
centers of the patterns shall be equal to the
radius of the central disc. This is called the
Rayleigh criterion for resolution and is also (a) (b) (c) (d)
known as Rayleigh’s limit of resolution.
†7 >" ›"œ‡‰" Fig. 7.20
194 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

C
C
AB A B

(a) (b)
A B

(c)
Fig. 7.21:        
Rayleigh criterion as seen in the third image at the top

7.10 RESOLVING POWER OF A PLANE TRANSMISSION GRATING

One of the important properties of a diffraction grating is its ability to resolve spectral lines,
       " 1            
in terms of the smallest wavelength interval (dO) that can be detected by it. It is given by O/dO
where O is the average of the two wavelengths and dO is their difference.
λ λ dθ
Resolving Power = = ⋅ (7.33)
dλ dθ dλ
dθ λ
—       and .
dλ dθ
The diffraction grating equation is
(a + b) sin T = mO.
Differentiating the above equation both sides, we get
(a + b) cos T · dT = m dO
dθ m
? = (7.34)
dλ (a + b) cos θ
where dT is the angle between the two diffracted beams whose difference in wavelength is dO.
The light diffracted from the grating enters the
¯             "
9          ¯ 
then width of the beam equals the diameter d of the A
¯   " 1          d
   ¯    
q d
λ l
dT =
d
Now d = AB cos T = l cos T where l is the C
length of the grating. q
B
Fig. 7.22
Diffraction 195

λ
? dT =
l cos θ
λ
or = l cos T
dθ

λ λ dθ
Resolving Power, R = = ⋅
dλ dθ dλ
m
= l cos θ ×
(a + b) cos θ
ml
=
( a + b)
= mN (7.35)
where N = l/(a + b) = number of rulings on the grating surface and m is the order of the
spectrum. Hence, the resolving power of a grating is given by the simple expression,
R.P. = mN
Example 7.7: The sodium yellow doublet has wavelengths 5890Å and 5896Å. What should be
the resolving power of a grating to resolve these lines?
Solution: Mean wavelength O ‘ †¢³‹ “ ¢³‹ˆ‰–œ ‘ ¢³‹•º"
Wavelength difference , dO = 5896 Å – 5890 Å = 6Å
Therefore, the resolving power R required for a grating to resolve these lines is given by
λ 5893
R= = = 982.
dλ 6
QUESTIONS
1. Explain clearly what is diffraction of light.
œ" 3               ª
3. Give the difference between interference and diffraction. (Calicut Univ.,2006)
4. Distinguish between Fresnel and Fraunhoffer class of diffractions.
(Amaravati Univ.,2003), (Calicut Univ.,2005, 2007)
5. What is the source of the colours seen on the surface of CDs (compact discs)?
6. Deduce the conditions for maxima and minima for diffraction at a single slit.
7. Describe and explain the nature of fringes obtained with the help of a single slit placed before a
parallel beam of monochromatic light. (R.G.P.V.-2007)
8. A narrow slit, illuminated by monochromatic light produces Fraunhoffer diffraction. Graphically
show the intensity distribution in the diffraction pattern. Write the expression for intensity
distribution.
9. What is diffraction and explain Fresnel’s and Fraunhofer diffraction? (Amaravati Univ.,2008)
10. Describe and explain the phenomenon of diffraction due to a straight edge. Determine the
position of maximum and minimum intensity. (Calicut Univ.,2005)
11. Discuss the Fraunhoffer diffraction at a single slit. Obtain the condition for principal maximum
and minimum. (Univ. of Pune, 2007), (C.S.V.T.U.,2005)
‡œ" Q                     
parallel beam of monochromatic light. (RGPV,2007), (C.S.V.T.U.,2006)