Grade 10

Chapter 01 LIFE PROCESSES

1.1 NUTRITION
Nutrition is the process of transfer of energy source from outside to the body
of living organisms, providing energy
"necessary for performing basic life processes like nutrition, respiration,
reproduction, etc.
Nutrients are the energy providing substances which are consumed by living
beings.
Autotrophic nutrition is the mode of nutrition performed by green plants;
some bacteria etc., for manufacturing their own food from inorganic sources,
i.e. CO, and water. These organisms are called autotrophs.
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants synthesise organic food as
carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight, chlorophyll, water, CO, and some
other raw materials.
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + energy
Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis, present in leaves of a plant. They
contain a green coloured pigment, chlorophyll that traps solar energy from the
Sun.
Heterotrophic Nutrition The heterotrophs cannot synthesise their own food,
but are dependent on the autotrophs for their nutrition. It can be of three
types a nutrition (e.g. Amoeba, humans), saprotrophic nutrition (fungi) and
parasitic nutrition (e.g. ticks, lice, leech).
Nutrition in Amoeba which is a unicellular omnivores and ingests food with the
help of pseudopodia. It lacks special organs for nutrition.
Nutrition in human beings involves the breakdown of complex substances
ingested from outside in the body by different parts of the alimentary canal.
Human digestive system consists of the alimentary canal, i.e. a tube-like
structure consisting of mouth, pharynx, oesphagous, stomach, small intestine
and large intestine and digestive juice.
Mouth is the first part of digestive system which helps in intake of food.
Tongue is a muscular organ which bears taste buds. It also helps in mixing the
chewed food with saliva. Teeth help in chewing of food. Mouth opens into
buccal cavity that further opens into pharynx.
Oesophagus or the food pipe helps in the transfer of food from mouth down
to the stomach by peristatic movement.
Stomach is a J-shaped organ which stores and partially digest the food entering
through the food pipe.
It is a site for partial digestion of proteins by pepsin enzyme.
The wall of the stomach is made up of three layers like; pepsin, HCl, and
mucous layer.
Intestine is the main organ of digestion and absorption. Small intestine is
longer in length compared to large intestine.
Small intestine, partially digest the food from stomach enters into small
intestine. Complete digestion of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrate takes place
in small intestine. It absorbs nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates,
fats, proteins) from the finger like projections called as VILLI. The waste
after absorption is sent to large intestine.
Anus is the end point of the alimentary canal from where the waste is removed
out from the body.
Digestive glands are the salivary, gastric, intestinal glands along with pancreas
and liver.
Salivary glands (in mouth) secrete saliva containing salivary amylase which
helps in the digestion of starch.
Gastric glands present in stomach secrete digestive juice containing pepsin, HCl
and mucus.
Intestinal glands present in the walls of the secrete intestinal juice containing
amylolytic, and lipolytic, proteolytic enzymes.
Liver is the largest gland of our body and it secretes bile juice for
emulsification of fats,
Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice containing trypsin, amylase and lipase
enzyme.
The process of digestion in all involves ingestion, i.e. intake of food by mouth,
digestion, absorption, i.e. passage of digested food from alimentary canal to
blood, assimilation, i.e. distribution of digested food to cells of the body and
egestion, i.e. the elimination of undigested food (waste) from the body.
Questions
1. Name the parts of the human digestive system where digestion of food
does not take place
2. Compare the function of the small intestine and the function of the large
intestine.
3. What is the Composition of gastric juice?
4. What is the function of the enzyme pepsin?
5. What would happen, if HCl is not secreted?
6. Hydrochloric acid is very acidic (pH-2), but does not erode the inner lining of
the stomach wall, Why?
7. Energy is required by an organism even during sleep, why?
8. Some organisms derive nutrition from plants or animals without killing
them. What are these organisms called? Give one example.
9. In an experiment, saliva is added to the test tube containing pieces of bread
(powdered). What will be the results?
[Link] the enzyme, ae initiates a protein digestion in infants.
[Link] does acidity problem occur?
[Link] is the primary requirement pancreatic enzymes to act?
[Link] the role of pancreas in digestion of food,
[Link] the movement of food all along the gut.
15.A patient in hospital had his gall bladder removed and needs a special diet.
Which nutrient free diet would be suitable for this patient?
[Link] do you mean by emulsification of fat?
[Link] is photosynthesis? Explain its mechanism,
[Link] the events occurring during the process of photosynthesis. Is it
essential that these steps take place one after the other immediately?
[Link] each of the following situations what happens to the rate of
photosynthesis?
(i) Cloudy days
(ii) No rainfall in the area
(iii) Good manuring in the area
[Link] green plants are kept separately in oxygen free containers, one in the
dark and other in the continuous light. Which one will live longer? Give
reasons.
[Link] a short note on different types of heterotrophic nutrition.
[Link] with the help of neat labelled diagrams the different steps involved
in the nutrition in Amoeba,
[Link] is small intestine in herbivores longer than in carnivores?
[Link] the function of the following in the symentary canal
i)Liver ii) Gallbladder (iii) pancreas
25. Name the organelle of plant cells in which photosynthesis occurs.
26. What is common for Cuscuta, ticks and leeches?
27. Why does absorption of digested food occur mainly in the small intestine?
30. Name the associated glands of human digestive system?
31. X is a wild animal which eats only the flesh of other animals, where as Y is a
domestic animals which feeds mainly on green grass.
I. What are animals like X called as?
II. What are animals like Y called as?
III. Which animal X or Y has a longer and smaller intestine? Why?
 1.2RESPIRATION
Respiration is the process by which food is oxidised to release energy at
cellular level. As a catabolic process, it causes biochamical oxidation of
nutrients such as glucose.
anerobic respiration is the complete breakdown of food in the presence of
oxygen. It releases large amount of energy in the form of ATP molecules.
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the energy currency of every cell
anaerobic respiration is incomplete breakdown of food occurring in the
absence of oxygen, releasing small amount of energy. It can be alcoholic
fermentation, i.e. sugar breaks into ethanol and CO2, or lactic acid
fermentation, i.e. sugar breaks into lactic acid.
Exchange of gases in plants, the energy produced in plants by respiration is
utilized in growth and life functions.
In leaves, exchange of gases occurs through diffusion of oxygen through
stomata into the cells of the leaf.
In roots, exchange of gases occurs by diffusion from air present in soil
particles to the roots.
In stems, exchange of gases occurs through small pores present in the
stems called lenticels.
Exchange of gases in animals may occur through their skin or through
specific respiratory organs. These organs have structures that increase the
surface area and are in contact with oxygen rich atmosphere.
In aquatic organisms, The rate of breathing is higher as compared to terrestrial
organisms as these organisms utilise oxygen dissolved in water which is
present in lesser amount compared to others. Respiration occurs through gills
and body surface.
In terrestrial organisms, organisms use atmospheric oxygen for respiration.
Human Respiratory System consists of a nose. larynx, trachea, lungs with
bronchi and bronchioles and alveoli.
nostrils and nasal passage initiate the process of respiration by breathing in
the air.
Larynx is located in neck and helps in the sound production.
Trachea, a non-collapsible air conducting tube, exhibits the presence of
incomplete rings of cartilages; which also helps keep it open.
Bronchi and bronchioles are the branches into which trachea further divides.
Bronchioles are formed by repeated branching of bronchi,
Alveoli are the functional units of lungs. These provide surface area for
gaseous exchange in humans.
Lungs are the primary organs for respiration, present in the thoracic cavity.
Ribs are 12 pairs of bones, helps in respiration by movement of intercoastal
muscles attached to them.
Diaphragm is a muscular partition between thorax and abdomen. It forms the
base of chest cavity and helps in breathing.
Gaseous Exchange in Humans Oxygen is absorbed via inhalation. Exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs between blood and alveoli. Carbon dioxide
is exhaled through lungs, i.e. exhalation and oxygen is assimilated in the body.
Haemoglobin is the pigment present in Red Blood Cells (RBCs) which takes up
the oxygen from the air in lungs and carries it to the tissues.

QUESTIONS –
1. Where does aerobic respiration occurs? How many molecules of ATP are
released during it?
2. In human begins, where does the gaseous exchange takes place?
3. What advantage over an aquatic organism does a terrestrial organism
have with regard to obtaining oxygen for respiration?
 4. What are the different ways in which glucose is oxidised to provide
energy in various organisms?
5. How lungs are designed in human beings to maximize the area, for
exchange of gases?
6. Why does the small and single-celled animals such as Amoeba, not
require any respiratory pigment?
7. Draw a flowchart to show the breakdown of glucose by various
pathways.
8. What is the logic behind the heavy breathing as we climb up a
mountain?
9. State the role of the following in human respiratory system.
(i) Nasal hair (ii) Diaphragm
(iii) Alveoli (iv) Nasal cavity
10.‘Aerobic respiration produces more ATP than anaerobic respiration’.
Justify this statement.
[Link] three points of difference between breathing and respiration.
[Link] the difference between respiration in plants and respiration in
animals.
[Link] is anaerobic respiration? Name two anaerobes.
[Link] do you find anaerobic respiration in animals?
[Link] does exchange of gases take place in fish?
[Link] the pigment that is present in the red blood cells.
[Link] many millions of Alveoli does each lung contain?
[Link] is the structural and functional unit of lungs?
[Link] two nostrils are separated by cartilaginous wall called ___________
[Link] is stomata? What is their role in respiration?

1.3TRANSPORTATION (CIRCULATION)
Transportation is the life process in which a substance (Made or absorbed) in
one part of the body of an organism is carried to other parts of its body.
Human circulatory system consists of blood, the heart and network of blood
vessels.
Blood is a specialised connective tissue consisting of plasma and formed
elements (i.e. RBC, WBC and platelets). It helps in the transport of nutrients,
gases, waste products, etc. It also regulates
body temperature and pH.
Heart is present between the lungs in the thoracic cavity slightly tilted to left.
Human heart-is four-chambered consisting of two auricles and two ventricles
each separated by septum to avoid the mixing up of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood.
Blood vessels associated with circulatory system include arteries, veins and
capillaries.
Arteries take oxygenated blood from the heart to various body Parts, they are
thick-walled and have no valves.
Veins transport deoxygenated blood from body tissues to the heart. they are
thin-walled with valves to prevent the backflow of blood.
Capillaries are thin, narrow tubes which connect arteries to veins, allowing
exchange of materials between blood and body cells.
Blood pressure (BP) is the force exerted by blood on the walls of a blood
vessel. It is measured by sphygmomanometer. The normal range of BP in
human body is 120/80 mm Hg.
Lymph is similar to plasma with less proteins. It carries digested and absorbed
fat from intestine and drains back excess fluid to blood.
Transportation in plants consists of two pathways using two different
conducting tissues.
Xylem transports water and minerals obtained from the soil.
Phloem transports food prepared from the leaves to other parts of plant, i.e.
translocation.
Transport of water occurs due to transpiration pull and root pressure.
Transpiration is the loss of water in the form of vapour from aerial parts of
plant. The pressure exerted by transpiration on the walls of xylem is called
transpiration pull. It causes upward movement of water and minerals.
Transport of food, the products of photosynthesis are transported from the
leaves to other parts by using energy derived from ATP.
Transport of food is done by TRANSLOCATION – is a process of translocation of
food from source (the place where food is prepared) to the sink (the place
where the prepared food is used)

QUESTIONS
1. What are the main components of blood?
2. Valves are present in between the auricles and ventricles of the heart.
Give reason.
3. Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in
mammals and birds?
4. What are the components of the transport system in highly organised
plants?
5. How are water and minerals transported in plants
6. Write any two differences between the transport of materials in Xylem
and Phloem?
7. How is food transported in plants?
8. Describe double circulation in human beings. Why is it necessary or what
are its importance?
9. How is lymph formed?
[Link] the functions of two upper chambers of human heart.
[Link] pulls up water through the xylem vessels in a plant?
[Link] the Significance of the root pressure.
[Link] are the walls of ventricles thicker than the walls of atria?
 [Link] one adaptation of plants that helps them to prevent excess loss of
water through stomata.
[Link] mechanism plays an important role in transportation of water in
plants?
(i) During daytime (ii) At night
[Link] of xylem and phloem, which one carries materials
(i) Upwards as well as downwards?
(ii) Only upward
[Link] the functions of blood.
[Link] birds and mammals, the left and right side of the heart are separated.
Give reasons.
[Link] three types of blood vessels. Give one important feature of each
[Link] and how does water enter continuously into the root xylem?
[Link] is translocation? Why is it essential for plants?
22.(i)Mention any two components of blood.
(ii)Trace the movement of oxygenated blood in the body.
(iii)Write the function of valves present in between atria and ventricles.
[Link] one structural difference between the composition of artery and
veins.
[Link] the flow of blood through the heart of human beings.
[Link] reasons:
(a) Ventricles have thicker muscular walls than atria.
(b) Transport system in plants is slow.
(c) Circulation of blood in aquatic vertebrates differs from that in
terrestrial vertebrates.
(d) During the daytime, water and minerals travel faster through xylem
as compared to the night.
(e) Veins have valves whereas arteries do not.
26. Blood is a fluid connective tissue. Explain.
27. Platelets help in clotting of blood at injured site.
28. Name a circulatory fluid in the human body other than blood. State its
functions. How does it differ from blood?

1.4EXCRETION
Excretion is a biological process by which an organism removes harmful
metabolic wastes from the body. In unicellular organisms, wastes are excreted
via diffusion through cell surface, while multicellular organisms have
developed specialised organs for the function of excretion.
Human excretory system includes a pair of kidneys, ureters, a urinary bladder
and a urethra. It removes nitrogenous waste products from the body.
Kidneys are primary organs of the excretory system
Nephrons are the structural and functional unit of kidneys.
Ureter are paired, thin, muscular tubes coming from each kidney which carry
urine to urinary bladder.
Urinary bladder is a muscular, pear-shaped bag where urine is temporarily
stored.
Urethra is a duct which transmits the urine stored in the bladder to the
exterior of the body. Formation of urine occurs to filter out waste products
from the blood. It involves three stages, i.e. ultrafiltration in glomerulus,
‘Selective reabsorption of useful substances like glucose, amino acids, etc., in
tubular part and tubular secretion, i.e. active secretion of ions, metabolites,
etc., from blood into urine.
Urine the end product of filtration process containing urea, uric acid,
ammonium salts and urochrome pigment (imparts yellow color to urine).
Removal of urine, Urine remains stored in the bladder until the pressure
expands too much and control the urge to urinate.
Formation of urine – The kidneys filter unwanted substances from the
blood and produce urine to excrete them. There are three main steps of
urine formation: glomerular filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.
These processes ensure that only waste and excess water are removed
from the body.
Kidney disorders occur when one or both kidneys stop functioning or
malfunctions.
Haemodialysis is the process used in case of kidney failures. It acts as an
artificial kidney and removes nitrogenous waste products from the body.
Excretion in plants occurs to remove the wastes produced by them.
Gaseous waste products are carbon dioxide during respiration and oxygen
during photosynthesis by stomata, cuticles and lenticels.
Liquid waste products are excess water, gum.i.e. degradation product of
internal tissues, resins, etc. there are excreted out through stomata.
Solid wastes products are stored waste substance in cell vacuoles and tissues
with dead cells. Plants get rid of them by dropping their leaves.
Some plant waste are useful products for human beings [Link] oils, gums
(used to make adhesives), resins, natural rubber (tyre industry) and tannin (for
leather treatment), etc.
Questions –
1. How do unicellular organisms perform excretion?
2. The structural and functional unit of kidney is __________
3. Describe the structure and functioning of nephron.
4. How is the amount of urine produced regulated?
5. What are the methods used by the plants to get rid of excretory
products?
6. Compare the functioning of alveoli in the lungs and nephrons in the
kidneys with respect to their structure and functioning.
7. What is the best long term solution for kidney failure?
8. Name the process used by single-celled organisms for taking in food,
exchange of gases or removal of wastes.
9. The left kidney is placed a little higher than the right kidney. Give
suitable reason for this statement.
[Link] two excretory products in plants other than oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
[Link] excretion. Write two vital functions of kidney.
[Link] the filtering unit of kidney and why is it called so?
[Link] where and how urine is produced?
[Link] excrete waste products from their body by various means. Justify
the above statement.
02. CONTROL AND COORDINATION
Control and coordination is the working together of various organs of a living
organisms in a systematic, controlled and efficient way to produce proper
response to various stimuli.
Coordination in humans is facilitated by the nervous system and hormones
secreted by endocrine gland.
Nervous system regulates voluntary and involuntary movements, collects and
processes outside information, helps in reasoning, thinking, etc., and controls
the reflex action occurring in our body.
Neurons are the structural and functional unit of nervous system, these are
the longest cell of the body. They consist of cell body, dendrites, axon and
nerve endings, Functionally, neurons can be sensory, motor and mixed.
Synapse is a small gap between neurons where nerve impulse passes from one
neuron to the next.
Reflex action is an automatic and rapid response to a stimuli that is controlled
through the spinal cord via relay neuron
Reflex arc is the pathway taken by a nerve impulse during a reflex action.

Central nervous system is comprised by the brain and spinal cord.

Brain is the main coordinating center of the body which enables an organism
to think and take decisions. Forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain are the three
parts of the brain.

Fore brain –
Cerebrum – all voluntary actions, like thinking, reasoning, problem solving,
memory, speech etc.
Hypothalamus – thirst feeling, satisfaction.
Mid brain – also called as mesencephalon
Plays an important role in visual and auditory functions.
Hind brain –
Cerebellum – helps with maintain of body balance and posture
Pons – regulates breathing and sleep wake cycle, and also influence motor
control
Medulla oblongata - controls essential autonomic functions like heart rate,
breathing, BP.
It also manages reflexes such as swallowing, coughing and vomiting.

Spinal cord is a long, tubular bundle of nervous tissue arising from medulla
oblongata and transmits neural signals between brain and body.
Peripheral nervous system consists of all the nerves, i.e the cranial, spinal and
visceral, connecting the central nervous system with different parts of the
body.
Coordination in plants occurs via electrochemical means which convey
information from one cell to another.
Sensitivity of plants refers to the ability of a plant to detect changes in water
content and responding by changing their shapes.
Plant movements occur in response to a stimuli, It can be of two types, i.e
tropic or nastic.
Tropic movements These movements of plants occur in the direction of
stimulus, 0.g. phototropism (stimulus-light), geotropism (stimulus-gravity),
hydrotropism hydrotropism (stimulus-water) and chemotropism
chemotropism (stimulus-chemicals).
Nastic movements These movements occur irrespective of direction of
stimulus, e.g. photonasty, thigmonasty, thermonasty and seismonasty,
In chemical coordination, a chemical compound (hormones) is released for
coordination.

Plant hormones are the chemical substances naturally produced in plants for
regulation of growth and development, responses, etc.
Auxins help in cell elongation (growth) and division,
Gibberellins help in stems and flower growth.
Cytokinins promote cell division and delay ageing of leaves.
Abscisic acid inhibits growth. Ethylene is a ripening hormone.
Animal hormones are chemical compounds or messengers, secreted in small
quantities by endocrine glands.
Endocrine glands are ductless glands which act at distant sites from target
organ. These include pituitary, thyroid, pancreas (mixed gland) adrenal gland
and the gonads.
Pituitary gland secretes growth hormone, thyroid gland secretes thyroxine,
pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon.
Hormonal disorders occurs when glands malfunction and hormone production
is affected.
Dwarfism occurs by hyposecretion of growth hormone.
Gigantism is caused by hypersecretion of growth hormone.
Diabetes reduced amount of insulin secretion by pancreas leads to high
(glucose) sugar level in blood.
Goiter is caused by the deficiency of iodine causing less secretion of the
thyroxine.
Feedback mechanism is the regulation of amount and the timing of hormonal
secretion
Questions
1. What happens at the synapse between two neurons?
2. what is the difference between a reflex action and walking.
3. What are plant hormones?
4. How is the movement of leaves of sensitive plant different from the
movement of a shoot towards light?
5. Which part of the brain maintains posture and equilibrium of the body?
6. Give an example of a plant hormone that promotes growth.
7. How do auxins promote the growth of a tendril around a support?
8. How do we detect the smell of an agarbatti (incense stick)?
9. What is the role of the brain in reflex action?
[Link] does chemical coordination take place in animals?
[Link] is it advise to use iodized salt in diet?
[Link] is the function of receptors in our body. Think of situations, where
receptors do not work properly. What problems are likely to arise?
[Link] the structure of a neuron and explain is function.
[Link] does our body respond when adrenaline is secreted into the blood?
[Link] are some patients of diabetes treated by giving injections of
insulin?
[Link] does phototropism occur in plants?
[Link] signals will get disrupted in case of a spinal cord injury?
[Link] does chemical coordination occur in plants?
[Link] and contrast nervous and hormonal mechanisms for control
and coordination in animals.
 03. HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
Reproduction It is the process of producing new organisms from the existing
organisms of the same species. It is vital for the existence and continuity of the
species. Living organisms reproduce mainly through asexual reproduction or
sexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction It is the production of offspring by a single parent
without the formation and fusion of gamete, e.g. binary fission in Amoeba,
budding in Hydra, etc.
Fragmentation It is a form of asexual reproduction in which multicellular
organisms break up into two or more small fragments or pieces, e.g. Spirogyra.
Budding In this, a daughter organism is formed from a small projection known
as bud, which develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division on the
parent body. Eg. yeast, Hydra.
Regeneration A fully differentiated organism can give rise to new individual
organism from its body part, e.g. planaria.
Vegetative Propagation New plants are obtained from a of the parent plant
like root, stem and leaves without the involvement of reproductive organs. The
artificial method involves cutting, layering, grafting, tissue culture. etc.
Spore Formation Spores have the ability to germinate and give rise to a new
colony, e.g. Rhizopus
Sexual Reproduction It is a type of reproduction in while it the two sexes, i.e,
male and female take part. It involves two major processes, i.e. formation of
gametes and fusion of gametes (fertilisation).
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants plants or angiosperms bear special
reproductive parts located in the flower and seeds enclosed in a fruit, formed
after pollination and fertilization.
Pollination The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of the stamen to the
stigma of a flower is termed as Pollination.
It is of two types:

 Self-pollination: If the pollen transmission occurs within the same flower.

 Cross-pollination: If pollen from one flower is transported to another.
Fertilisation in Plants After pollination, one male gamete fuses with the female
gamete to form a zygote. This fusion is called fertilisation,
In flowering plants, male and female reproductive structures can be found in
the same individual plant. The organ of sexual reproduction is the flower. Male
gametes are found in pollen grains and produced in the anthers of the
flower. Female gametes are found in ovules and produced in the ovary of the
flower.
Sexual reproduction in human beings
Male Reproductive System It includes :
(i) Testes A paired structure lying in scrotum. It produces Sperms and
hormone (testosterone).
(ii) Vas Deferens A duct arises from testes which brings sperms to
urinary bladder.
(iii) Vas deferens opens into a common tube called urethra which carries
sperms as well as urine, which runs through the penis.
(iv) Penis It is an external male genital organ with thick muscular walls to help
in copulation.
(v) Accessory Glands Include paired seminal vesicles(seminal fluid), prostate
gland (prostate fluid) and bulbourethral glands or cowper’s gland (pre-
ejaculatory fluid).
Female Reproductive System It consists of :
(i) Ovaries Paired ovaries located in the abdominal cavity near the kidney
which produce female gamete (ovum or egg) and hormones (oestrogen and
progesterone).
(ii) Fallopian Tube Itis a tube carrying the ovum (if not fertilised) or the zygote
(if fertilised) to the uterus. It also acts as the site of fertilisation.
(iii) Uterus The two Fallopian tubes unite into an elastic bag-like structure
known as uterus also known as womb, were the development of foetus takes
place during pregnancy.
(iv) Vagina Uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. it is also called the
birth canal.
Fertilisation in Humans After sexual intercourse, the sperms reach the
Fallopian tube where the ovum is present and fertilization takes place to form
a zygote which starts dividing for a period of nine months. Then a strong
rhythmic muscular contraction in the uterus leads to childbirth.
Menstruation If fertilisation does not take place then breakdown and removal
of the thick, spongy lining of the uterus (endometrium layer) in the form of
vaginal bleeding.
Reproductive Health in Humans These are all those aspects of general health
which help a person to lead a normal, safe and satisfying reproductive life.
Birth Control A number of methods or techniques have been developed to
prevent and control pregnancy. These methods are:
Barrier Condom, Diaphragm, Intrauterine Contraceptive Device ([UCD)
Hormonal Oral contraceptive pills
Chemical Spermicide
Surgical Vasectomy, tubectomy
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) These are diseases which spread by
sexual contact from an infected person to a healthy person. The most common
ones are gonorrhoea, syphilis, and HIV-AIDS.
Questions –
1. In humans, why the testes are located outside the lower abdomen in the
scrotum?
2. Write two examples for the organisms that reproduce by binary fission.
3. What is pollination? What are the changes that occur in the flower after
pollination?
4. What is the role of the stigma, style, and ovary in the process of pollination?
5. What is the process of fertilization in humans? Explain the role of the
acrosome and zona pellucida.
6. . What is the role of ‘testis’ and ‘prostate’ gland in human male
reproductive system?
7. “In human reproduction, the placenta performs a significant role in the
development of a foetus into a child.” Justify this statement.
8. What are the changes seen in girls at the time of puberty?
9. How is the process of pollination different from fertilisation?
[Link] are the modes of reproduction different in unicellular and multicellular
organisms?
[Link] does reproduction help in providing stability to population of a
species?
[Link] can pregnancy be prevented surgically?
[Link] six specific characteristics of sexual reproduction.
[Link] the individual units of floral whorls.
[Link] the dual purposes served by Urethra in males.
[Link] is tissue culture? How it is done? Discuss the advantages of it.
17.A farmer brought some strawberries and liked the taste. He decided to
grow his own strawberries that should have the same taste.
a. Which method of cultivation should the farmer adopt?
b. Why would the farmer choose this method?
18. How do Plasmodium and Leishmania reproduce? Write one difference in
their mode of reproduction.
19. List any two advantages of growing banana or grapes plants through
vegetative propagation?
20. Why does fertilization occur only once in a month in a human female?
Explain.
04. HEREDITY
Genetics It is the branch of biology which deals with heredity and variations.
Variation It refers to the differences in the characters or traits among the
individuals.
Inherited Traits These are traits or characteristics, which are passed on from
parents to their offsprings, generation after generation, and are controlled by
genes.
Gene It is the basic unit of heredity present on chromosome, composed of
DNA and codes for one polypeptide (protein).
Inheritance of Traits (Mendelism) Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) was the
first one to keep count of individual exhibiting a particular trait in each
generation to study inheritance pattern in pea plants (Pisum sativum). He is
regarded as the father of genetics. He used a number of contrasting, visible
characters like round/wrinkled seeds, tall/short plants, white/violet flowers,
etc.
Genetic Crosses Performed by Mendel
Monohybrid Cross It is a cross between two parents taking the alternative
traits of one single character, e.g. a cross between tall ang dwarf pea plant
gives
In F1 -generation-100% hybrid
In F2 -generation—phenotypic ratio 3 : 1 and genotypic ratio 1:2: 1.
Dihybrid Cross It is a cross between two parents taking into consideration
alternative trait of two different characters, €.8. a Cross between two pea
plants, one having round green seeds and other having wrinkled yellow seeds
gives
In F1 -generation—100% hybrid
In F2 -generation-phenotypic ratio 9:3:3:1
Genotypic ratio 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1
Sex-Determination
In human beings, the sex of the individual is determined genetically.
There are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes.
Males have an imperfect pair of sex chromosomes, i.e, XY, While females have
similar perfect pair, i.e, XX
In a woman, all eggs carry only X-chromosome.
Sex of a child depends on the type of sperm which fuses with the egg.
If the sperm carries X- chromosome, a girl child will be produced and if the
Sperm carrying Y-chromosome fuses with the egg, it will result in birth of a
baby boy.
Questions
1. The cross between RRYY x rryy for
both F1 and F2F1 and F2 generation? What are the combinations
of characters produced in the F2 generation?
2. What does the Law of Segregation state in heredity?
3. All the variations in a species do not have equal chances of
survival. Why?
4. Name the information source for making proteins in the cells.
5. What is a gene?
6. What is heredity?
7. Why is the progeny always tall when a tall pea plant is crossed
with a short pea plant?
8. Write a difference between inherited traits and acquired traits
giving one example of each.
9. (a)Why is the F1 progeny always of tall plants when a tall plant is
crossed with a short pea plant?
(b) How is F2 progeny obtained by self-pollination of F1 progeny
different from F1 progeny? Give reason for this observation.
(c) State a conclusion that can be drawn on the basis of this
observation.
10. List two differences in tabular form between dominant trait
and recessive traits. What percentage/proportion of the plants in
the F2 generation/progeny were round, in Mendel’s cross between
round and wrinkled pea plants?
11. How is the sex of the child determined in human beings?
12. Explain the deviations from the mendelian experiment.
13. Name the plant which was used by Mendel’s for the
incomplete dominance
14. According to Mendel what are dominant traits and recessive traits?
 [Link] pea plant producing red flowers (TT RR) is crossed with short pea
plant producing white flowers (tt rr).
i) Mention the type of plants produced from these plants in the 1 F generation.
ii) Write the ratio of plants obtained in the 2 F generation by crossing the
plants of 1 F generation and name the varieties of plants obtained.
[Link], green colour seeds producing pea plant (RR yy) is crossed with
wrinkled, yellow colour seeds producing pea plant (rr YY). Show the
result of 2 F generation with the help of a checker board and mention
the ratio of varieties of plants.
[Link] are the traits of organisms classified as ‘dominant’ and ‘recessive’
traits? The experiences of an individual acquired during its life-time
cannot be passed on to its progeny. Why?
[Link] body size of a person is changed due to exercises. Can this change
be seen in next generation? Mention your answer with reason.
[Link] to Mendel what are dominant traits and recessive traits?
[Link] is dihybrid cross? What is the ratio of plant types obtained in the 2
F generation of Mendel’s dihybrid experiment?
[Link] flowering (RR) 4 O’clock plant is crossed with white flowering (WW)
4 O’clock plant. There are 25% red flowering, 2 25% white flowering and
50% hybrids are obtained in F generation. Then,
i) What are the characteristics of plants of F1 generation?
ii) Show the results of 2 F generation with the help of a checker board and
mention the genotypic ratio.
[Link] in the non-reproductive tissues will not inherit. Why?
[Link] is another name for ______
[Link] leads to variation. How?
[Link] any population, no two individuals are absolutely similar. Why?
[Link] is the progeny always tall when a tall pea plant is crossed with a
short pea plant?
27.A child questioned his teacher that why do organisms resemble their
parents more as compared to grandparents. In which way will the
teacher explain to the child?
[Link] genetic combination of mother play a significant role in
determining the sex of a newborn?
 29. Why did Mendel selected pea plant for conducting his experiments on
inheritance?
30. a) name the two types of gametes produced by men.
b) does a male child inherit X chromosome from his father? Justify.
c) how many types of gametes are produced by a human female?
31. How did Mendel explained that it is possible that a trait is inherited but not
expressed in an organism?
32. How do Mendel’s experiment show that traits are inherited
independently?
33. what are acquired traits? Why are these generally not inherited over
generations? Explain.

05. OUR ENVINORNMENT

Environment It is the physical and biological conditions of the surroundings of
an organism,
Ecosystem All the interacting organisms in an area together with their non-
living components of the environment constitute a system called ecosystem.
Ecosystems are of two types (i) Natural ecosystem (ii) Artificial ecosystem
Components of Ecosystem An ecosystem is made up of two main components
(i) Abiotic Components It is the non-living parts of an ecosystem on which an
organism depends. It includes physical factors as light, temperature, wind, soil,
etc.
(ii) Biotic Components It include all the living orgainsms present in the
ecosystem. It includes mainly three Categories of organisms.
* Producers make their own food, e.g. plants.
* Consumers depend on producers for their nutritional requirements e.g.
grazing animals, humans.
* Decomposers The microorganisms which feed on decaying and dead matter,
e.g. bacteria, fungi. Food Chain It is the linear network of organisms through
which energy is transferred in the form of food by the process of one organism
consuming the other. There is unidirectional flow of energy from one organism
to another,
Trophic Levels The transfer of food or energy in the various steps in the food
chain forms trophic level. Each food chain is composed of three to four trophic
levels
(i) First Trophic Level Autotrophs/producers
(ii) Second Trophic Level Herbivores/primary consumers
(iii) Third Trophic Level Small carnivores (omnivorous)/secondary consumers
(iv) Fourth Trophic Level Large carnivores/tertiary consumers.
Food Web Each organism is generally eaten by two or more other kinds of
organisms, which in turn are eaten by several other organisms, So, a food web
consists of a series of branching networks of various food chains being
interconnected at various trophic levels.
Energy flow It is unidirectional. Food chain shows how food and energy pass
from one organism to another in a habitat, Also only 10% energy {s available to
the next trophic level in a food chain. Biological Magnification It is a
phenomenon of progressive increase in the concentration of a toxicant at each
successive trophic level, e.g. pesticides like DDT sprinkled on Plants enter the
body of human beings through the food chain.
Ozone depletion
Ozone layer depletion refers to the thinning or reducing of ozone molecules in
the stratosphere, mainly due to human-made chemicals like
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which increase UV radiation reaching the Earth
(i) Ozone (O3) is a molecule formed by three atoms of oxygen.
(a) O2 + O O3
(ii) It shields the surface of the Earth from harmful UV rays of the Sun.
(iii) Use of CFCs (chloro-fluro-carbons) causes the depletion of ozone
layer.
This ozone layer depletion is seen in Antartic region
Waste Substances The left over or discarded substance is called waste. It can
be in solid, liquid or gaseous form.
Biodegradable Substances These are the materials which can be broken down
into simple harmless forms naturally by the microbial action. These pollute
environment when present in huge quantities, e.g. livestock waste, left-over
food articles, etc.
Non-biodegradable Substances These are the materials which cannot be
broken down into simpler harmless forms by action of microorganisms. These
pollute the environment, e.g. plastic, heavy metals, etc.
waste Disposal The household waste is called garbage. The waste should be
disposed off in a scientific way by segregating waste into biodegradable and
non-biodegradable materials. Methods of waste disposal include recycling,
composting, incineration, landfills, sewage treatment, biogas production, etc.
questions
1. In what way, the biotic components of an ecosystem are different from
abiotic components?
2. State True or False tor the following statements.
(i) Producers are also referred to as the autotrophs.
(ii) Herbivores also known as first order consumers.
3. Name some abiotic components of an ecosystem.
4. What do you mean by artificial ecosystem.
5. Draw a food chain most likely to be a part of a forest ecosystem.
6. Now a days, our government is stressing upon the use of jute or paper
bags instead of plastic bags. What purpose is supposed to be achieved
by the government?
7. Why should biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste be discarded
in two separate dustbins?
8. Define ecosystem.
9. Autotrophs are at the first level of food chain. Give reason.
[Link] a food chain of frogs, grass, insects and snakes assign trophic level to
frogs. To which category of consumers do they belong to?
[Link] 10% law. Explain with an example. how energy flows through
different trophic levels?
[Link] reason to justify the following
(i) The existence of decomposers is essential in a biosphere.
 (ii) Flow of energy in a food chain is unidirectional.
[Link] is ozone formed in the upper atmosphere? State its importance.
What is responsible for its depletion? Write the harmful effect of ozone
depletion.
[Link] are decomposers? What will be the consequence of their absence
in an ecosystem?
[Link] is biological magnification?
[Link] of aquatic eco-system are
(A) algae larvae (B) small fishes (c) larvae (D) protozoa.
17.“The number of organisms decreases by reaching higher trophic level of
a food chain in an ecosystem.” Why?
[Link] any two ways in which biodegradable substances would affect the
environment.
[Link] are trophic levels? Give an example of a food chain and state the
different trophic levels in it.
[Link] is the role of decomposers in the ecosystem?
[Link] is ozone and how does it affect any ecosystem?
[Link] can you help in reducing the problem of waste disposal? Give any
two methods.
[Link] will happen if we kill all the organisms in one trophic level?
[Link] is damage to the ozone layer a cause for cancer? What steps are
being taken to limit this damage?
[Link] some abiotic components of an ecosystem.
[Link] do you mean by artificial ecosystem.
[Link] a food chain most likely to be a part of a forest ecosystem.
[Link] of the following belongs to the first trophic level?
Grasshopper, rose plant, cockroach, vulture, neem plant.
[Link] all four types of animals, ie. carnivores, decomposers, herbivores
and producers, how does energy flow in an ecosystem, occur through
these organisms?
[Link] a days, our government is stressing upon the use of jute or paper
bags instead of plastic bags. What purpose is supposed to be achieved
by the government?
[Link] did United Nations act to control the production of CFCs used in
refrigerators?
[Link] do not clean ponds or lakes, but an aquarium needs to be cleaned,
why?
[Link] 10% law. Explain with an example how energy flows through
different trophic levels?
[Link] was sprayed in a lake to regulate breeding of mosquitoes. How
would it affect the trophic levels in the following food chain associated
with a lake? Justify your answer.
IMPORTANT DIAGRAM