Sr.

Class Participation Questions

No.

UNIT 1: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF FUNCTIONS OF ONE VARIABLE

Q.1 What is the geometrical interpretation of Rolle's theorem?

Ans. Rolle's theorem tells us something pretty cool about smooth curves. If you have a curve that is continuous
on a closed interval [", $], smooth (differentiable) on the open interval (", $), and the function values at
both ends are equal (meaning ((") = (($)), then somewhere between " and $, there must be at least one
point where the tangent to the curve is horizontal.
In simple terms: if you draw a smooth curve that starts and ends at the same height, there has to be at least
one point in between where the slope is zero (the tangent line is parallel to the x-axis).
Example 1: Verify Rolle's Theorem for ((*) = * ! on [−1,1]
Step 1: Check if ((*) = * ! is continuous on [−1,1]
Since ((*) = * ! is a polynomial function, it is continuous everywhere, including on [−1,1]
Step 2: Check if ((*) is differentiable on (−1,1)
( " (*) = 2* exists for all * in (−1,1)
Step 3: Check if ((−1) = ((1)
((−1) = (−1)! = 1
((1) = (1)! = 1
Therefore, ((−1) = ((1) = 1
Step 4: Find . in (−1,1) where ( " (.) = 0
( " (*) = 2* = 0
*=0
Since 0 ∈ (−1,1), Rolle's Theorem is verified
Example 2: Verify Rolle's Theorem for ((*) = (* − ")# ($ − *)$ on [", $] where " < $ and ", $ > 0
Step 1: ((*) is a product of elementary algebraic functions, so it is continuous on [", $]
Step 2: Find the derivative:
( " (*) = (* − ")#%&($ − *)$%& [3($ − *) − 4(* − ")]
( " (*) = (* − ")#%&($ − *)$%& [3$ − 3* − 4* + 4"]
3$ − 4"
( " (*) = (* − ")#%&($ − *)$%& [(3 + 4){" + − *}]
3+4
This exists in (", $)
Step 3: Check endpoints:
((") = 0
(($) = 0
So ((") = (($)
Step 4: Find . where ( " (.) = 0:
4" + 3$
( " (.) = 0 ⇒ . =
3+4
 $'(#)
Since " < < $, this . is in (", $), so Rolle's Theorem is verified.
#($

Q.2 How can Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem be used to prove inequalities?

Ans. Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem (LMVT):

If a function ((*) is continuous on [", $] and differentiable on (", $), then there exists at least one point .
in (", $) such that:
*())%*(')
( " (.) = )%'
Geometrical meaning: The tangent at some point . is parallel to the chord joining points (", ((")) and
($, (($)).
Using LMVT to prove inequalities:
LMVT is powerful for proving inequalities because it connects the average rate of change to the
*())%*(')
instantaneous rate of change. By finding bounds on ( " (.), we can establish bounds on .
)%'
- !
Example 1: Verify LMVT for ((*) = * − 2* − 3* + 1 on $$
Step 1: ((*) = * - − 2* ! − 3* + 1 is an algebraic function, so it's continuous on $$
Step 2: ( " (*) = 3* ! − 4* − 3 exists on (0,4), so ((*) is differentiable on (0,4)
Step 3: Apply LMVT to find .:
((4) − ((0)
( " (.) =
4−0
Calculate:
((0) = 1
((4) = 64 − 32 − 12 + 1 = 21
21 − 1
3. ! − 4. − 3 = =5
4
!
3. − 4. − 3 = 5
3. ! − 4. − 8 = 0
Using the quadratic formula:
4 ± √16 + 96 4 ± √112 4 ± 4√7 2 ± 2√7
.= = = =
6 6 6 3
Since √7 ≈ 2.646:
2 + 2(2.646) 2 + 5.292 7.292
.= = = ≈ 2.43
3 3 3
Since 2.43 ∈ (0,4), LMVT is verified.
Example 2: Verify LMVT for ((*) = log . * on [1, H]
Step 1: ((*) = log. * is continuous on [1, H]
&
Step 2: ( " (*) = / exists on (1, H)
Step 3: Apply LMVT:
1 log . H − log. 1 1 − 0 1
= = =
. H−1 H−1 H−1
Therefore:
. = H − 1 ≈ 2.718 − 1 = 1.718
Since 1.718 ∈ (1, H), LMVT is verified.

Q.3 Give an example where L’Hôpital’s Rule is applied to evaluate an indeterminate form.
Ans. L'Hospital's Rule: If ((*) and I(*) are functions such that ((") = I(") = 0 or both tend to ±∞, then:
((*) ( " (*)
lim/→' = lim/→' "
I(*) I (*)
provided the limit on the right exists.
234 /%674 /
Example 1: Evaluate lim/→1 /!
1
This is of the form 1.
Step 1: Apply L'Hospital's Rule (differentiate numerator and denominator):
cos * − sec ! *
lim/→1
3* !
1
Still 1 form.
Step 2: Apply L'Hospital's Rule again:
−sin * − 2sec ! *tan *
lim/→1
6*
1
Still 1 form.
Step 3: Apply L'Hospital's Rule third time:
−cos * − 2[sec ! * ⋅ sec ! * + tan * ⋅ 2sec * ⋅ sec *tan *]
lim/→1
6
Step 4: Simplify the derivative of 2sec ! *tan *:
U
(2sec ! *tan *) = 2[sec ! * ⋅ sec ! * + tan * ⋅ 2sec * ⋅ sec *tan *]
U*
= 2sec 8 * + 4sec ! *tan! *
Step 5: Evaluate at * = 0:
−cos 0 − 2[sec 8 0 + 2sec ! 0tan! 0] −1 − 2[1 + 0] −3 1
= = =−
6 6 6 2
&
Answer: − !
. " %. #" %!/
Example 2: Evaluate lim/→1 /%234 /
1
This is of the form 1.
Step 1: Apply L'Hospital's Rule:
H / + H %/ − 2
lim/→1
1 − cos *
1
Still .
1
Step 2: Apply L'Hospital's Rule again:
H / − H %/
lim/→1
sin *
1
Still 1.
Step 3: Apply L'Hospital's Rule once more:
H / + H %/ 1 + 1
lim/→1 = =2
cos * 1
Answer: 2

Q.4 How does the convergence of a series affect the validity of its Taylor expansion?
Ans. For a function ((*) around point * = ":
*$ (') *% (') *& (')
((*) = ((") + (* − ") + (* − ")! + (* − ")- + ⋯
&! !! -!
Convergence and Validity:
The Taylor series expansion is only valid within its radius of convergence. If the series converges, it
accurately represents the function within that interval. If it diverges, the expansion doesn't represent the
function.
Key points:
A series ∑X$ is convergent if Y$ (sum of first n terms) tends to a definite finite unique limit Y as 4 → ∞
A series is divergent if Y$ tends to ±∞
Tests for convergence include D'Alembert's Ratio Test and Cauchy's Root Test
!'
Example 1: Test convergence of ∑; $:& $! using Ratio Test
Step 1: Apply D'Alembert's Ratio Test:
X$(& 2$(& /(4 + 1)!
lim$→; = lim$→;
X$ 2$ /4!
Step 2: Simplify:
2$(& ⋅ 4! 2 ⋅ 2$ ⋅ 4!
= lim$→; $ = lim$→; $
2 ⋅ (4 + 1)! 2 ⋅ (4 + 1) ⋅ 4!
Step 3:
2
= lim$→; =0
4+1
Since 0 < 1, the series converges.
$
Example 2: Test convergence of ∑; $:& !' using Root Test
Step 1: Apply Cauchy's Root Test:
'
' 4 √4
lim$→; ']X$ = lim$→; ^ $ = lim$→;
2 2
'
Step 2: Since lim$→; √4 = 1:
1
=
2
&
Since ! < 1, the series converges.

UNIT 2: PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION

Q.1 How do you determine if a function of two variables is continuous at a point?

Ans. Definition of Continuity:

A function ((*, _) is continuous at point (", $) if:
(", $) is in the domain of (
lim(/,=)→(',)) ((*, _) exists
lim(/,=)→(',)) ((*, _) = ((", $)
If any of these conditions fail, the function is discontinuous at that point.
/ ( =)
Example 1: Test continuity of ((*, _) = / ((= ) at origin, with ((0,0) = 0
 Step 1: Check if limit exists by approaching along different paths.
Path 1: Along x-axis (where _ = 0):
0
lim/→1 ((*, 0) = lim/→1 ! = 0
*
Path 2: Along y-axis (where * = 0):
0
lim=→1 ((0, _) = lim=→1 8 = 0
_
Path 3: Along line _ = *:
*! ⋅ * 8 *> *8
lim/→1 ((*, *) = lim/→1 ! = lim /→1 ! = lim/→1 =0
* + *8 * (1 + * !) 1 + *!
Path 4: Along curve _ ! = *:
* ! ⋅ *! *8 *!
lim/→1 ((*, √*) = lim/→1 ! = lim/→1 = lim /→1 =0
* + *! 2* ! 2
Step 2: Since the limit is 0 along all paths and ((0,0) = 0:
lim(/,=)→(1,1) ((*, _) = ((0,0) = 0
The function is continuous at the origin.
/
Example 2: Test continuity of ((*, _) = / ((= ( at origin, with ((0,0) = 0
Step 1: Approach along different paths.
Along x-axis (_ = 0):
* 1
lim/→1 ! = lim/→1 = ±∞
* *
This limit does not exist.
Step 2: Since the limit doesn't exist, the function is discontinuous at the origin.

Q.2 What is the significance of the Hessian matrix in identifying extrema of functions?

Ans. Hessian Matrix and Extrema:

For a function ((*, _) with critical point at (", $) where (/ (", $) = 0 and (= (", $) = 0:
Define:
` = (// (", $) (second partial derivative with respect to x)
a = (/= (", $) (mixed partial derivative)
b = (== (", $) (second partial derivative with respect to y)
The Hessian determinant is: c = `b − a !
Second Derivative Test:
If `b − a ! > 0 and ` < 0: Maximum
If `b − a ! > 0 and ` > 0: Minimum
If `b − a ! < 0: Saddle point
If `b − a ! = 0: Test inconclusive
Example 1: Find extreme values of ((*, _) = * - + *_ ! − 12* − 2_ + 3
Step 1: Find first partial derivatives:
(/ = 3* ! + _ ! − 12
(= = 2*_ − 2
Step 2: Set both equal to zero:
3* ! + _ ! − 12 = 0 ...(1)
1
2*_ − 2 = 0 ⇒ *_ = 1 ⇒ _ = ...(2)
*
Step 3: Substitute (2) into (1):
1
3* ! + ! − 12 = 0
*
3* 8 − 12* ! + 1 = 0
Let X = * !:
3X! − 12X + 1 = 0
Step 4: Using quadratic formula:
12 ± √144 − 12 12 ± √132 12 ± 2√33 6 ± √33
X= = = =
6 6 6 3
! >(√--
Step 5: Taking * = ≈ 3.915, so * ≈ ±1.978
-
&
For * = 2 (approximately): _ = ! = 0.5
Critical point is approximately (2,0.5).
Step 6: Find second derivatives:
` = (// = 6*
a = (/= = 2_
b = (== = 2*
Step 7: At (2,0.5):
` = 6(2) = 12
a = 2(0.5) = 1
b = 2(2) = 4
Step 8: Calculate Hessian:
`b − a ! = (12)(4) − (1)! = 48 − 1 = 47 > 0
Since `b − a ! > 0 and ` = 12 > 0, this is a minimum.
Example 2: Find extreme values of ((*, _) = * ! + _ ! − 3*_ + 2* + 12_ + 21
Step 1: Find partial derivatives:
(/ = 2* − 3_ + 2 = 0 ...(1)
(= = 2_ − 3* + 12 = 0 ...(2)
-=%!
Step 2: From (1): 2* = 3_ − 2 → * = !
Step 3: Substitute into (2):
3_ − 2
2_ − 3 d e + 12 = 0
2
9_ − 6
2_ − + 12 = 0
2
4_ − 9_ + 6 + 24
=0
2
−5_ + 30 = 0
_=6
Step 4: Find x:
3(6) − 2 16
*= = =8
2 2
Critical point is (8,6).
Step 5: Find second derivatives:
` = (// = 2
a = (/= = −3
b = (== = 2
 Step 6: Calculate Hessian:
`b − a ! = (2)(2) − (−3)! = 4 − 9 = −5 < 0
Since `b − a ! < 0, this is a saddle point (neither max nor min).

Q.3 How is Lagrange's method of undetermined multipliers used in constrained optimization?

Ans. Lagrange Multipliers Method:

To find extreme values of ((*, _, f) subject to constraint I(*, _, f) = 0:
Step 1: Form the auxiliary function:
g(*, _, f, h) = ((*, _, f) + hI(*, _, f)
Step 2: Set all partial derivatives equal to zero:
@A @A @A @A
@/
= 0, @= = 0, @B = 0, @C = 0
Step 3: Solve the system to find *, _, f, h
Example 1: Find extreme values of ((*, _) = * ! + _ ! − *_ − * − _ + 1 subject to * ! + _ ! = 2
Step 1: Form auxiliary function:
g = * ! + _ ! − *_ − * − _ + 1 + h(* ! + _ ! − 2)
Step 2: Find partial derivatives:
ig
= 2* − _ − 1 + 2h* = 0 ...(1)
i*
ig
= 2_ − * − 1 + 2h_ = 0 ...(2)
i_
ig
= * ! + _ ! − 2 = 0 ...(3)
ih
Step 3: Rewrite (1) and (2):
(2 + 2h)* − _ = 1 ...(1')
(2 + 2h)_ − * = 1 ...(2')
Step 4: Subtract (2') from (1'):
(2 + 2h)(* − _) − _ + * = 0
(2 + 2h)(* − _) + (* − _) = 0
(3 + 2h)(* − _) = 0
-
Either h = − ! or * = _
Case 1: If * = _, then from (3): 2* ! = 2 → * = ±1
Points: (1,1) and (−1, −1)
At (1,1): ( = 1 + 1 − 1 − 1 − 1 + 1 = 0
At (−1, −1): ( = 1 + 1 − 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 4
-
Case 2: If h = − !, substitute back into (1'):
(2 − 3)* − _ = 1
−* − _ = 1
_ = −* − 1
Substitute into (3):
* ! + (−* − 1)! = 2
* ! + * ! + 2* + 1 = 2
2* ! + 2* − 1 = 0
Using quadratic formula:
 −2 ± √4 + 8 −2 ± 2√3 −1 ± √3
*= = =
4 4 2
%&(√- %&(√- &%√- %&%√-
For * = :_=− −1= −1=
! ! ! !
%&(√- %&%√-
Point: j , k
! !
Evaluating ( at this point and comparing all values:
Maximum value: 7 at (1, −1)
Minimum value: -1 at (−1,1)
Example 2: Find minimum distance from origin to plane 3* + 2_ + f = 12
Step 1: Distance from origin: U = ]* ! + _ ! + f !
To minimize distance, minimize ((*, _, f) = * ! + _ ! + f !
Step 2: Constraint: I(*, _, f) = 3* + 2_ + f − 12 = 0
Step 3: Form auxiliary function:
g = * ! + _ ! + f ! + h(3* + 2_ + f − 12)
Step 4: Set partial derivatives to zero:
ig 3h
= 2* + 3h = 0 ⇒ * = −
i* 2
ig
= 2_ + 2h = 0 ⇒ _ = −h
i_
ig h
= 2f + h = 0 ⇒ f = −
if 2
Step 5: Substitute into constraint:
3h h
3 d− e + 2(−h) + d− e = 12
2 2
9h h
− − 2h − = 12
2 2
9h + 4h + h
− = 12
2
−7h = 12
12
h=−
7
Step 6: Find coordinates:
3(−12/7) 36 18
*=− = =
2 14 7
12
_ = −(−12/7) =
7
−12/7 6
f=− =
2 7
Step 7: Minimum distance:
 √4 × 126 2√126 2√9 × 14 6√14
= = = =
7 7 7 7
>√&8 &E &! >
Answer: Minimum distance is D at point j D , D , Dk

Q.4 Can a function have partial derivatives at a point but still not be differentiable there?

Ans. Yes, this is possible!

@* @*
The existence of partial derivatives and at a point does not guarantee that the function is
@/ @=
differentiable (or even continuous) at that point.
Key concept: Differentiability requires the function to be smooth, meaning it has a well-defined tangent
plane. Partial derivatives only check rates of change along the x and y directions individually.
Example 1: Function with partial derivatives but not differentiable at origin
Consider:
*_ !
if (*, _) ≠ (0,0)
((*, _) = m* + _ 8
!

0 if (*, _) = (0,0)
Step 1: Find partial derivatives at origin:
i( ((ℎ, 0) − ((0,0) 0−0
| = limF→1 = limF→1 =0
i* (1,1) ℎ ℎ
i( ((0, q) − ((0,0) 0−0
| = limG→1 = limG→1 =0
i_ (1,1) q q
Both partial derivatives exist and equal 0.
Step 2: Check continuity by approaching along different paths:
Along _ ! = *:
*⋅* *! 1
lim/→1 ((*, √*) = lim/→1 ! !
= lim/→1 ! = ≠ 0 = ((0,0)
* +* 2* 2
The function is not continuous at the origin, hence not differentiable, even though both partial derivatives
exist.
Example 2: Another classic example
*_
if (*, _) ≠ (0,0)
((*, _) = r* + _ !
!

0 if (*, _) = (0,0)
Partial derivatives at origin: Both exist and equal 0.
Check continuity: Along _ = *:
*! 1
lim/→1 ((*, *) = lim/→1 ! = ≠ 0
2* 2
Not continuous, hence not differentiable, despite having partial derivatives.

UNIT 3: INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF FUNCTIONS OF ONE VARIABLE

Q.1 How do you find the volume of a solid of revolution using the disk method?

Ans. Disk Method:

 When a region is rotated about an axis, the volume can be found by integrating the area of circular cross-
sections (disks) perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
Formula for rotation about x-axis:
)
s = t∫' [((*)]! U*
Formula for rotation about y-axis:
I
s = t∫H [I(_)]! U_
Example 1: Find volume when region bounded by _ = * !, _ = 0, and * = 2 is rotated about x-axis
Step 1: The curve is _ = * ! from * = 0 to * = 2
Step 2: Apply disk method:
! !
s = t∫1 (* !)! U* = t∫1 * 8 U*
Step 3: Evaluate:
!
*J 32 32t
s = t v w = t d − 0e =
5 1 5 5
-!K
Answer: J
cubic units

Q.2 Explain how Beta and Gamma functions extend the concept of factorial.

Ans. Gamma Function:

;
Γ(4) = ∫1 H %/ * $%& U*
Key Properties:
Γ(4 + 1) = 4Γ(4) (recursive property)
For positive integers: Γ(4) = (4 − 1)!
Γ(1) = 1
&
Γ j !k = √ t
Extension: The Gamma function extends factorial to non-integer values. For any positive real number, we
can compute its factorial using Gamma function.
Beta Function:

Relationship:

D
Example 1: Evaluate Γ j!k
Step 1: Use recursive property:
7 5 5 5
Γ d e = Γ d + 1e = ⋅ Γ d e
2 2 2 2
Step 2:
5 3 3
Γd e = ⋅ Γd e
2 2 2
Step 3:
3 1 1 1
Γ d e = ⋅ Γ d e = ⋅ √t
2 2 2 2
Step 4: Combine:
5 3 1 3√t
Γ d e = ⋅ ⋅ √t =
2 2 2 4
 7 5 3√t 15√t
Γd e = ⋅ =
2 2 4 8
D &J√K
Answer: Γ j!k = E
;
Example 2: Evaluate ∫1 * JH %!/ U*
L IL
Step 1: Use substitution 2* = b, so * = , U* =
! !
When * = 0, b = 0; when * = ∞, b = ∞
Step 2: Transform:
J
; ; b Ub
∫1 * J H %!/ U* = ∫1 d e H %L ⋅
2 2
Step 3: Simplify:
J
; b Ub 1 ; J %L
= ∫1 H %L ⋅ = ∫ b H Ub
32 2 64 1
Step 4: Recognize Gamma function:
1 1 120 15
= Γ(6) = ⋅ 5! = =
64 64 64 8
&J
Answer: E

Q.3 Why do improper integrals require careful evaluation techniques?

Ans. Improper Integrals:

An integral is improper if:
The function becomes infinite at one or more points in the interval
One or both limits of integration are infinite
Why careful evaluation is needed:
Convergence vs. Divergence: Not all improper integrals have finite values. We must check if the limit
exists.
Different paths to infinity: When both limits are infinite, we must evaluate limits separately.
Discontinuities: When the integrand becomes infinite within the interval, we must approach that point
from both sides.
; &
Example 1: Evaluate ∫& / ( U*
Step 1: This is improper because the upper limit is infinite:
; 1 M 1
∫& ! U* = limM→; ∫& ! U*
* *
Step 2: Evaluate:
1M 1
= limM→; y− z = limM→; d− + 1e
*& {
Step 3:
= 0+1 = 1
The integral converges to 1.
; &
Example 2: Evaluate ∫& / U*
Step 1:
;1 M 1
∫& U* = limM→; ∫& U*
* *
Step 2:
 M
= limM→; [log *]& = limM→; (log { − log 1)
Step 3:
= limM→; log { = ∞
The integral diverges.

Q.4 What are the conditions for the convergence of an improper integral?

Ans. Conditions for Convergence:

;
For ∫' ((*) U*:
M
The limit limM→; ∫' ((*) U* must exist and be finite
)
For ∫%; ((*) U*:
)
The limit limM→%; ∫M ((*) U* must exist and be finite
;
For ∫%; ((*) U*:
H ;
Both ∫%; ((*) U* and ∫H ((*) U* must converge separately
;
Example 1: Test convergence of ∫1 H %!/ U*
Step 1:
; M
∫1 H %!/ U* = limM→; ∫1 H %!/ U*
Step 2:
M
1 1 1
= limM→; y− H %!/ z = limM→; d− H %!M + e
2 1 2 2
Step 3:
1 1
= 0+ =
2 2
&
The integral converges to .
!
;
Example 2: Evaluate ∫1 * !H %/ U* using Gamma function
Step 1: Recognize as Gamma function:
;
∫1 * ! H %/ U* = Γ(3) = 2! = 2
Answer: 2 (converges)

UNIT 4: MULTIPLE INTEGRALS

Q.1 How do you determine the limits for double integrals over general regions?

Ans. Determining Limits:

Case I: Region bounded by * = |& (_), * = |!(_), _ = ., _ = U
I O( (=)
∬N ((*, _) U~ = ∫H ∫O*(=) ((*, _) U* U_
Case II: Region bounded by _ = &(*), _ = !(*), * = ", * = $
) P (/)
∬N ((*, _) U~ = ∫' ∫P*((/) ((*, _) U_ U*
Working Rule:
Sketch the region
 Identify boundary curves
Choose order of integration based on which gives simpler limits
Inner integral limits depend on outer variable
Outer integral limits are constants
! !/
Example 1: Evaluate ∫1 ∫/ *_ U_ U*
Step 1: Inner integral with respect to _, treating * as constant:
!/
!/ _!
∫/ *_ U_ = * v w
2 /
Step 2: Evaluate:
(2*)! * ! 4* ! − * ! 3* ! 3* -
= *Ä − Å = *Ä Å=*⋅ =
2 2 2 2 2
Step 3: Outer integral:
- !
! 3* 3 *8 3 16 3
∫1 U* = v w = ⋅ = ⋅4=6
2 2 4 1 2 4 2
Answer: 6
Example 2: Find limits for region bounded by _ = * ! and _ = 2*
Step 1: Find intersection points:
* ! = 2* ⇒ * ! − 2* = 0 ⇒ *(* − 2) = 0
* = 0 or * = 2
Step 2: For integration U_ U* (horizontal strips):
For fixed *, _ ranges from * ! (bottom) to 2* (top)
* ranges from 0 to 2
! !/
∬N ( U~ = ∫1 ∫/ ( ((*, _) U_ U*
Step 3: For integration U* U_ (vertical strips):
From _ = * ! , we get * = ]_
=
From _ = 2*, we get * = !
=
For fixed _, * ranges from ! to ]_
_ ranges from 0 to 4
8 √=
∬N ( U~ = ∫1 ∫=/! ((*, _) U* U_

Q.2 When is it advantageous to use polar, cylindrical, or spherical coordinates?

Ans. When to Use Different Coordinate Systems:

Polar Coordinates (`, Ç):
Region involves circles or parts of circles
Integrand contains * ! + _ !
Boundaries are easier to express in polar form
Transformation: * = `cos Ç, _ = `sin Ç, U~ = ` U` UÇ
Cylindrical Coordinates (`, Ç, f):
Region involves cylinders
Symmetry about z-axis
Transformation: * = `cos Ç, _ = `sin Ç, f = f, Us = ` U` UÇ Uf
Spherical Coordinates (`, Ç, |):
 Region involves spheres
Symmetry about origin
Transformation: * = `sin |cos Ç, _ = `sin |sin Ç, f = `cos |, Us = ` !sin | U` UÇ U|
' R' ( %/(
Example 1: Convert ∫1 ∫1 (* ! + _ !) U_ U* to polar coordinates
Step 1: Identify region: This is the first quadrant of circle * ! + _ ! = "!
Step 2: In polar coordinates:
*! + _! = ` !
` ranges from 0 to "
K
Ç ranges from 0 to
!
Step 3: Convert:
K/! ' K/! '
∫1 ∫1 ` ! ⋅ ` U` UÇ = ∫1 ∫1 ` - U` UÇ
Step 4: Evaluate:
8 ' 8
K/! ` K/! "
= ∫1 v w UÇ = ∫1 UÇ
4 1 4
"8 K/! " 8 t t"8
= [Ç]1 = ⋅ =
4 4 2 8
K' )
Answer: E
Example 2: Find volume of sphere * ! + _ ! + f ! = "! using spherical coordinates
Step 1: In spherical coordinates:
` ranges from 0 to "
Ç ranges from 0 to 2t
| ranges from 0 to t
Step 2: Volume:
!K K '
s = ∫1 ∫1 ∫1 ` !sin | U` U| UÇ
Step 3: Evaluate inner integral:
'
' ! `- "-
∫1 ` U` = v w =
3 1 3
Step 4: Middle integral:
-
K " "- "- "- 2"-
∫1 sin | U| = [−cos |]K1 = (−(−1) − (−1)) = ⋅2=
3 3 3 3 3
Step 5: Outer integral:
-
!K 2" 2"- 4t"-
∫1 UÇ = ⋅ 2t =
3 3 3
8K' !
Answer: s = -

Q.3 Explain how the Jacobian is used in change of variables for multiple integrals.

Ans. Jacobian in Coordinate Transformation:

When transforming from (*, _) to (X, É), the Jacobian is:
@/ @/
@(/,=)
Ñ = @(S,T) = Ö@S
@=
@T
@=
Ö
@S @T
Transformation formula:
∬N ((*, _) U* U_ = ∬U ((*(X, É), _(X, É))|Ñ| UX UÉ
The Jacobian accounts for how areas change under the transformation.
Example 1: Find Jacobian for polar coordinates
Step 1: Transformation:
* = `cos Ç, _ = `sin Ç
Step 2: Calculate partial derivatives:
i* i*
= cos Ç, = −`sin Ç
i` iÇ
i_ i_
= sin Ç, = `cos Ç
i` iÇ
Step 3: Jacobian:
cos Ç −`sin Ç
Ñ=Ü Ü
sin Ç `cos Ç
= cos Ç ⋅ `cos Ç − (−`sin Ç) ⋅ sin Ç
= `cos ! Ç + `sin! Ç = `(cos ! Ç + sin! Ç) = `
Answer: Jacobian = `
This explains why U* U_ = ` U` UÇ in polar coordinates.
Example 2: Transform ∬N H (/%=)/(/(=) U* U_ where R is bounded by * + _ = 1, * + _ = 2, * = 0, _ =
0
Step 1: Use transformation:
X = * + _, É = * − _
Then:
X+É X−É
*= ,_ =
2 2
Step 2: Find Jacobian:
i* 1 i* 1
= , =
iX 2 iÉ 2
i_ 1 i_ 1
= , =−
iX 2 iÉ 2
1/2 1/2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Ñ=á á = ⋅ d− e − ⋅ = − − = −
1/2 −1/2 2 2 2 2 4 4 2
1
|Ñ| =
2
Step 3: New region S in XÉ-plane:
X ranges from 1 to 2
From * = 0: É = −X
From _ = 0: É = X
So É ranges from −X to X
Step 4: Transform integral:
! S 1
∬N HT/S U* U_ = ∫& ∫%S HT/S ⋅ UÉ UX
2
Step 5: Evaluate inner integral:
S
∫%S H T/S UÉ = [XH T/S ]S%S = X(H& − H %& ) = X(H − H %& )
Step 6: Outer integral:
!
1 ! H − H %& X!
∫& X(H − H %& ) UX = v w
2 2 2 &
 H − H %& 3 3(H − H%&)
= ⋅ =
2 2 4

Q.4 How can triple integrals be used to calculate mass or volume in engineering?

Ans. Applications of Triple Integrals:

Volume: If ((*, _, f) = 1:
s = ∭V Us = ∭V U* U_ Uf
Mass: If â(*, _, f) is density function:
ä = ∭V â(*, _, f) Us
Center of Mass:
1
*‾ = ∭V *â(*, _, f) Us
ä
1
_‾ = ∭V _â(*, _, f) Us
ä
&
f‾ = W ∭V fâ(*, _, f) Us
Example 1: Find volume bounded by * + _ + f = 1 and coordinate planes
Step 1: Set up limits:
* ranges from 0 to 1
For fixed *, _ ranges from 0 to 1 − *
For fixed *, _, f ranges from 0 to 1 − * − _
Step 2: Volume:
& &%/ &%/%=
s = ∫1 ∫1 ∫1 Uf U_ U*
Step 3: Inner integral:
&%/%=
∫1 Uf = 1 − * − _
Step 4: Middle integral:
&%/
&%/ _!
∫1 (1 − * − _) U_ = v(1 − *)_ − w
2 1
! !
(1 − *) (1 − *)
= (1 − *)! − =
2 2
Step 5: Outer integral:
! &
& (1 − *) 1 (1 − *)- 1 1 1
∫1 U* = v− w = ⋅ =
2 2 3 1
2 3 6
&
Answer: Volume = cubic units
>
Example 2: Find volume of cylinder * ! + _ ! = 4 between f = 0 and f = 3 using cylindrical coordinates
Step 1: In cylindrical coordinates:
` ranges from 0 to 2
Ç ranges from 0 to 2t
f ranges from 0 to 3
Step 2: Volume:
!K ! -
s = ∫1 ∫1 ∫1 ` Uf U` UÇ
Step 3: Inner integral:
-
∫1 Uf = 3
 Step 4: Middle integral:
!
! `!
∫1 3` U` = 3 v w = 3 ⋅ 2 = 6
2 1
Step 5: Outer integral:
!K
∫1 6 UÇ = 6 ⋅ 2t = 12t
Answer: Volume = 12t cubic units

UNIT 5: VECTOR CALCULUS

Q.1 What is the physical meaning of the gradient and how is it used?

Ans. Gradient:
For scalar field ((*, _, f):
@* @* @*
∇( = i + j + k
@/ @= @B
Physical Meanings:
Direction of steepest ascent: ∇( points in the direction where ( increases most rapidly
Rate of maximum increase: |∇(| gives the maximum rate of change
Normal to level surfaces: ∇( is perpendicular to surfaces where ( = constant
Applications:
Temperature gradients in thermodynamics
Electric field from potential: E = −∇s
Pressure gradients in fluid flow
Finding tangent planes and normal lines to surfaces
Example 1: Find ∇( for ( = * ! + _ ! + f ! at point (1, −1,1)
Step 1: Calculate partial derivatives:
i( i( i(
= 2*, = 2_, = 2f
i* i_ if
Step 2: Gradient:
∇( = 2*i + 2_j + 2fk
Step 3: At (1, −1,1):
∇( = 2i − 2j + 2k
Step 4: Magnitude:
|∇(| = √4 + 4 + 4 = 2√3
Answer: ∇( = 2i − 2j + 2k with magnitude 2√3
This means at point (1, −1,1), the function increases most rapidly in the direction of vector 2i − 2j + 2k,
and the rate of increase in that direction is 2√3 units per unit distance.
Example 2: Find directional derivative of ((*, _, f) = *_f at (1,2,3) in direction of 3i + 4j + 5k
Step 1: Find gradient:
∇( = _fi + *fj + *_k
At (1,2,3):
∇( = 6i + 3j + 2k
Step 2: Find unit vector in given direction:
 3i + 4j + 5k 3i + 4j + 5k
u= =
√9 + 16 + 25 5√2
Step 3: Directional derivative:
3i + 4j + 5k
ëX ( = ∇( ⋅ u = (6i + 3j + 2k) ⋅
5√2
18 + 12 + 10 40 8
= = = = 4√2
5√2 5√2 √2
Answer: 4√2
This means the function *_f increases at rate 4√2 units per unit distance when moving from (1,2,3) in
the direction of 3i + 4j + 5k.

Q.2 Compare and contrast divergence and curl of a vector field.

Ans. Divergence:
For vector field F = äi + ìj + îk:
@W @Y @Z
div F = ∇ ⋅ F = + +
@/ @= @B
Physical Meaning:
Measures how much the field spreads out or converges at a point
Positive divergence → source (field flowing outward, like water from a fountain)
Negative divergence → sink (field flowing inward, like water down a drain)
Zero divergence → solenoidal field (incompressible, like steady fluid flow)
Curl:
i j k
@ @ @
curl F = ∇ × F = Ö Ö
@/ @= @B
ä ì î
Physical Meaning:
Measures the rotation or circulation tendency of the field
Non-zero curl → field has rotational component (like a whirlpool)
Zero curl → irrotational field (conservative, potential exists)
Comparison Table:
Property Divergence Curl
Output Scalar quantity Vector quantity
Measures Expansion/compression Rotation/circulation
Notation ∇⋅F ∇×F
Zero means Solenoidal (incompressible) Irrotational (conservative)
Theorem Gauss Divergence Theorem Stokes' Theorem
Physical example Fluid compressibility Fluid rotation

Example 1: Find divergence and curl of F = * !i + *_ - j + *_fk at (1,2,3)

Finding Divergence:
Step 1: Calculate:
 i ! i i
div F = (* ) + (*_ - ) + (*_f)
i* i_ if
Step 2:
= 2* + 3*_ ! + *_
Step 3: At (1,2,3):
= 2(1) + 3(1)(4) + (1)(2) = 2 + 12 + 2 = 16
Finding Curl:
Step 1: Calculate:
i j k
i i i
curl F = ï
i* i_ if ï
! -
* *_ *_f
Step 2: Expand:
i(*_f) i(*_ -) i(*_f) i(* !) i(*_ - ) i(* !)
iÄ − Å −jÄ − Å+kÄ − Å
i_ if i* if i* i_
Step 3:
= i(*f − 0) − j(_f − 0) + k(_ - − 0)
= *fi − _fj + _ -k
Step 4: At (1,2,3):
= (1)(3)i − (2)(3)j + (2)- k = 3i − 6j + 8k
Answers:
Divergence = 16 (scalar - indicates net outward flow at this point)
Curl = 3i − 6j + 8k (vector - indicates rotation axis and magnitude)
Example 2: Determine if F = (2*_ + f ! )i + (* ! + 2_f)j + (2*f + _ ! )k is irrotational
Step 1: Calculate curl:
i j k
i i i
curl F = ï ï
i* i_ if
2*_ + f ! * ! + 2_f 2*f + _ !
Step 2: i-component:
i i
(2*f + _ !) − (* ! + 2_f) = 2_ − 2_ = 0
i_ if
Step 3: j-component:
i i
(2*_ + f ! ) − (2*f + _ !) = 2f − 2f = 0
if i*
Step 4: k-component:
i ! i
(* + 2_f) − (2*_ + f ! ) = 2* − 2* = 0
i* i_
Step 5: Since curl F = 0, the field is irrotational.
This means the field is conservative and there exists a scalar potential function | such that F = ∇|.

Q.3 Explain the significance of Green's Theorem in evaluating line integrals.

Ans. Green's Theorem:

For a region ñ bounded by simple closed curve ó (traversed counterclockwise):
@Y @W
∮ [ ä U* + ì U_ = ∬N j − k U* U_
@/ @=
Significance:
Converts line integral to double integral: Often much easier to evaluate
Relates boundary to interior: Connects what happens on the boundary curve to what happens inside the
region
Special case of Stokes' Theorem in 2D
Applications: Calculating area, work done by forces, fluid circulation
Example 1: Use Green's Theorem to evaluate ∮ [ (* ! + *_) U* + (* ! + _ ! ) U_ where ó is the boundary
of triangle with vertices (0,0), (1,0), (1,1) traversed counterclockwise
Step 1: Identify:
ä = * ! + *_, ì = * ! + _ !
Step 2: Calculate partial derivatives:
iì iä
= 2*, =*
i* i_
Step 3: Apply Green's Theorem:
∮ [ ä U* + ì U_ = ∬N (2* − *) U* U_ = ∬N * U* U_
Step 4: Identify the region R (triangle):
Vertices: (0,0), (1,0), (1,1)
For fixed $x \in $, _ ranges from 0 to *
Step 5: Set up double integral:
& /
∬N * U* U_ = ∫1 ∫1 * U_ U*
Step 6: Evaluate inner integral:
/
∫1 * U_ = *[_]/1 = * ⋅ * = * !
Step 7: Evaluate outer integral:
&
& ! *- 1
∫1 * U* = v w =
3 1 3
&
Answer:
-
/( =(
Example 2: Use Green's Theorem to find area enclosed by ellipse ( + ( = 1
' )
Step 1: Area formula using Green's Theorem:
&
~ = ∮ [ * U_ = −∮ [ _ U* = ! ∮ [ (* U_ − _ U*)
This comes from Green's Theorem with ä = −_, ì = *:
iì iä
− = 1 − (−1) = 2
i* i_
Step 2: Parametrize the ellipse:
* = "cos b, _ = $sin b, 0 ≤ b ≤ 2t
Step 3: Calculate differentials:
U* = −"sin b Ub, U_ = $cos b Ub
Step 4: Apply formula:
1
~ = ∮ [ (* U_ − _ U*)
2
1 !K
= ∫1 [("cos b)($cos b Ub) − ($sin b)(−"sin b Ub)]
2
 Step 5: Simplify:
1 !K
= ∫1 ["$cos! b + "$sin! b] Ub
2
1 !K
= ∫1 "$(cos ! b + sin! b) Ub
2
"$ !K
= ∫ 1 Ub
2 1
Step 6: Evaluate:
"$
= ⋅ 2t = t"$
2
Answer: Area of ellipse = t"$
This confirms the well-known formula! For a circle (" = $ = `), we get ~ = t`! .

Q.4 How does Gauss's Divergence Theorem relate a surface integral to a volume integral?

Ans. Gauss's Divergence Theorem:

For a closed surface Y enclosing region ë:
∬U F ⋅ n UY = ∭\ ∇ ⋅ F Us
Significance:
Converts surface integral to volume integral: Often easier to evaluate
Physical interpretation: Flux through closed surface equals total divergence inside
Applications: Fluid flow, electromagnetic theory, heat transfer
Example 1: Use Gauss's Divergence Theorem to find flux of F = (_ − *)i + (f − _)j + (_ − *)k across
cube bounded by * = ±1, _ = ±1, f = ±1
Step 1: Calculate divergence:
i i i
∇⋅F= (_ − *) + (f − _) + (_ − *)
i* i_ if
= −1 + (−1) + 0 = −2
Step 2: Apply Divergence Theorem:
∬U F ⋅ n UY = ∭\ (−2) Us
Step 3: Volume of cube:
s = 2×2×2 = 8
Step 4: Evaluate:
∭\ (−2) Us = −2 × 8 = −16
Answer: Flux = -16
Example 2: Find outward flux of F = _i + *_j + fk across region inside cylinder * ! + _ ! = 4 between
f = 0 and paraboloid f = * ! + _ !
Step 1: Calculate divergence:
i i i
∇⋅F= (_) + (*_) + (f)
i* i_ if
= 0+*+1= *+1
Step 2: Set up triple integral in cylindrical coordinates:
* = `cos Ç, _ = `sin Ç, Us = ` U` UÇ Uf
` from 0 to 2
Ç from 0 to 2t
f from 0 to ` !
Step 3: Transform divergence:
* + 1 = `cos Ç + 1
Step 4: Evaluate:
∭\ (`cos Ç + 1) ⋅ ` U` UÇ Uf
!K ! ](
= ∫1 ∫1 ∫1 (` ! cos Ç + `) Uf U` UÇ
Step 5: Inner integral:
](
∫1 (` ! cos Ç + `) Uf = ` !(`! cos Ç + `) = ` 8 cos Ç + ` -
Step 6: Middle integral:
!
! ` J cos Ç ` 8
∫1 (` 8 cos Ç + ` - ) U` = v + w
5 4 1
32cos Ç
= +4
5
Step 7: Outer integral:
!K
!K 32cos Ç 32sin Ç
∫1 d + 4e UÇ = y + 4Çz
5 5 1
= 0 + 8t = 8t
Answer: Flux = 8t