Module 3

Road Safety in Transport Planning and Geometric Design

1. Introduction

 Road safety is a critical component of transport planning and design, aimed at

minimizing accidents, injuries, and fatalities.

 Safe road design integrates human, vehicle, and roadway factors to create a
forgiving environment that accommodates driver errors.

2. Road Safety in Transport Planning

 Integration at Planning Stage: Safety considerations should be embedded at the

early stages of transport planning.

 Key Aspects:

o Traffic demand forecasting → Ensuring roads can handle expected volumes

safely.

o Land-use planning → Proper zoning to reduce conflict points (e.g., separating

residential and industrial areas).

o Public transport integration → Reduces traffic load, improves safety.

o Non-motorized transport (NMT) → Safe sidewalks, cycle tracks, pedestrian

crossings.

o Accessibility vs. Mobility balance → Limiting direct property access on high-

speed roads to prevent crashes.

 Safety Impact Assessment (SIA) → Evaluates safety performance of planned projects

before implementation.

3. Geometric Design Elements Affecting Road Safety

 Geometric design ensures that roads are safe, comfortable, and efficient for all road
users.

 Major elements:

1. Alignment

 Horizontal & vertical curves → Adequate sight distance,

superelevation, and transition curves reduce crash risk.

2. Cross-section
  Lane width, shoulders, medians → Wider lanes and shoulders increase
safety margins.

3. Intersections & Junctions

 Proper sight distance, channelization, roundabouts, and signalization

improve safety.

4. Access control

 Limits on entry/exit points to reduce conflict.

5. Grade separations

 Flyovers, underpasses to reduce crossing conflicts.

6. Traffic calming measures

 Speed humps, chicanes, narrowing in urban areas for pedestrian

safety.

4. Road Design and Safety Elements

 Sight Distance: Stopping, overtaking, and decision sight distances are vital for safe
maneuvers.

 Cross-sectional Elements: Proper shoulder width, clear zones, and roadside safety
barriers.

 Pavement Surface: Skid resistance, drainage, and smoothness affect crash risk.

 Lighting: Street lighting improves night visibility.

 Signage & Markings: Provide guidance and warnings to drivers.

 Roadside Design: Safe slopes, crash barriers, removal of hazards like rigid
poles/trees.

5. Redesigning Junctions for Safety

 Junctions are critical accident-prone locations (blackspots).

 Safety improvements:

o Replace uncontrolled intersections with roundabouts or signalized junctions.

o Channelization (using islands, markings) to guide traffic flows.

o Adequate pedestrian crossings, refuge islands, and signals.

o Grade separation for high-volume intersections.

o Improved lighting and visibility at night.

6. Human and Vehicle Considerations

 Human factors: Driver behavior, reaction time, vision, fatigue → incorporated in

design standards.

 Vehicle factors: Dimensions, braking capabilities, acceleration, maneuverability.

7. Modern Approaches in Road Safety

 Vision Zero concept → Long-term goal of eliminating fatalities.

 Safe System Approach → Shared responsibility between planners, designers, users.

 ITS (Intelligent Transport Systems) → Smart signals, speed enforcement cameras,

variable message signs.

 Road Safety Audit (RSA) → Systematic check at planning, design, construction, and
operation stages.

Vehicle and Human Characteristics

1. Introduction

Road traffic is influenced by two primary components:

 Vehicle characteristics (physical and dynamic features of vehicles).

 Human characteristics (capabilities and limitations of drivers, pedestrians, cyclists).

Understanding these is essential for safe and efficient road and traffic system design.

2. Vehicle Characteristics

(a) Static Characteristics

 Dimensions: length, width, height, wheelbase (affects lane width, parking space,
turning radius).

 Weight: gross vehicle weight influences pavement design and bridge loading.

 Turning radius: important for curve design and intersection layout.

 Headlight characteristics: illumination range affects night visibility.

(b) Dynamic Characteristics

 Speed:

o Desired speed, running speed, average speed.

o Affects design speed of roads.

  Acceleration / Deceleration:

o Determines overtaking, signal timings, and intersection clearance.

 Braking performance:

o Stopping distance depends on brake efficiency, tire-road friction, and vehicle

load.

 Maneuverability and stability:

o Lateral stability on curves, rollover tendency for high CG vehicles.

 Power-to-weight ratio:

o Governs climbing ability on gradients.

3. Human Characteristics

(a) Physical Characteristics

 Vision:

o Range of vision (normal 120–180°), night vision, color vision (traffic signals),
visual acuity.

 Reaction time:

o Perception, intellection, emotion, volition (PIEV theory).

o Average reaction time ≈ 2.5 sec (design value for SSD).

 Hearing:

o Useful for horns, sirens, warnings.

 Fatigue:

o Long driving reduces alertness.

(b) Psychological Characteristics

 Decision making: varies by experience, age, education.

 Risk-taking tendency: young drivers may over-speed, ignore safety.

 Discipline / compliance: following traffic rules, lane discipline.

 Emotions: anger, frustration, or stress affect driving behavior.

(c) Limitations

 Inattentiveness, distraction (mobile phones, fatigue).

 Misjudgment of speed/distance.
  Overestimation of driving skills.

4. Importance in Road Design and Safety

 Vehicle dimensions → decide lane width, clearance, parking layout.

 Acceleration/deceleration → determine sight distances, signal timings, gradient

design.

 Human vision & reaction time → form basis for Stopping Sight Distance (SSD),
Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD).

 Driver psychology → affects traffic control measures, enforcement needs.

 Pedestrian characteristics → require safe crossings, refuge islands, sidewalks.

5. Conclusion

Both vehicle performance and human factors are critical in transportation system design.
Safety measures, road geometry, and traffic control devices must account for:

 Vehicle size, speed, braking ability.

 Human vision, reaction, and decision-making limits.

Road Design and Safety Elements

1. Introduction
Road design is not just about providing connectivity; it must ensure safety, comfort, and
efficiency. Poor design leads to conflicts, crashes, and unsafe conditions. Therefore, road
design must incorporate safety elements at every stage – alignment, cross-section,
intersections, and roadside environment.

2. Road Design Elements Influencing Safety

(a) Alignment

 Horizontal alignment: proper curve radius, transition curves, and super-elevation

reduce skidding/overturning.
 Vertical alignment: gentle gradients and adequate summit/valley curves ensure
visibility and driving comfort.

(b) Cross-Sectional Elements

 Carriageway width: sufficient width prevents side-swipe collisions.

 Shoulders: provide recovery space for errant vehicles.
 Medians: separate opposing traffic streams, reducing head-on collisions.
 Clear zones: obstruction-free area improves roadside safety.
 Drainage: prevents waterlogging and hydroplaning.
(c) Sight Distance

 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD): based on driver reaction time and braking distance.
 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD): ensures safe passing on two-lane roads.
 Intersection Sight Distance (ISD): prevents crashes at junctions.

(d) Intersections & Interchanges

 At-grade intersections: channelization, signals, and roundabouts reduce conflicts.

 Grade-separated interchanges: improve flow and eliminate collision points on high-
speed roads.

(e) Roadside Design

 Guardrails, crash barriers, and energy-absorbing devices reduce severity of run-off-

road crashes.
 Forgiving roadside (no rigid obstacles near carriageway).

3. Safety Elements in Road Design

(a) Traffic Control Devices

 Road signs, markings, and signals provide uniform guidance.

 Reflective markings and cat’s eyes for night visibility.

(b) Speed Management

 Speed humps, rumble strips, and narrowed lanes in urban/local roads.

 Design consistency to avoid sudden speed changes.

(c) Pedestrian & Cyclist Facilities

 Sidewalks, cycle tracks, pedestrian crossings, foot overbridges, and underpasses.

 Refuge islands in wide roads.

(d) Access Control

 Entry/exit management on highways reduces conflict points.

 Service roads for local traffic.

(e) Road Safety Audit (RSA)

 Independent safety checks during planning, design, construction, and operation.

 Helps in early identification of hazards.

4. Integration of Safety into Design

 Forgiving roads: minimize injury even when errors occur.
  Self-explaining roads: layout intuitively guides drivers.
 Black spot treatment: redesigning accident-prone locations.

5. Conclusion
Road design and safety are inseparable. Proper geometric standards, adequate sight distances,
pedestrian facilities, access control, and roadside safety measures greatly reduce accident
risk. Integrating safety principles from planning to operation creates a safer transport
system.

Redesigning Junctions
1. Introduction

Junctions (intersections) are critical points in any road network where two or more roads
meet. They are often conflict-prone zones where accidents, delays, and congestion occur.
Redesigning junctions involves improving layout, control, and geometry to:

 Reduce conflict points.

 Enhance safety for all users.

 Improve traffic capacity and efficiency.

2. Problems with Poorly Designed Junctions

 High accident rates (rear-end, side-impact, pedestrian crashes).

 Traffic delays and long queues.

 Driver confusion due to unclear priority.

 Insufficient pedestrian/cyclist safety.

 Encroachment and irregular vehicle movements.

3. Principles of Junction Redesign

 Safety first: Minimize conflict points and ensure clear visibility.

 Simplicity: Layout should be intuitive (self-explaining).

 Capacity: Accommodate current and projected traffic demand.

 Equity: Provide safe facilities for pedestrians, cyclists, and public transport.

 Environment: Reduce noise, emissions, and unnecessary idling.

4. Methods of Redesigning Junctions

(a) Channelization

 Use of traffic islands, medians, and markings to guide vehicle paths.

 Separates conflicting movements and improves safety.

(b) Roundabouts

 Replace signalized or uncontrolled intersections where volumes are moderate.

 Reduce severity of crashes (eliminates head-on and right-angle collisions).

 Improve flow by reducing stop-and-go conditions.

(c) Grade Separation

 Flyovers, underpasses, or interchanges remove conflicts at busy junctions.

 Suitable for highways and high-volume urban intersections.

(d) Traffic Signal Optimization

 Intelligent signal systems (adaptive signals) to reduce waiting times.

 Coordinated signals ("green wave") improve safety and reduce delays.

(e) Pedestrian and Cyclist Facilities

 Zebra crossings, pelican crossings, refuge islands.

 Foot overbridges or underpasses at high-volume junctions.

 Dedicated cycle lanes.

(f) Smart Junctions

 Use of ITS (Intelligent Transport Systems) like CCTV, sensors, and adaptive signal
control.

 Real-time monitoring to enhance safety and efficiency.

5. Safety Considerations in Redesign

 Adequate sight distance at approaches.

 Proper lane markings and signage.

 Speed control measures at approaches (rumble strips, warning signs).

 Lighting for night safety.

 Designing for vulnerable road users.

6. Examples / Applications

 Conversion of black spots: accident-prone intersections redesigned into roundabouts

or signalized junctions.

 Urban flyovers in India: major junctions redesigned to handle growing traffic (e.g.,
Outer Ring Road, Bangalore).

 Smart signals (ATCS) in metro cities: adaptive signals to reduce congestion and
improve safety.

7. Conclusion

Redesigning junctions is an essential step in road safety engineering. By applying geometric

improvements, traffic control measures, grade separation, and smart technologies,
junctions can be made safer, more efficient, and user-friendly.

Cross Section Improvements

Cross Section Improvements refer to the modifications made to the geometric elements of
a road’s cross section to enhance safety, capacity, drainage, and riding comfort.

Key Components of Cross Section Improvements:

1. Carriageway Widening:

o Increasing lane width or number of lanes to accommodate higher traffic

volume.

2. Shoulder Improvements:

o Providing or strengthening shoulders for vehicle recovery and pedestrian

movement.

o Paved or stabilized shoulders improve safety and reduce edge failures.

3. Median Improvements:

o Widening or providing medians to separate opposing traffic flows.

o Can include installation of barriers or landscaping.

4. Side Slope Flattening:

o Reducing slope steepness to minimize accident severity during vehicle run-off.

5. Drainage Enhancement:

o Improving side drains, camber, and cross fall to ensure proper water runoff.
 6. Pavement Strengthening:

o Overlaying or reconstructing weak pavements to handle traffic loads.

7. Provision for Non-Motorized Traffic:

o Adding service roads, cycle tracks, or footpaths for safe mixed traffic
movement.

8. Roadside Safety Features:

o Installing guardrails, delineators, and crash barriers.

Traffic Control
Traffic Control refers to the regulation, management, and guidance of road users—
including vehicles and pedestrians—to ensure safe, efficient, and orderly movement on
roads and at intersections.

Objectives of Traffic Control:

1. Ensure safety of all road users.

2. Maintain smooth and continuous traffic flow.

3. Minimize delays, congestion, and conflicts.

4. Provide clear guidance and information to drivers and pedestrians.

5. Improve road capacity and operational efficiency.

Types of Traffic Control:

1. Fixed Control Devices:

o Traffic Signs:
Provide warnings, regulations, and information.

 Examples: Stop sign, speed limit, curve warning.

o Traffic Signals:
Control vehicle and pedestrian movement through timed light indications
(Red–Amber–Green).

o Pavement Markings:
Guide and regulate traffic flow—lane lines, stop lines, arrows, pedestrian
crossings.

2. Variable / Dynamic Control:

 o Traffic Police or Manual Control:
Used during special events, congestion, or signal failure.

o Variable Message Signs (VMS):

Display real-time information such as diversions, delays, or incidents.

o Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS):

Use sensors, cameras, and adaptive signals for automated traffic
management.

3. Geometric Control:

o Through road design features like roundabouts, channelization, medians, and

refuge islands.

Importance of Traffic Control:

 Reduces accidents and conflicts.

 Enhances traffic efficiency and discipline.

 Assists in enforcement of traffic laws.

 Supports emergency management and congestion reduction.

Traffic Calming Measures

Traffic Calming Measures are physical design features and management strategies used to
reduce vehicle speeds, improve road safety, and enhance the environment for pedestrians,
cyclists, and residents—especially in urban and residential areas.

Objectives of Traffic Calming:

1. Reduce vehicle speeds and driver aggression.

2. Increase safety for pedestrians and cyclists.

3. Decrease traffic noise and pollution.

4. Improve livability and aesthetic quality of neighborhoods.

5. Discourage through-traffic in local streets.

Types of Traffic Calming Measures:

1. Physical Measures:
  Speed Humps / Speed Tables:
Raised road surfaces that force vehicles to slow down.

 Raised Pedestrian Crossings:

Elevated crosswalks providing priority and visibility to pedestrians.

 Chicanes (Lateral Shifts):

Alternating curb extensions creating a winding path to slow traffic.

 Road Narrowing (Neck-downs):

Reduces road width at intersections or mid-blocks to limit speed.

 Roundabouts / Mini Roundabouts:

Control intersection speed and reduce conflict points.

 Rumble Strips:
Grooved surfaces alert drivers through vibration and noise.

2. Visual / Psychological Measures:

 Colored Pavements or Textured Surfaces:

Alert drivers to pedestrian zones or speed-restricted areas.

 Street Trees and Landscaping:

Visually narrow the roadway, encouraging slower speeds.

 Improved Signage and Markings:

Reinforce awareness of local zones, schools, or pedestrian crossings.

3. Regulatory Measures:

 Speed Limits and Enforcement Cameras.

 Restricted Entry or One-Way Streets.

 Parking Controls to reduce roadside congestion.

Benefits:

 Reduced accident frequency and severity.

 Improved community safety and comfort.

 Encourages walking and cycling.

 Enhances urban aesthetics and environmental quality.

Road Safety Furniture
Road Safety Furniture refers to the permanent fixtures and installations placed along roads
to improve safety, guidance, and control for road users. These elements help prevent
accidents, reduce impact severity, and enhance visibility and communication on roads.

Objectives of Road Safety Furniture:

1. Guide and control vehicle and pedestrian movement.

2. Minimize accident severity during crashes.

3. Provide visual information and warnings to drivers.

4. Improve safety during both day and night conditions.

Types of Road Safety Furniture:

1. Roadside Safety Devices:

 Crash Barriers / Guardrails:

Prevent vehicles from leaving the roadway (used on curves, bridges, embankments).

o Types: W-beam barrier, Thrie-beam barrier, Concrete barrier.

 End Terminals & Crash Cushions:

Absorb impact energy and protect vehicle occupants from severe crashes.

 Bollards:
Short posts preventing vehicle entry into pedestrian zones or pathways.

2. Traffic Control Devices:

 Traffic Signs:
Regulatory, warning, and informatory signs for driver guidance.

 Traffic Signals:
Control vehicle and pedestrian movement at intersections.

 Pavement Markings:
Lane markings, arrows, zebra crossings, and stop lines to guide movement.

3. Roadside Delineators and Reflectors:

 Delineators:
Posts with reflectors used to mark road alignment, especially at curves or during
night.
  Cat’s Eyes / Road Studs:
Reflective devices embedded in pavements for lane visibility at night or in rain.

 Chevron and Hazard Markers:

Indicate sharp curves, bends, or obstacles.

4. Pedestrian Safety Devices:

 Guardrails / Railings:
Prevent pedestrians from crossing at unsafe locations.

 Foot Overbridges (FOB) / Subways:

Safe crossing facilities for pedestrians.

 Pedestrian Signals:
Separate phase lights for pedestrian movement at crossings.

5. Lighting and Visibility Aids:

 Street Lighting:
Improves visibility at night, reducing accidents.

 Retroreflective Signs and Markings:

Enhance nighttime recognition and guidance.

Benefits:

 Enhances safety and comfort for all road users.

 Reduces accident rates and severity.

 Improves traffic discipline and visibility.

 Supports efficient road operation.