CLIMATE OF INDIA

Owing to its vast size and varied topography, the Indian subcontinent has
varied climatic conditions but in general, the climate of India is the tropical
monsoon type.
Reasons:-
●​ The greater part of the Indian subcontinent lies within the tropics, so
has tropical climate..
●​ The monsoon winds control the climate of India. Monsoon winds are

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periodic winds which change their directions according to seasons -
the South-West Monsoon Winds blow from sea to land (on-shore

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winds) in late summer (rainy Season) and the North-East Monsoon
Winds are off-shore winds which blow during winter.
The main characteristics of the tropical monsoon climate are relatively

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high temperatures in major parts of India and dry winters, rainfall mostly
occurring from June to September.
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There are great similarities between the monsoon winds and land and sea
breezes (both are the examples of the periodic winds). For instance -
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➢​Both the winds, monsoon winds and land and sea breezes are
caused due to the differential rate of heating and cooling of land and
water (sea).
➢​Both reverse their directions periodically and derive their names
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accordingly.

On the other hand, the differences between these two types of winds are:
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Land and Sea Breezes Monsoon Winds

Land and sea breezes reverse their Monsoon winds reverse their
direction in the course of the day directions according to seasons
(daily phenomena). (seasonal phenomena).

Land and sea breezes do not bring The monsoon winds bring rainfall
rainfall, they only modify the as they blow over a sufficient

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temperature along the coast. Even duration of time over the sea to
the sea breezes do not bring collect moisture.
rainfall as the period during which
they blow over the sea is too short
for collecting moisture from the sea.
Land and sea breezes affect a Monsoon winds affect a large area,
small coastal area. the entire Indian subcontinent.

Monsoonal climate is so well developed in the Indian subcontinent because

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of the variation in the pressure due to the differential rate of heating and

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cooling of land and water bodies according to seasons.

FEATURES OF INDIAN CLIMATE

1.​ Tropical monsoon type of climate.

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2.​ Diversity in climatic conditions.
3.​ Monsoon mechanism dominates the climate.
4.​ Presence of four distinct seasons in the year.
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5.​ Tropical depressions or Bay cyclones in the late rainy season.
6.​ Westerly depressions / disturbances causing rainfall (precipitation)
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during winter in North and North-West India.

Although, in general, the climate of India is a tropical monsoon, there is

variation in climatic conditions. We can see mainly the variation in
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temperature and rainfall conditions.

Regional Variation in -
Temperature-
●​ Barmer or Bikaner in Rajasthan may record a temperature of around
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50o C on a June day while it hardly reaches around 20o C at

Pahalgam or Gulmarg in Kashmir on the same day.
(Bermer or Bikaner is located in Rajasthan Plains, away from
moderating influence of the sea, has continental climate, so summer
is very hot but Pahalgam or Gulmarg is located in the Himalayan
mountains where summer temperature is less due to its higher

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 elevation above mean sea level, according to normal lapse rate,
temperature decreases with increase in elevation).

●​ The temperature touches - 40o C in Kargil (Ladakh) in the month of

December whereas Kochi (Kerala) records around 20o C in the same
month.
(In December, i.e. winter, the temperature in Kargil is very low due to
its high latitude and also its very high elevation. Due to its high
latitude, the angle of incidence of sun rays is very low in winter and

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also due to its high elevation, according to the normal lapse rate,
temperature decreases with increase in height. On the contrary,

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Kochi is close to the Equator, so even in winter the angle of incidence
of sun rays is high, moreover, Kochi is located along the coast,
experiences the moderating influence of the sea. Therefore, winters

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are relatively warmer).

●​ Malabar Coastal Plains (Kerala) has an equable climate where the

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annual range of temperature is about 3o C whereas Punjab Plains
experience continental climate with an annual range of temperature
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around 20o C.
(The Malabar Coastal Plains experience moderating influence of the
sea, so summers are not very hot and winters are not very cold but
Punjab Plains have interior location, away from the moderating
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influence of the sea. Here, summers are very hot and winters are
very cold).

●​ The daily / diurnal range of temperature in Andaman and Nicobar

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Islands and Kerala / Goa is hardly 7 or 8 degree C. whereas in the

Thar Desert (Rajasthan) it is between 25 to 30 degree C.
(Andaman and Nicobar Islands / Kerala / Goa experience moderating
influence of the sea, moreover, due to its cloud cover and vegetation,
which covers the land, days are not very hot and nights are not very
cold. On the contrary, the Thar Desert is away from the moderating
influence of the sea and also because of the absence of cloud cover

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 as Rajasthan has mostly clear sky and absence of vegetation cover,
days are very hot and nights are very cold).
Regional Variation in -
Precipitation-
●​ Snowfall occurs in the Himalayas, mostly during winter whereas it
only rains over the rest of the country.
(Due to the very high elevation of the Himalayas, in winter, air
temperature falls to below freezing level of water, so snowfall is quite
common but in rest of India, even in winter, the temperature mostly

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remains above freezing level of water, so rainfall is common).

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●​ Mawsynram (the wettest place in the world) in Meghalaya receives
more than 1000 cm of rain in the year whereas Jaisalmer in
Rajasthan receives less than 10 cm. in a year.

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(Mawsynram is located at the crest of the Khasi Hills on the southern
(windward) slope, so the Bay of Bengal branch of South-West
Monsoon Winds bring heavy rainfall but Jaisalmer is located in
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western Rajasthan, where the Arabian Sea branch of South-West
Monsoon Winds blow parallel to the direction of the Aravalli Range,
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so there is no obstruction of the moisture-bearing winds, so no

rainfall. Also, western Rajasthan is located in the rain-shadow region
of the Aravalli Range, so the Bay of Bengal branch of South-West
Monsoon Winds cannot bring rainfall).
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●​ Most parts of India receive rainfall during the rainy season, i.e. from
June to September but the Coastal areas of Tamil Nadu (Coromandel
Coastal Plains) remain mostly dry in the rainy season but receive
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rainfall in November and December when the rest of India is almost

dry.
(In rainy season, the on-shore both the branches of South-West
Monsoon Winds bring rainfall to almost entire India but the
Coromandel Coast or Coastal Plains are located in the rain-shadow
region of the Western Ghats, so the Arabian Sea branch of
South-West Monsoon Winds cannot bring rainfall and also the Bay of
Bengal branch of South-West Monsoon Winds blow parallel to the

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 coast, so there is no or hardly any rainfall. In November-December,
due to the influence of the off-shore Winter Monsoon Winds, most of
the areas in India remain dry but Coromandel Coastal Plains receive
rainfall because of the occurrence of tropical cyclones and in winter,
the North-East Monsoon Winds after blowing over the Bay of Bengal
pick up moisture to bring rainfall).

FACTORS AFFECTING THE CLIMATE OF INDIA

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●​ Latitude - India lies between approximately 8° N and 37° N. So
if we only consider latitudes, then we will see, temperature as a

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whole, decreases with increase in latitude, [Link] south to
north.
The Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) passes through the middle of

TrIndia, dividing India into two climatic zones, the south of the
Tropic of Cancer is in the tropical zone which is part of Torrid
Zone and to the north of the Tropic of Cancer, the area is in the
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temperate zone. Due to the presence of the Himalayas, the
south of the Himalayan regions, i.e. Northern Plains experience
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warm temperate climate because the Himalayas do not allow

the warm winds blowing from south (warmer lower latitudes) to
escape and also do not allow the cold winds blowing from north
to enter India. So, the Himalayas modify temperate climate to
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warm temperate climate.

The northern part of India is located just to the north of the
Tropic of Cancer, just beyond the tropic so the areas (Northern
Plains) also experience sub-tropical climate.
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(The Northern Plains of India experience continental / warm

temperate / subtropical climate and the climatic characteristic
feature is extreme seasonal temperature variation, i.e. summers
are very hot and winters are very cold)

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 k
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●​ The Himalayas form the climatic barrier separating the Indian
subcontinent from the rest of Asia and do not allow free
north-south movement of winds. The Himalayas do not allow

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the warm winds blowing from south (warmer lower latitudes) to
escape (blow to the north of the Himalayas) and also do not
allow the cold winds blowing from north to enter India.
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The Himalayas are also called Climatic Divide because they
prevent the cold Siberian winds from entering India in winter.
The Himalayas also force the moisture laden South-West
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Monsoon Winds to shed rainfall in India, especially in North

India. Thus preventing India, especially, North India from
becoming a cold desert.
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●​ The Monsoon Winds - The monsoon winds are seasonal

periodic winds. In summer, due to the differential rate of heating
of land and sea, the air pressure over the heated land surface ,
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especially over the Northern Plains becomes very low but the
surrounding cooler water bodies have relatively high pressure.
So the winds blow from sea to land as the South-West
Monsoon Winds in late summer or rainy season. Almost all the
places in India receive rainfall during the rainy season from
on-shore South-West Monsoon Winds. During winters the
conditions reverse. Due to the differential rate of cooling of land
and sea, high pressure exists over the cold land and low

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 pressure forms over warmer seas (water bodies). So winds
blow from land to sea. Major parts of India remain dry because
of the presence of cold, off-shore Winter Monsoon Winds, only
Tamil Nadu coast (Coromandel Coastal Plain) receives winter
rain from the North-East Monsoon Winds after blowing over the
Bay of Bengal.

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●​ Varied Relief - The major source of rain of Indian subcontinent
is the on-shore monsoon winds and the monsoonal rain is
orographic (relief) in nature - windward slope receives heavy
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rainfall but leeward slopes / rain-shadow areas are dry.
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Location of hill or mountain ranges with respect to the direction

of the on-shore winds, whether parallel or perpendicular,

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 decides the amount of rainfall in that area. When the relief
feature is perpendicular to the direction of moisture-bearing
winds (example is Western Ghats which obstruct on-shore
South-West Monsoon Winds blowing from the Arabian Sea), it
obstruct the winds and forces the air to rise to condense and
shed rainfall on windward slope(western slope of the Western
Ghats) but after crossing the hill or mountain, when the air
reaches the opposite slope, opposite of windward slope, which
is called the leeward slope (eastern slope of the Western

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Ghats), the air becomes dry and as the air blows down slopes,
becomes warmer and unsaturated, so cannot condense to form

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cloud to shed rain. The leeward slope remains dry. The area on
the leeward slope is the rainshadow region (Deccan Plateau is
the rain-shadow region of the Western Ghats) is rainless.

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If the moisture-bearing winds blow parallel to the direction of the
hill or mountain, then the relief feature cannot intercept the
winds; for example, the Arabian Sea branch of South-West
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Monsoon Winds blow parallel to the Aravalli range, which
cannot obstruct the moisture-bearing winds and so there is no
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rainfall in Rajasthan-Gujarat area.

●​ Altitude -According to normal lapse rate, with increase in

height temperature decreases at the rate of 1℃. for every 166
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metres rise in elevation. Therefore, hills and mountains are

cooler than the plains.

●​ Influence of the Surrounding Seas - The major source of rain

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in India is on-shore monsoon winds. The coastal areas usually

receive more rainfall than the interior because on-shore winds
first touch the coasts and bring rain, as these on-shore winds
proceed to the interior the winds become off-shore, dry, the
amount of rainfall decreases towards the interior of the land.

●​ Distance from the Seas - Areas along the coast experiences

equable / maritime climate due to the moderating influence of

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 the sea. The effect of land breeze and sea breeze caused by
the differential rate of heating and cooling of land and sea are
responsible for equable (maritime) climate. Here, summers are
not very hot and winters are not very cold, so the annual range
of temperature is low.
In the interior of the land mass the climate is continental
because of the absence of moderating influence of the sea.
Here summers are very hot and winters are very cold, so the
annual range of temperature is high.

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●​ Western Disturbances - Temperate cyclones originate over

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the Mediterranean Sea in winter. During the winter season, the
pressure belts along with permanent wind belts shift towards
south following the apparent southward migration of the Sun.

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So the Westerlies blow roughly from 20° N to 50° N. in winter.
The entire North India comes under the influence of Westerlies.
With the help of Westerlies, temperate cyclones from the
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Mediterranean Sea come towards India and bring rain to the
north-western plains and snowfall to the Himalayan region.
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 ●​ Jet Streams are fast flowing, narrow, meandering high-altitude
winds.
The main jet streams are located near the altitude of the
tropopause and are westerly winds (blowing from west to east).
Their paths typically have a meandering shape.

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There are two jet streams that affect the climate of India:

Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream (STWJ): This jet stream flows

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from west to east, generally to the north of India, beyond the
Himalayas during the summer and shifts south of the Himalayas
during the winter.
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During winter, the Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream moves south of the
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Himalayas. Due to this shift, the Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream attracts
more Western Disturbances originating in the Mediterranean region and
allows more temperate cyclones to enter India from the west. These
disturbances bring winter cyclonic rainfall to the northern and
northwestern parts of India, including states like Punjab, Haryana, and
Himachal Pradesh, and snowfall to the higher mountain regions.

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Tropical Easterly Jet Stream (TEJ): This jet stream blows from east to
west over peninsular India during the season of the summer monsoon
winds.

The arrival of the summer monsoon winds is closely linked to the

movement of the Tropical Easterly Jet Streams.

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In late summer, the Tropical Easterly Jet Stream helps to keep the
South-West Monsoon Winds active and influences their movement and the
amount of rainfall they bring to different parts of India. Sometimes, the
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easterly jet stream also helps in steering tropical depressions from the
Bay of Bengal into India, which can cause significant rainfall.
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●​ El-Nino Effect - The cold Humboldt Current, also known as Peru

current, flows off the coast of Peru in South America.
Some years during December this current is replaced, temporarily, by
the warm El Nino. This warm current can increase the sea surface
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temperature by 10℃. Appearance of the El Nino causes weak

monsoonal rain leads to drought in India. Due to the occurrence
of El Nino, the pattern of sea surface pressure changes between the
Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.
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When the cold Humboldt Current flows, high pressure exists over the
eastern part of the Pacific Ocean. This results in strong monsoon
winds and normal rainfall as the South-East Trade Winds can absorb
large amounts of moisture while travelling west from the Pacific Ocean
to the Indian Ocean.
Certain Years, when the El Nino flows, low pressure is observed over
the eastern Pacific Ocean. The South-East Trade Winds become

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 weaker and less moisture-bearing winds enter the Indian Ocean which
causes weaker monsoonal rain.

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SEASONS

Hot Weather Season / Summer Season

●​ March to May
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●​ The Sun apparently migrates from the Equator to the Tropic of

Cancer.
●​ Temperature increases due to high angle of incidence of sun rays
because of northward apparent migration of the Sun and longer
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duration of day-time.
●​ Most of the areas in India, temperature ranges between 30oC to 32o
C.
●​ In North-West India, temperature is around 48oC. because of its
interior location, there is absence of moderating influence of the sea.
So summer temperature rises.

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●​ In South India, temperature varies between 26oC and 32oC. because
the southern part of India is the peninsula, the area is surrounded by
water bodies on three sides and experiences the moderating
influence of the sea. So summers are not very hot.
●​ Coastal areas especially receive the moderating influence of the sea
so summer temperature gets modified, summers are cooler.
●​ High elevated areas, like mountains, hills or plateaus are cooler
because with increase in height temperature decreases according to
normal lapse rate.

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●​ Diurnal range of temperature is high in the interior, especially in
desert areas in Rajasthan because of the absence of the moderating

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influence of the sea and also due to the presence of clear skies and
absence of vegetation. Days are very hot and nights are very cold.
●​ Extreme high temperature area exists in the north-western part

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(Punjab Plains) of India, in fact, a low pressure belt starts to develop
from the Thar Desert to the Chotanagpur Plateau.
●​ The surrounding seas are cooler and air pressure is relatively higher
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because of the differential rate of heating of land and sea.
●​ Characteristics of this season are: -
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➢​High temperature over most of India.

➢​Mostly dry with occasional local storms.
●​ At this time, an area of slightly high pressure exists over the Deccan
Plateau (since it is relatively cooler compared to the Northern Plains)
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which prevents the winds from blowing into India from the
surrounding water bodies.
●​ This season is marked by weak winds (as the pressure gradient is
gentle) and dryness (on-shore winds cannot enter India due to weak
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pressure gradient. The high pressure over Peninsular India also

prevents the on-shore winds from entertaining India) over most of the
area.
●​ However, winds from the regions surrounding the Northern Plains are
drawn into circulation, giving rise to violent local winds / storms.
Occasionally moisture-laden air is also drawn in.

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 ●​ Local winds are formed because of convection current produced in
the air due to high temperature during this season. Wherever, the
moisture-laden air is drawn in, the convectional rainfall occurs.

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●​ Loo is the hot, dry, dusty winds that blow in the Northern Plains
(Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar). These winds
blow during daytime and are associated with very high temperatures
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ranging from 45o C to 50o C, these winds are hot enough to cause
heat strokes.
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●​ Kalbaisakhi (calamity in the month of Baisakh) occurs in West Bengal

and in Assam (local name of Kalbaisakhi in Assam is Bardoli
Chheerha). These are thunderstorms, so short heavy rainfall is
accompanied with strong winds, thunder and lightning. Based on
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wind direction, these winds are also called ‘Norwesters’, as they

generally move from north-west to south-east.

Although Kalbaisakhi is very destructive in nature, this short summer

rain is good for rice and jute cultivation in west Bengal and rice and
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tea cultivation in Assam.

●​ Mango Showers or Cherry Blossom (Blossom Shower) occur in

Kerala and also along the coast of Karnataka, this short summer rain
is good for early ripening of mangoes. This short summer shower
helps in the flowering coffee plants.

____________________________________________________________

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Season of Advancing South-West Monsoon Winds / Rainy Season
●​ From June to September.
●​ The Sun is almost vertical over the Tropic of Cancer.
●​ Due to the differential rate of heating of land and sea, the land is
warmer than the surrounding sea / water bodies.
●​ Over the Northern Plains, a low pressure belt develops (due to
extreme high temperature) and an intense low pressure centre
develops over the Punjab Plains. Over the surrounding cooler water
bodies air pressure is high.

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●​ At the end of May and beginning of June, the low pressure over the
land becomes very intense.

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●​ The pressure gradient becomes very strong.
●​ The intense low pressure over the Northern Plains attracts winds
blowing from surrounding water bodies and also the permanent winds

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blowing over the Indian Ocean in the Southern Hemisphere.
●​ The South-East Trade Winds which are the permanent winds in the
Southern Hemisphere, blowing over the Indian Ocean are drawn into
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India.
●​ When the South-East Trade Winds cross the Equator, they get
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deflected towards the right due to the Coriolis Effect and they blow
towards India as the South-West Monsoon Winds (Summer Monsoon
Winds).
●​ The advance of the South-West Monsoon Winds is rapid and caused
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due to the presence of steep pressure gradient between intense low

pressure over the Northern Plains and high pressure over the Indian
Ocean.
●​ Kanyakumari is the first place and Kerala is the first state to receive
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the monsoonal rain. Kerala is also the last state to see its withdrawal.
So Kerala experiences the longest rainy season.
●​ The monsoonal rain brings down the temperature and hence, some
respite from the heat as long as it rains. As relative humidity is high
during the rainy season so when it does not rain we feel quite
uncomfortable.
●​ Due to the tapering shape of Peninsular India, the South-West
Monsoon Winds divides into two branches:

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 The Arabian Sea branch of South-West Monsoon Winds and
the Bay of Bengal branch of South-West Monsoon Winds.
●​ The sudden violent onset of the South-West Monsoon Winds in the
first week of June, along the Coast of Kerala, which brings heavy
rainfall accompanied by thunder and lightning is called the Burst of
the Monsoon.
●​ During the rainy season, if there is a dry period for two or more than
two weeks, it is called the Break of Monsoon.
●​ Very short period of dryness during the rainy season is called

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monsoon lull.
The Arabian Sea Branch of the South-West Monsoon Winds

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The South-West Monsoon Winds which blow over the Arabian Sea further
split into three sub-branches (three currents):
The Arabian Sea branch of South-West Monsoon Winds has three times

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greater capacity to bring rainfall to the Indian subcontinent than that of the
Bay of Bengal branch of South-West Monsoon Winds.
This branch approaches the south-west coast of India by the first week of
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June.
First Current - The Arabian Sea Branch of South-West Monsoon Winds, as
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it approaches towards the Indian landmass (West Coast), is obstructed by

the Western Ghats. These winds go up the slopes of the Western Ghats,
become cool to condense and bring heavy rains on the windward slopes
(the western slopes of the Western Ghats and the Western Coastal Plains).
eo

After crossing the Western Ghats these winds, which are already
exhausted (dry) start descending on the opposite of the windward slope,
which is called the leeward slope. The air gets heated up and thereby the
air becomes unsaturated. So the leeward slope receives less rainfall or no
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rainfall (the eastern slope of the Western Ghats is the leeward slope). The
area on the leeward slope which is rainless is called the rain-shadow region
(the Deccan Plateau is the rain-shadow region of the Western Ghats which
remains dry).
Second Current - The on-shore winds continuously get obstructed by the
Western Ghats, bring rainfall on its windward slopes and also, start to move
towards north along the west coast. When the winds strike the coast north
of Mumbai, then these winds enter through the estuaries of the rivers

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Narmada and Tapi and start to move towards the interior along these river
valleys and reach up to the Chotanagpur Plateau.
These winds bring a fair amount of rainfall in Central India and
Chotanagpur Plateau. After that, the winds enter the Ganga Plains and
merge with the Bay of Bengal Branch of South-West Monsoon Winds.
Third Current - Further north, the Arabian Sea branch of South-West
Monsoon Winds blow over Gujarat, and Rajasthan. The Aravalli Range
runs almost parallel to the direction of the winds and does not form a
barrier to intercept the Arabian Sea branch of South-West Monsoon Winds,

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hence Rajasthan does not receive rainfall from this branch. Moreover,
when the moisture-bearing winds blow over the heated surface of

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Rajasthan, much of its moisture evaporates and the winds become almost
dry.
The winds go straight to the sub-Himalayan region, get obstructed by the

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Shiwaliks and give low rainfall to the southern slopes of the Shiwaliks and
adjoining Punjab Plains. Over the Punjab Plains the Arabian Sea branch of
South-West Monsoon Winds meets the Bay of Bengal branch of
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South-west Monsoon Winds.
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The Bay of Bengal Branch of South-West Monsoon Winds

The winds move towards the coast of Myanmar and due to the
perpendicular position of the Arakan Hills along the coast of Myanmar, the
Bay of Bengal branch of South-West Monsoon Winds get obstructed. A
large part of this branch of monsoon winds get deflected towards the Indian
subcontinent towards north and north-west directions.. The Bay of Bengal
branch of South-West Monsoon Winds enters Bangladesh from south and

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almost at the same time, also enters West Bengal from south-east, instead
of south-west.
The Bay of Bengal branch of South-West Monsoon Winds blow over
Bangladesh from south to north and get obstructed by the
Garo-Khasi-Jaintia Hills (Meghalaya Hills). The southern slopes of the
Meghalaya Hills, i.e. Garo, Khasi and Jaintia Hills are located on the
windward slopes, so receive heavy rainfall (the windward slopes obstruct
the moisture-bearing winds, forcing the winds to rise, cool down and shed
rainfall). Cherrapunji and Mawsynram (wettest place of the world), located

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on the windward slope, at the crest of the Khasi Hills to block huge amount
of on-shore Bay of Bengal branch of South-West Monsoon Winds and

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receive the highest average annual rainfall in the world. At the same time,
the winds get deflected towards left / west, towards the Ganga Plains and
after crossing the Meghalaya Hills the winds blow towards Assam Valley.

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The winds blowing over West Bengal get obstructed by the Sub-Himalayan
ranges. So the southern slope (windward slope) of the Himalayas and
adjoining Ganga Plains receive heavy rainfall and at the same time, the
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winds get deflected in two directions - mostly to the left / west, towards the
Punjab Plains and some amount of moisture-bearing winds also blow to the
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east / right, entering into the Assam valley.

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BAY OF BENGAL BRANCH OF SOUTH-WEST MONSOON WINDS

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Assam valley has a funnel shape, surrounded by hills or mountains on all
the sides except on the left, which is open. Once, the moisture-bearing
winds enter the valley, get trapped in this valley and bring rainfall to
North-East India.
The Bay of Bengal branch of South-West Monsoon Winds blow over the
Ganga Plains from east to west / east to north-west, between the
Himalayas and the hills of Peninsular Plateau. As the winds proceed
through the plains, the winds bring rainfall. The amount of rainfall
progressively decreases towards the west as the distance from the sea

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increases. The winds become dry while proceeding towards the west.
Places located towards east in the Ganga Plains receive moisture-bearing

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winds earlier than the places to the west, receiving relatively more rainfall.
The amount of annual rainfall at Kolkata is 120 cm, at Patna 100 cm, at
Allahabad it is 90 cm. and in Delhi the rainfall amount is 50 cm.

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The Bay of Bengal branch of South-West Monsoon Winds get obstructed

by the Aravallis. By the time winds reach to the west of India, the winds are
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already exhausted (dry). There is hardly any rainfall on the eastern slope of
the Aravallis. The western part of Rajasthan is located in the rain-shadow
region of the Aravalli Range so it is rainless. Therefore, the Western
Rajasthan is a desert.
The Bay of Bengal branch of South-West Monsoon Winds ultimately meets
with the Arabian Sea branch of South-West Monsoon Winds over the
Punjab Plains and these combined winds get obstructed by the Shiwaliks
and bring very less rainfall.

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These two branches of South-West Monsoon Winds also meet over the
Ganga Plains in West Bengal.
Characteristics of the Rainy Season:
●​ The bulk of the rainfall is received during this season in almost every
part of India except Tamil Nadu coast.
●​ The amount of rainfall received depends on the relief of the region.
●​ The rain is unreliable / erratic in nature and there are dry intervals.

The Tamil Nadu coast remains almost dry during this season because the

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Tamil Nadu coast (Coromandel Coast / Coastal Plains) is located parallel to
Bay of Bengal branch of South-West Monsoon Winds and also the area is

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located in the rain-shadow region of the Western Ghats, so the Arabian
Sea branch of South-West Monsoon Winds cannot bring rainfall.

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In comparison to the Bay of Bengal branch of South-West Monsoon Winds,
the Arabian Sea branch of South-West Monsoon Winds is more effective in
bringing rainfall to India due to the following reasons:
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Arabian Sea branch of South-West Bay of Bengal branch of
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Monsoon Winds south-West Monsoon Winds

Winds blow over a vast open sea, Winds travel a shorter distance and
collecting a lot of moisture. carry less moisture.
eo

The entire branch blows over India This branch partly enters India, its
only. major part blows over Myanmar and
Thailand.
The winds hit against the Western The winds have to travel a long
G

Ghats as soon as it blows over the distance over land before it hits
land. against the mountains or hills.

20
SEASON OF THE RETREATING OF SOUTH-WEST MONSOON WINDS
●​ October to November.
●​ This is a transition period between the rainy season and winter
season, i.e. a period of transition between the final withdrawal of the
South-West Monsoon Winds and the regular setting in of the
North-East Monsoon Winds.
●​ The withdrawal of the South-West Monsoon Winds from the
landmass of India in stages is called Retreating of the
South-West Monsoon Winds.

k
●​ As the Sun apparently moves southward or migrates towards the
Equator, the low-pressure area over the Northern Plains, particularly

ac
the low-pressure center over northwestern India, gradually weakens.
This gradual weakening of low pressure is the basic reason for the
withdrawal of the South-West Monsoon Winds from India.

Tr
●​ Withdrawal of the South-West Monsoon Winds occurs due to the
change in temperature and pressure conditions.
●​ With the southward apparent migration of the Sun, the angle of
st
incidence of the Sun gradually becomes lower over the Northern
Plains. So the low pressure over the Northern Plains slowly becomes
Fa

weaker.
●​ On the other hand, the temperature of the surrounding water bodies
(located in the tropical region) starts rising slowly with relatively high
angle of incidence of sun rays (as the Sun is quite close to the
eo

Equator).
●​ The pressure gradient becomes weaker because the low pressure
over the Northern Plains is not very low and high pressure over the
Indian Ocean is not very high.
G

●​ In this season, the low pressure over the Northern Plains is in the
process of changing (slowly becoming high pressure),
simultaneously, high pressure over the water bodies, especially over
the Indian Ocean is also in the process of changing (slowly becoming
low pressure).
●​ By the first week of October, the South-West Monsoon Wind
withdraws from most parts of North, North-West and West India. By
mid-October, the withdrawal is from almost the entire India, except

21
 the south of Peninsular India and by mid-November, southern India
experiences the final withdrawal of South-West Monsoon Winds.

k
ac
Tr
st
APPROXIMATE DATES OF WITHDRAWAL OF SOUTH-WEST
MONSOON WINDS FROM INDIA
Fa

●​ Kanyakumari is the last place and Kerala is the last state from where
the South-West Monsoon Winds withdraw.
eo

●​ The retreat of monsoon winds does not imply a right about-turn but a
gradual change of comparative pressure position, thus gradually
weakening and reducing the area coverage and influence.
●​ Due to weaker pressure gradient, the amount of on-shore
G

South-West Monsoon wind entering India gradually decreases, so the

amount of rainfall also gradually decreases in this season.
●​ The sky becomes clear (no cloud formation) and the weather
becomes fresh and pleasant. In the north, days are warmer and night
temperature drops due to the clear sky.
●​ As this season is just after the rainy season, all surface water bodies
are full of water. The land also remains moist. Rate of evaporation is
high due to high temperature. Day temperature is high in the Northern

22
 Plains and in Peninsular India, temperature is high due to the
relatively high angle of incidence of sun rays (the Sun is close to the
Equator).
●​ The combination of high temperature and high humidity gives rise to
sultry and oppressive weather conditions. This weather phenomenon
is commonly known as ‘October Heat’.
●​ Usually by mid-November, fine weather conditions prevail almost all
over India.
●​ The retreat of the South-West Monsoon winds is a process much

k
slower than its arrival.
●​ The advance of the South-West Monsoon winds is towards the north

ac
but the retreat (decrease in area coverage and also the amount of
on-shore South-West Monsoon Winds) is towards the south.
●​ During this period, due to local variations of heat and moisture,

Tr
tropical cyclones are formed over the Bay of Bengal, in the
neighbourhood of the Andaman Islands and these cyclones move
towards west (from north-east to south-west with the help of the
st
North-East Trade Winds), towards the coast of Tamil Nadu or
Coromandel Coast.
Fa

●​ The season is generally dry except in the coastal areas of Tamil

Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha where the bulk of rainfall is derived
from the tropical depressions / cyclones.
●​ The coastal areas experience heavy rainfall, high waves and strong
eo

winds from these cyclones which are often very destructive to life and
property. The rainfall received from tropical cyclones is cyclonic
rainfall.
●​ Towards the end of November, the pressure conditions over the land
G

and sea are almost reversed. By this time, high pressure develops
over the land,especially over the Northern Plains and low pressure
develops over the surrounding water bodies, especially over the
Indian Ocean.
●​ Winds start to blow from land to sea and approximately from
mid-November, these off-shore winds only after blowing over the Bay
of Bengal pick up moisture and bring rainfall (orographic rainfall) to
Coromandel Coastal Plains.

23
 ●​ The Coromandel Coastal Plains receive rainfall from tropical cyclones
(cyclonic rainfall) and also from the winds that blow over the Bay of
Bengal at the end of the season of Retreating South-West Monsoon
Winds, also at the beginning of the winter season.
●​ Tamil Nadu Coast / South-East Coast / Coromandel Coast receives
rainfall from the North-East Monsoon Winds, which start to blow over
the Bay of Bengal in mid-November (towards the end of the season
of Retreating South-West Monsoon Winds due to reversal in pressure
conditions - over the Northern Plains high pressure develops and

k
over the water bodies low pressure develops). Sometimes the
North-East Monsoon Winds meet the tropical depressions over the

ac
Bay of Bengal and collect more moisture from the depressions.
These winds curve round the Bay of Bengal and blow directly on the
Tamil Nadu Coast and give that region the wettest and most disturbed

Tr
weather of the whole year, mainly in late October-November.
●​ Heavy rains accompanied by stormy winds sweep over the
south-east coastal region, sometimes causing great damage to the
st
crops and disrupting the means of transport.
●​ Characteristics of the season of the Retreating of South-West
Fa

Monsoon Winds are:-

➢​The temperature and humidity are very high. This sultry,
oppressive weather condition is known as the October Heat.
➢​This is the season of transition from a rainy season to winter.
eo

➢​The East Coast receives heavy rain mostly from the tropical
cyclones.
●​ The season of Retreating South-West Monsoon Winds is
characterised by 1. clear skies; 2. high temperature; 3. low wind
G

velocity and 4. Very less rainfall. All this leads to accumulation of

pollutants close to the ground and worsening the air quality in major
cities in India.
This season coincides with agriculture practices like stubble burning
(after harvesting crops) in North India further increasing air pollution,
e.g. Delhi.
____________________________________________________________

24
COLD WEATHER SEASON / WINTER SEASON
●​ December to February
●​ During this season, the Sun shines more vertically between the
Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn.
●​ Due to latitudinal variation, temperature in general decreases from
south to north.
●​ The average temperature is below 20o C and is very low at high
elevated areas of the north where snow falls.
●​ January is the coldest month.

k
●​ Areas beyond the Tropic of Cancer (to the north of it) receive a very
low angle of incidence of sun rays, resulting in low temperatures

ac
during winter. Conversely, the tropical areas (to the south of the
Tropic of Cancer) receive a relatively high angle of incidence of sun
rays, leading to a comparatively warmer winter.

Tr
●​ Places in the interior experience cold winters because of the absence
of moderating influence of the sea but coastal areas are relatively
warmer in winter due to the presence of moderating influence of the
st
sea.
●​ The Dras Valley in Kargil (Ladakh) experiences lowest temperatures.
Fa

●​ Quite often, in this season, the cold winds from the Caspian Sea and
Turkmenistan bring cold waves over the northwestern parts of India
causing further reduction in winter temperature.
●​ There is no well-marked winter season in Peninsular India.
eo

(Peninsular India is located in the tropical region, close to the

Equator. Even during the winter season, the angle of incidence of sun
rays is relatively high, so temperature remains relatively high.
Coastal areas in Peninsular India also experience moderating
G

influence of the sea, so winter temperature gets modified and is

relatively warmer).

●​ Weather conditions -
Clear skies, fine cool weather (cold in North), light northerly winds
and low humidity are characteristics of this season.

25
●​ Pressure-
The land cools faster than the sea in winter. As a result, a high
pressure area develops over Central Asia.
●​ Due to the presence of the Himalayas, a subsidiary high pressure
area develops over the cold plains in the north-west, i.e. the Punjab
Plains. The surrounding water bodies are relatively warmer and low
pressure develops over the warmer water bodies, especially over the
Indian Ocean due to the differential rate of cooling of land and water
bodies.

k
●​ Winds-

ac
Winds start blowing from the high pressure area over the land to the
low pressure area over the sea or surrounding water bodies.
In general, the winds are weak (as the pressure gradient is relatively

Tr
weaker or gentle) and variable (as winds blow from a high pressure
centre, i.e. from anti-cyclone) .
An anti-cyclonic formation occurs over the Punjab Plains due to
st
extreme cold temperature, a high pressure centre develops.
From the high pressure centre, winds start to blow over India and
Fa

further towards the low pressure areas over the water bodies.
These cold, off-shore winds do not bring rainfall as these cold winds
blow from the land to sea and do not carry moisture.
When the winds blow from anti-cyclones over the Punjab Plains, the
eo

direction of winds is clockwise or towards right (the anti-cyclone is

formed in the Northern Hemisphere). With the help of the Westerlies
(permanent wind) winds from anti-cyclones start moving towards east
and also due to the topography of India (presence of the Himalayas
G

to the north and the hills of the Peninsular Plateau to the south), the
winds blow over the Ganga Plains from north-west or west to east,
when the winds reach the Ganga Delta, the direction is from north to
south (obstruction by North-East Hills) and finally winds take left turn
and blow from north-east to south-west over the Bay of Bengal.
These winds are called North-East Monsoon Winds (Winter Monsoon
Winds). While blowing over the Bay of Bengal the North-East

26
 Monsoon Winds pick up moisture and bring rainfall to Tamil Nadu
Coastal Plains or Coromandel Coastal Plains.

●​ Rainfall -
The North-East Monsoon Winds are off-shore winds so they do not
bring rain to most parts of India. However, the Tamil Nadu coast
receives rain from the North-East Monsoon Winds. As the winds blow
over the Bay of Bengal from north-east to south-west, the winds
collect moisture from the sea and bring orographic rainfall to Tamil

k
Nadu Coast / South-East Coast / Coromandel Coast (Coastal Plains).

ac
Tr
st
Fa
eo

WINTER / NORTH-EAST MONSOON WINDS

North-West India - Parts of Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir,

Himachal Pradesh, northern Rajasthan, Uttarakhand and western
G

Uttar Pradesh receive light-to-moderate and at times heavy rainfall

due to the Westerly Depression or Westerly Disturbances which are
temperate cyclones originate over the Mediterranean Sea. With the
help of Westerlies and also Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream these
Westerly Disturbances reach north and north-west India to bring
winter rainfall in north-western plains and snowfall in the Himalayan
Mountains. This cyclonic rainfall is beneficial to rabi crops, especially
wheat and barley.

27
 Snowfall in the Himalayas influenced by Western Disturbances plays
a crucial role in rejuvenating glaciers and sustaining the continuous
flow of water in all North Indian perennial rivers.
The North-East India (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh) receives rainfall
from the Western Disturbances.
●​ Characteristics-
Very pleasant season with low temperatures.
Clear skies with low humidity.
Rainless for most parts of India, except the east coast and north-west

k
of the country.

ac
SOURCES OF RAINFALL
1.​ Punjab Plains (Punjab, Haryana) - Western Disturbances, Arabian

Tr
Sea Branch of South-West Monsoon Winds and Bay of Bengal
Branch of South-West Monsoon Winds.
2.​ The Tamil Nadu / Coromandel Coast - mainly from two sources,
st
North-East Monsoon Winds and Tropical Cyclones.
Fa

India experiences both the types of cyclones - Tropical and Temperate

Cyclones.
Tropical Cyclones Temperate Cyclones
eo

Tropical cyclones are of thermal Temperate cyclones are of frontal

origin, associated with high origin and are associated with the
temperature. meeting of warm and cold air
masses.
G

They are generally smaller in size They are bigger in size than the
and their shape is more or less tropical cyclones and are oval in
circular. shape.
Tropical cyclones originate over the Temperate cyclones originate over
tropical sea, mostly over the Bay of the Mediterranean Sea, in the
Bengal . temperate region.
They bring heavy rainfall with They usually bring light to moderate

28
strong winds over the Coromandel rainfall in the north-western part of
Coast of India. They are destructive India which is beneficial for the
in nature. cultivation of rabi crops, especially
wheat.

CHARACTERICS OF:-
1.​ Monsoonal climate has a prominent dry winter season and clear cut
rainy season.

k
2.​ Monsoon winds change their directions according to season.

ac
3.​ Monsoonal rainfall (Monsoons) -
➢​Seasonal rainfall occurs at the end of summer months, from
June to September.
➢​Monsoon rains are orographic in nature.

Tr➢​Monsoons are erratic in nature.

➢​Monsoons are unevenly distributed and sporadic.
st
(Some of the rain in India is received from sources other than monsoonal
rain, like cyclonic rainfall due to tropical depressions (cyclones) or
Fa

temperate cyclones (Western Disturbances) and convectional rainfall

occurs in the summer season.
Monsoonal rain determines the economic state of the country by controlling
the agricultural prosperity)
eo

Rainfall over the Country

As the major type of rainfall is orographic. The amount of rainfall depends
G

upon the location of a place, i.e. whether it is located near the coast or in
the interior and whether it is on the leeward side or windward side of the hill
or mountain.
The direction of the mountain or hill ranges is also of great significance. If
the range lies parallel to the direction of the moisture-laden winds, the area
remains rainless but if the hill or mountain ranges are perpendicular in the
direction of moisture-bearing winds, then due to obstruction, rainfall occurs

29
on the windward slope but leeward slope or rain-shadow region remains
dry.
Thar, situated in western Rajasthan, is comparatively low-lying area and is
a desert as there is very little summer rain, less than 25 cm annually. The
reasons are:
1.​ The Arabian Sea branch of South-west Monsoon Winds do not bring
rainfall as the Aravalli Range is parallel to these winds and do not
form barriers to intercept the on-shore winds.
2.​ The Bay of Bengal branch of South-West Monsoon Winds have little

k
or no moisture left by the time the winds reach Rajasthan after
traversing the Ganga Valley. Moreover, the Thar is located in the

ac
rain-shadow region of the Aravallis so there is no rainfall.

Distribution of Rainfall

Tr
Although monsoon winds are the major source of rainfall and affect most
parts of India, the amount of rainfall varies from very heavy to scanty in
different parts. The large size of the country with its varied relief, the
st
direction of moisture-laden winds and the path of the cyclonic
depression determined by pressure gradient are factors that influence
Fa

the amount of rainfall received.

The South-West Monsoon Winds account for almost 70% of India’s rainfall.
Areas receiving heavy rainfall, more than 200 cm in a year:
1.​ To the south of Tropic of Cancer:-
eo

The western slopes of the Western Ghats and the Western Coastal
Plains of Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra. The areas are
located on the windward slopes of the Western Ghats. The
moisture-laden Arabian Sea branch of the South-West Monsoon
G

Winds are forced to rise very high along the windward (west) slopes
of the Western Ghats, which causes condensation and heavy rainfall.
2.​ To the north of Tropic of Cancer:-
The southern slopes of the Eastern Himalayas, particularly the
southern slopes of Garo, Khasi, Jaintia Hills (Meghalaya Hills).
Moisture-laden South-West Monsoon Winds of Bay of Bengal branch
get obstructed by the hills and mountains and the windward slopes
receive heavy rainfall.

30
Areas receiving moderate rainfall, 100 - 200 cm. of annual rainfall
1.​ To the south of Tropic of Cancer:-
Western Maharashtra, parts of Madhya Pradesh, southern parts of
Tamil Nadu.
2.​ To the north of Tropic of Cancer:-
The middle Ganga Valley
Areas of low rainfall, 50 - 100 cm. of annual rainfall
1.​ To the south of Tropic of Cancer:-
Parts of Deccan Plateau comprising the areas of Karnataka, Andhra

k
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu
2.​ To the north of Tropic of Cancer:-

ac
Upper Ganga Valley, eastern Rajasthan
Areas of scanty rainfall, desert and semi-desert regions receiving less
than 50 cm. of annual rainfall

Tr
1.​ To the south of Tropic of Cancer:-
The Deccan Plateau is the rain-shadow region of the Western Ghats
so the Arabian Sea branch of South-West Monsoon Winds cannot
st
bring rainfall.
2.​ To the north of Tropic of Cancer:-
Fa

Ladakh is the rain-shadow region of the Himalayas so the

South-West Monsoon Winds cannot bring rainfall.
Western Rajasthan is the rain-shadow region of the Aravalli Range so
the Bay of Bengal branch of South-West Monsoon Winds cannot
eo

bring rainfall. Moreover, the Arabian Sea branch of South-West

Monsoon Winds also cannot bring rainfall as the winds blow parallel
to the Aravalli Range.
_______________________________________________________
G

Season of Retreating South-West Season of North-East Monsoon

Monsoon Winds Winds
October to November December to February
Transition season between the Cold weather season or winter
rainy season and winter season. season.

31
Due to high temperature and high Pleasant season with low
humidity the oppressive, sultry temperatures, low humidity, clear
weather conditions called ‘October skies.
Heat’ is experienced.
The South-West Monsoon winds The North-East Monsoon Winds do
withdraw in stages which results in not give rain to major areas in India
decreasing rain. but only after blowing over the Bay
of Bengal, the winds pick up
moisture and bring rain to

k
Coromandel Coastal Pains.

ac
North-East Monsoon Winds South-West Monsoon Winds

Tr
The North-East Monsoon Winds in
winter, from December to February.
The South-West Monsoon Winds
blow in the rainy season, from June
to September.
st
Winds are cold, off-shore. Winds are warm, on-shore.
The direction of the winds is from The direction of the winds is from
Fa

north-east to south-west. south-west to north-east.

The winds bring rainfall to a small Winds bring rainfall to almost the
region, Coromandel Coastal Plains. entire Indian Subcontinent.
eo

Interpretation of Climatic Data

1.​ Calculation of annual range of temperature =

G

Temperature of the hottest month of the year - Temperature of the

coldest month of that year
Note:-
If the annual range of temperature is low, the place or station is
situated along the coast and experiences equable or maritime
climate because of the moderating influence of the sea.

32
 If the annual range of temperature is high, the place or station is
situated away from the sea, in the interior and experiences
continental climate because of the absence of moderating influence
of sea, seasonal temperature variations are extremes.

2.​ Calculation of Mean Annual Temperature / Average Annual

Temperature = To add temperature data of all 12 months / 12

3.​ Calculation of Annual Rainfall / Total Rainfall = To add rainfall data

k
for all 12 months
Calculation of total rainfall in rainy season / season of summer

ac
monsoon winds = To add rainfall data from June to September

Tr
4.​ Identification of Winds and Location:-
➢​First to check the annual range of temperature, if the annual
range of temperature is low, the location is along the coast. If
st
maximum rainfall is from June to September, the winds are
Arabian Sea branch of South-West Monsoon Winds and the
Fa

location is the West Coast.

Places - Kochi / Mangalore / Mumbai
➢​If the annual range of temperature is low, the location is along
the coast. If maximum rainfall is from November to December /
eo

January, the winds are Tropical Cyclones and North-East

Monsoon Winds after blowing over the Bay of Bengal bring
rainfall and the location is the East Coast.
Place - Chennai
G

➢​If the annual range of temperature is high, the location is in the

interior, in the Northern Plains.
The South-West Monsoon Winds bring rainfall in the rainy
season.
Places - Delhi / Lucknow
➢​If the annual range of temperature is very high, the location is in
the interior, in the Punjab Plains.
The amount of rainfall in the rainy season from the South-West

33
 Monsoon Winds is less and rainfall also occurs during winter
season is from the Western Disturbances.
Places - Amritsar / Chandigarh
➢​If any place / station is located in a higher elevation (hill station),
then winter temperatures are very cold and summer
temperatures are moderate, not high.
____________________________________________________________

Examples of windward slopes / leeward slopes / rain-shadow region in

k
India along with the names of relief features and winds -

ac
Name of the relief Windward slope Leeward slope Rain-shadow Winds affecting the area
features area (relief feature)

Tr
Western Ghats Western slopes
and adjoining
Western Coastal
Eastern slopes Deccan
Plateau
Arabian Sea branch of
South-West Monsoon
Winds
st
Plains
Fa

Himalayas Southern slopes Northern Ladakh South-West Monsoon

slopes Winds

Aravalli Range Thar Desert / Bay of Bengal branch of

eo

Western South-West Monsoon

Rajasthan Winds
G

Meghalaya Hills / Southern slopes Bay of Bengal branch of

Garo-Khasi-Jaintia South-West Monsoon
Hills Winds

** IT IS COMPULSORY TO MENTION THE NAME OF THE RELIEF FEATURE ALONG WITH

WINDWARD SLOPE / LEEWARD OR RAIN-SHADOW REGION. ALSO IN THE ANSWER, MENTION
THE NAME OF THE WINDS.

34