The alignment process involves ensuring that the tires work parallel to each other.

from the others that the tires make contact with the pavement at the correct angle. It's more
easier than it seems, it's simply about adjusting the relationships between the components
of the suspension, the steering and the wheels of the vehicle.
Basically, there are 3 angles that are corrected during the alignment:

1. Camber or the angle of inclination of the wheels; it is the angle formed by the tires.
with respect to the vertical, see the car from the front or from the back.

Caster or axis tilt angle; when the steering wheel is turned, the wheels
respondent moving on a pivot that is connected to the vehicle's suspension. The caster is
the angle that this pivot forms with respect to a vertical line that passes through the center of
the wheel, if we look at the vehicle from the side. The simplest way to visualize it is
remembering the shopping carts. When we move forward, the front wheels
they place behind the pole that holds them and at the moment of backing up, the wheels are now placed
in front of the post. It is difficult to move the cart when the wheels are in front of the post
and they quietly place themselves behind him again, when the wheels are behind the post one has a
positive caster.

[Link] or convergence; when viewing the wheels from the top of the vehicle, they must
parallel lines, if both point inward then there is convergence, otherwise it
it would have divergence.

Next, I will name some of the symptoms that indicate it may be required
alignment or balancing;

If the old tires are being replaced due to uneven wear, then the cause
it can be a bad alignment, if the new tires are mounted without aligning the wheels first, it will become
presenting the same problem by considerably reducing their lifespan.

When maintenance has been carried out on the steering system or suspension of our
car, it is also necessary to perform the alignment of the tires.

When our car shows symptoms of poor alignment.

After 28 miles (45,000 km) of having performed the last alignment, although the vehicle does not
it seems to need it.

If any of the four tires shows excessive wear on one side, on both sides
extremes, in the center or shows some pattern of irregular wear.

The steering wheel feels harder than usual, or if the vehicle turns more easily towards a
side that faced the other, these can be symptoms of poor alignment.

If when driving in a straight line the steering wheel is not in the correct position, that is; the vehicle
goes straight but the steering wheel points to some other side or the steering wheel and the car are heading to
another address.
This vehicle tends to lean to one side while driving.

That vehicle is misaligned, meaning the front wheels are pointing in a

address while the rear ones do it in another, and this may be due to a serious problem of
alignment.

------------------------------------------------------------

Wheels are necessary for vehicles to move and when one is

properly aligned, a pair of wheels can last up to 20,000 miles
(32.1868 km). When these wear out, it shows on the tires, it's time to check.
If there is a problem. You can generally align your vehicle within a certain
precision amount, at your home. Take some simple hand tools and a
a little time.

Instructions
1
Measure the distance between the tires using the meter and an assistant. Do it while
an assistant holds the tip of the meter above the wheel nuts, and takes the
measure that is found from one of the nuts of the other wheel. Measure the
same reference points. Mark which nut you use as a reference with chalk.
2
Measure the front and back of the wheels. The difference between these two numbers is
how much alignment do you need. If the front of your wheels are pointing outward of the
vehicle, then you have what is called 'inward displacement.' If your wheels
look inward, you have 'outward displacement'.

3 Slide under the vehicle and place the ends of the tie bar.
These are the connection parts of the handlebar that connect with the axle.
At the end of each strut, there is a thread and a locking nut.
Loosen the nut with the wrench.
4
Turn the tension bar using the wrench. The goal here is to center.
the directions, so that any change you make on the driver's side also
do it to the passenger. Turn the tightening bar a few times and then return to
measure them. If your number is worse, then you turned in the wrong direction. If it is
better, go on.
5
Repeat the process until the front measurement is 1/16 inches (0.14 cm) smaller.
that the back part. You have to be able to drive down the street without the vehicle
balance from one side to the other.

-----------------------
Before doing an alignment, and if you are not knowledgeable in the field, take your car to a workshop.
mechanic shop where inspections are actually carried out on various systems of the vehicle,
example, the steering system. In which case you should inspect the condition of preservation
of the component elements (steering rods, keys, threads and fixing nuts,
direction terminals). It is very important to have technical inspection data, of
such a way that when you take the vehicle for alignment you won't have any problems. There are times when
that the technician of the inspection only focuses on 'aligning' regardless of the condition.
of the system (without undermining, of course, the excellent work of some companies and/or workshops
of certified brand) and under these conditions, when it comes to regulating the threads that change
the convergence of alignment must necessarily release fixation elements
which are oxidized and have surface cracks that stand out with a keen eye to the details.
the view.
So, let's get to work, first investigate the structural condition of the components.
of the steering system and subsequently performs the alignment.
For any inquiries, let me know through this medium.

I believe that what actually happened here is that the inspection technician only focused on
align
first level, at least in infrastructure, movement, and renown. In any case, the firm
it responded by correcting what had been done, reviewing, reassembling, and realigning it again, although in a
At first, there were signs of wanting to shirk responsibilities.
In my opinion, and I made this known to the company, I believe they need to establish processes.
standardized procedures (type ISO 9000) that ensure the execution of the
fundamental steps necessary to carry out - in this case, an alignment - if taken into account
that it involves an essential element of a vehicle, such as the steering. This with the
purpose of preventing technicians from skipping steps either to save time and
work, as well as perform the necessary supervision.
This case could have led to legal proceedings regarding the eventual
consequences that could have occurred if the incident happens at a higher speed.

---------------

VEHICLE ALIGNMENT

Basically an alignment
it consists of adjusting the angles of the wheels and the steering, with the purpose of
balance all the forces of friction, gravity, centrifugal force, and momentum. All
the components of the suspension and steering system must be adjusted from
according to prescribed specifications. A correct alignment will ensure that the vehicle
move smoothly, maintain the appropriate grip, good stability in line
straight or curved and the tires have maximum durability. The wheels are aligned
regarding a reference line. The question is then which line. There is the
central line, the symmetric central line and the traction line of the rear axle. The line
the center of the vehicle is not relevant in relation to the body of the vehicle and the
Wheels do not know where the body of the vehicle is in relation to themselves.
That's why in alignment, the symmetrical central line and the pulling line are used.
as reference lines, when the center line of the vehicle is in relation to the
from the vehicle chassis.

Alignment with the central symmetric line

The turning of each front wheel is measured and adjusted using the symmetrical line.
central as a reference. This type of alignment is referred to as two alignment.
wheels, since only the front wheels are aligned and one forgets about the rear ones.
rear wheels. In case the rear wheels create a traction line that
does not coincide with the central symmetry line, this implies that the front wheels and
the rear ones are not in the same lane, unless the steering wheel is turned, to make
that the vehicle moves in a straight direction.
Wheel alignment
This is the correct alignment of a vehicle, ensuring that all 4 wheels
They roll in parallel in a straight direction, centering the alignment. For vehicles.
with adjustable rear suspensions, the rear wheels are adjusted so that the line
the traction matches the central line of symmetry.
Then the front wheels are aligned in relation to the traction line/
of central symmetry. This makes all the wheels point straight ahead and
parallel and also that the steering wheel is centered.
For vehicles with non-adjustable rear suspension, the angles of the
rear wheels to determine the traction line. The front wheels are
aligned proportionally to the line of traction. This will cause all the wheels
stay straight ahead and parallel.
The turn is the most critical in terms of tire wear, the tire helps with the
stability of the vehicle's direction.
In reality, a proper turning angle is a balance between the desired stability.
of steering and tire wear. An excessive steering angle will cause the
wheel turns supported at the angle of sliding, so that the vehicle exerts
the tire to turn straight forward creating an angle of
wider sliding on the rear axle compared to the front axle.
The traction angle is the direction of the rear wheels in relation to the line
vehicle center. If the traction angle is not zero, it will be necessary to adjust it.
first, if it is not possible, the front convergence must be adjusted to
compensate the traction angle.
Fundamental alignment angles.
The fundamental alignment angles are included in the vehicle design.
in order to conveniently distribute the weight over the wheels, facilitate the
direction and obtain the optimal movement condition.
Camber

This angle is the inclination of the wheels, measured in degrees, when

it can be seen from the front of the vehicle, inward or outward of the vehicle. When the
the wheel is tilted inward at its top, the camber is negative and
positive when the wheel is tilted outward at its top.
The correct value depends on the design of the suspension system, and is given by the
manufacturer for each particular model. Generally, the camber helps to the
stability of the straight direction and extends the life of the tire. The value of the camber in
The left/right wheel must be the same to avoid pulling to the sides.
Function

The function of the camber is

distribute the weight of the vehicle over the surface of the tires to avoid wear
unequal in the same.
A certain magnitude of positive camber is generally included in vehicles.
rest with the aim of counteracting tendencies to create negative camber while the
the vehicle is in motion due to the curvature of the road, the weight of the occupants and
other factors of the suspension geometry. An incorrect camber value
it will cause excessive wear on the sides of the tires if the camber is different
Side to side, it can cause a pulling problem. The vehicle will pull where
it has more positive camber, since a cone is generated between the upper and
lower part of the tire. In many front-wheel-drive vehicles, it is not adjustable. If the
camber is out of specifications it may be that some component is worn or
damaged and must be repaired or worn out.

Caster

When you turn the steering wheel, the

Front wheels respond by rotating around a pivot connected to the suspension system.
this is the steering angle or axis of rotation. The caster is the angle of this axis
direction, measured in degrees, when the vehicle is viewed from the side. If the part
the upper pivot points to the rear of the car, then the caster is positive,
Otherwise, it is negative. The caster is calculated by the exchange rate of
camber in a predetermined turn by the front wheels.

Function
Provide directional stability and facilitate steering. The caster is positive, at
project the geometric axis of rotation forward and establish the load point
in front of the contact point of the wheel on the pavement, imparts to the wheels the
tendency to remain aligned with the vehicle's directional force,
approximately forward.
If the caster is out of specifications, it can cause stability problems.
straight line. If the caster is uneven from side to side, the vehicle will pull to the side where
have less positive caster.
Convergence
It is the difference in the distance between the rear and front of the front wheels.
it is measured in units of distance, but it can also be measured in degrees.
Positive convergence means that the front part of the tires is closer.
that the rear part, negative convergence is the opposite.

Function
A certain magnitude of convergence is included in a vehicle at rest for
counteract the forces that alter convergence in motion, since the
The objective is for it to be zero during the journey. Incorrect convergence will cause a
rapid wear of both tires.

King Pin Inclination–KPI

It is the angle formed by the steering axis and the natural vertical as viewed from the front.
of the vehicle
This angle is also known by the name Steering Axle Inclination (SAI).
The angle is determined by the inclination of the line or axis that crosses the
knee points, up to the vertical.
It is not an angle measured directly, it is calculated in a preset turn of the
front wheels, achieving greater precision if the turn is symmetrical in
relation to the directional line of the rear axle. The pivot angles position the point in
that rotates the wheel near the center of the tire tread, which reduces the
transmission of road interferences.
Function
The SAI contributes to the stability of management through the trend it imparts to the
wheels to recover the straight position forward and reduces the action of the
imperfections of the road on the steering wheel. When the body turns, it rises, and it
It is likely that when the steering wheel is released, it will tend to return to the original position.
position 'straight forward'.
This angle allows the use of less positive caster for ease of
direction, while maintaining directional stability.

Included angle
It is the angle formed between the SAI and the camber, formed by the steering axis and the
geometric axis of the wheel, therefore it is not adjustable and remains constant. It is not
measured directly and it must be the same from side to side even though the camber is
different, if it is not the same, then something is bent, usually the axis or arm
from the hose.

Radio de deslizamiento
The distance between the line of intersection and the center line of the tire and the
The line drawn through the knuckles of the steering arm is called the radius of
sliding.
By giving the wheel a bit of positive or negative slip, it makes it roll.
make it easier. This distance must be exactly the same from side to side or the
vehicle will tow at any speed. As long as there are issues with the angle
included will affect the scrub radius or slip radius.
Function
In systems with negative pivot radius, unequal forces applied on the
mechanism acts inward on the pivot axis with a tendency to deviate towards
vehicle in the opposite direction, thus avoiding the tugging.

Set Back (Coaxial difference of front axles)

It is the distance or magnitude that one wheel is lagging behind the opposite one. With
a alignment machine that measures convergence only on the front wheels,
any setback will cause a misalignment of the steering wheel. A machine that aligns
about four wheels referring to the rear wheels when adjusting the alignment,
to eliminate this problem.
Another way to understand the setback is to define it as the angle formed by the line.
central geometry or the directional line of the rear axle and the perpendicular to
average of the front axles. It does not affect the stability of the vehicle unless the
the condition is of extreme magnitude, which is generally the result of damage by
accidents.
Convergence in turn (Divergence in turn)

When the vehicle turns on a curve, the outer wheel logically covers a radius.
más amplio que la rueda interior. Esto es llevado a cabo por los ángulos construidos
in the direction union.

The arms of
unions are designed so that the centerline of the inner wheels and
external forces intercept at a point on the extension line of the rear axle.
The difference in the turn angles is called the convergence of turns. It is measured in the
inner part of the wheel at an angle of 20°. If the turning convergence is incorrect
It will indicate that there are parts in the union of the steering that may be damaged. The
maximum turning angle is also normally measured. A difference in the
values will indicate that the directional union is not centered or is damaged. The angle
rotation can only be measured correctly if it is related to the ground level and if
the convergence is in accordance with specifications. The measurement of all these angles
It can be easily made with electronic goniometric plates.
Function
The correct turning radius allows the front wheels to roll without drag in turns.
avoiding wear and squeaks.
Alignment service procedure:
Position the car on the alignment ramp.
Inspect the tires:
a. Tire size.
b. Pressure (equal pressure side by side)
c. Tire wear pattern
Vehicle height.
a. Inspect for breakage or weakening of springs.
b. Inspect the vehicle's load (for uneven load)

After lifting
una rueda posicionando el gato debajo del brazo de suspensión inferior, lo más cerca
possible of the wheel, check for looseness or wear on the following parts:
a. Wheel bearings, taking the wheel up and down, inspect for play
excessive and adjust them if necessary.
b. Taking the wheel by the front and rear, inspect for lateral play
caused by worn parts in the steering mechanism.
c. Inspect the wear of the bushings of the scissors or suspension arms.
Inspect for wear in the bushings of the stabilizer bar of the radial arm.
Inspect the ball joints for excessive play.
Inspect the gearbox of the steering mechanism for loosening in the
excessive play or movement of the steering wheel.

Proceed with the alignment steps, following the operator's recommendations.

team.
Rim and tire balancing Consider that a Chevrolet TrailBlazer is traveling at 60 miles
for now. The P245/70R16 tires have a diameter of 29.6 inches. At 60 miles
Currently, they rotate at a speed of 703 rpm. If a tire is out of balance, to
that speed introduces 703 vibrations per minute in the vehicle. The tire hits the
the pavement 12 times per second (12 Hz). Do you think the client will notice that?
In fact, the vibrations or shakes related to the tires are one of the causes of
dissatisfaction among customers is more common, and it is easily noticeable when handled in
a smooth and even path. There are three causes: out of track, imbalance, and variation
from the radial force (RFV). Each of these conditions can result in vibration or
shaking, but the causes and remedies are different for each one. They are not
necessarily related, but each and every one of them must be addressed.
This is how the guide is found in the SI:
"arm" the vehicle
General information
Vibration diagnosis and correction
Information and diagnostic procedures
Vibration analysis - Tires and rims
The Vibration Analysis table contains detailed testing procedures.
The exact route will depend on what I find in the vehicle that it is.
diagnosing, but in general, you should check in the following order: wear,
imbalance, and RVF.
Wear (Out of filming)
ADVICE:
There is a temptation to start with wheel balancing, but it is important to measure.
the wear first. If wear is the cause of the vibration, balancing does not
it will fix. But if you remove the rim/tire for the balancing, it may disturb the
evidence of wear. This is because a small wear of the wheel can
cancel or accentuate a deviation on the mounting surface, depending on the
Position in which the wheel is mounted. This is known as "accumulation" of wear.
The wear of rim/tire is measured in two ways, on the vehicle and off the vehicle. The
measurement in the vehicle includes potential wear not only of the tire and rim, but also of the
axle / shaft and bolts. The measurement of wear outside the vehicle measures only the
rim and tire game. It will also be necessary to measure the wear only of the rim, with
the dismounted tire. The diagnostic table explains how to interpret and correct
various wear conditions that I detected.

One of the repair methods is called pair mounting (vectorization). This

this procedure allows you to move the tire on the rim to determine if there are high points
and lows cancel each other out. Similarly, it is possible to mount the tires of
agreement with the mounting flange. See the details in SI.

Imbalance
The balancing of rims and tires is very easy to understand, and of all the conditions
mentioned is the most evident. There are the weights. However, if the wear or RFV
they are the cause of the vibration, the balancing check will not fix the condition.
That said, there is an appropriate time to check and correct the wheel balancing and
tires according to the diagnostic table.

ADVICE:
Make sure to check for foreign material, particularly inside the
tires, and particularly if the vehicle has been driven in conditions of snow, ice
cross country. Correcting an imbalance can be as simple as removing
a piece of mud.
The dynamic balancing equipment off the vehicle is the preferred equipment to use.
to verify and correct the imbalance.
Like any precision tool, calibration is important.
adequate, proper maintenance and appropriate use to achieve results
satisfactory.
Variation of the radial force
The variation of the radial force (RFV) refers to the variation within the
construction of the tire. All tires have imperfections in the different
layers. The resulting rigid points do not cause problems unless they are
excessive.
The causes of the variation of radial force are impossible to see, so the RFV is
the least understood cause of vibration.

ADVICE:
RFV can be masked by excessive wear or imbalance. RFV can cause
vibrations even if the tire/rim has acceptable wear and has been
properly balanced. If you have eliminated these two conditions, the RFV is
the guilty one.

ADVICE:
The Vibration Analysis table in SI contains a link to a test of
Isolation, which can help you identify which is the wheel/rim set that
originates the vibration.
As can be seen in figure 1, it is useful that the tire wall is a series of
springs. If one of the springs is significantly stiffer than the others, the
the tire will bounce every time that part makes contact with the pavement. This is perceived
as vibration.
The RFV is measured with specialized equipment in which the mounted tire is pressed.
against a load wheel. The load simulates the weight of the vehicle. As it turns the
tire, the equipment measures the variations in the radial force of the tire.
Most vehicles tolerate these RFV values:
P-metric tires on passenger cars 18 lbs (8.1 kg)
or less
P-metric tires on light trucks 24 lbs (10.8 kg)
more or less

LT tires on light trucks 30 lbs (13.5 kg)

or less

ADVICE:
Technical Assistance has information on the deviation parameters of the
tires with respect to these guidelines.
The correction for radial force variation is similar to wear correction.
The most rigid part of the tire aligns with the lowest part of the wheel.

[Link] good

-------------------------------------------

Does it detect vibration while driving, does the car steer if the wheel is released or does it not respond when entering?
on the curve?

If the answer is yes to these questions, then your vehicle has a problem and needs
solution.

You must check the tires, steering systems, and suspension to determine the
cause and correct it to restore stability to your vehicle.

If you do not solve the problem, it will cause excessive wear on the tires and suspension, and it
more critical is that it will endanger your safety and that of your companions.

The alignment maintains the stability of the vehicle and prolongs the life of its tires.

When to align the vehicle's wheels?

When the tires are replaced with new ones.

When the tires have uneven wear.
When maintenance is performed on the steering or suspension system.
When the vehicle is not going straight, let go of the steering wheel.
After a collision with another vehicle, curb, or pothole.
When the vehicle shows symptoms of poor alignment.
After 20,000 km since the last alignment or once a year.
What does alignment consist of?
That the tires work parallel to each other and roll at the correct angle.

Each vehicle has its own angles. These angles depend on the weight on each of the
front and rear tires, design and resistance of springs, coils or torque bars and others
factors.

A computerized team determines its angles with a laser so that it can be corrected, adjusting several.
shims or wedges to compensate for the wear and damage caused by
rough roads. There are three measures and adjustments that are made for a complete alignment:

Advance (Castor) sometimes called the beaver angle. The advance angle is the inclination of a
imaginary line of the axis around which the wheel rotates. Typically, this tilts towards the rear of the car.
(negative advance). The negative advance angle creates force that results in the following:

It automatically returns the wheels to the central position so that the car goes straight.
after the curve.
It makes the vehicle go straighter with greater control.
It helps reduce the increase in wheel drop in curves to help maximize the
tire traction.

Vehicles designed for asphalt and the city usually have a slightly negative camber.
to facilitate straight lines and correction after turning the corner. Designed vehicles
for off-road use (4x4) typically have the Neutral advance or slightly positive for
to be able to go over potholes and uneven roads with greater control.

When the advance is very negative, the car tends to hit all the bumps and continue through all the
low places on the road.
Fall (Camber), the fall is the tilt of the wheels from a vertical position. This can be
positive or negative:

Positive drop: Looking at the car in front, the upper parts of the tires are more
distant from the lower parts. In other words, looking straight ahead, the tires form a 'V'.
This condition is not very common.
Negative fall: Looking at the car in front, the upper parts of the tires are more
closer than the lower parts. This condition is very common.

Negative drop reduces car control, causing tires to bend in turns instead of
to grab hold. The typical design is for a straight or slightly positive drop.

Convergence (Toe), sometimes called Divergence: Convergence is the difference between the part
front of a tire and the back of it. If the tires are angled inward,
the car will have more oversteer, while pointing outward, it has less control and more
wear. To drive in straight lines, this should be almost zero difference. When you
it handles a lot in curves, it points a little inward.

The convergence is usually adjusted on the front wheels, but there are conditions
where the vehicle is out of square and the rear wheels are not parallel to the chassis. Certain
Vehicles have adjustments for this condition, while others need to stretch the chassis with jacks.
hydraulics to restore the squareness.
The vehicle with its alignment correctly adjusted will have its steering wheel centered and straight, it will pass through
the same arch when turning to the right or left, and it will show control in the curves without skidding
(as long as the speed and acceleration are reasonable). It also provides greater lifespan to the
["tires","CV joints","rack","bearings","cross joints","pins","bushings","shock absorbers"]
and others of the rolling train.

A vehicle is aligned when all the components of the suspension and steering are aligned.
(tires and steering wheel) work correctly.

Symptoms of misalignment in the vehicle:

Irregular tire wear, showing excessive wear on one tread.

extreme.
Strange sensation in the steering. The steering wheel feels harder than normal or the vehicle
turn more easily to one side than the other.
In a straight line, the steering wheel is not in the correct position, meaning the vehicle is going straight.
but the steering wheel is turned to one side.
The vehicle leans to one side while driving.
A vibration appears at a certain speed, but disappears when going slower or faster.
The vehicle is misaligned, meaning the front wheels point in one direction and
the rears in another.
The vehicle exhibits oversteer or understeer.

How does oversteer and understeer manifest?

Oversteer is a deviation of the rear axle upwards in relation to the front axle.
the vehicle seems to turn more than what has been requested. The tires grip strongly and
your vehicle tends to enter the curve a lot, skidding the rear tires in an arc
mayor.
 Oversteer is a deviation of the front axle relative to the rear axle. The vehicle
wants to continue straight while you have turned the wheels. The front tires
they lose traction, coming out in a larger arc and their vehicle tends to exit the curve.

BENEFITS:
Having the tires balanced and the vehicle aligned is important for tire durability.
for the performance of the vehicle and the safety of its occupants.

The tires must be balanced to avoid vibration and cause fatigue to the driver.

The alignment reduces the wear on the tires, suspension, and steering of the vehicle.

COST
The cost of maintaining balanced and properly aligned tires is more than compensated by
a greater mileage without problems, better vehicle performance, comfort and safety of
driver and passengers.

RECOMMENDATION:
They should be rebalanced at the first sign of vibration or wobbling, and at least once a year.
without exception.

It is also important to check the correct pressures in each tire. There are many cars where
The tire pressure on the axle that carries the engine must be 10 to 12 psi higher than the other axle.
You need to check the label on the car door for the correct pressure.

[Link] Good!!

Which element is the one that gets displaced (dislocated or damaged) when a car is misaligned????----I must
answer!!

---------------------------------------------------

2. Patella
3. Dust cover
4. Upper and lower segment (ring)
Lubricant
6. Closure lid
7. Body
8. Inner sleeve
Suspension arm or ofcontrol: element that connects the rest of the suspension components to the
bodywork or to the vehicle chassis via a spherical joint (ball joint or Terminal).
Load joint: joint that supports thestrengthexercised by the suspension spring or any other element
elastic used to hold the weight of a vehicle. In an independent suspension, it is the device
that is mounted on the suspension arm that provides the reaction to the elastic element. The ball joint
elastic can work in tension or compression depending on thedesignofsystemof the vehicle suspension.
Friction joint or follower: Joint of the suspension system that does not support vertical loads, but
helps resist horizontal loads. It is always mounted on the non-reacting suspension arm
against the elastic element that supports the vehicle. In most cases, the friction joint is
preloaded with an elementplasticthat enables it to dampen vibration, shock loads, and facilitates
theactiongyroscopic of the vehicle wheel.
Classification of suspension struts

Main Characteristics of the Joints

Angularity: It is the total displacement of the pin within the housing of the joint in a plane that passes through
through the axis of the kneecap.
Torque: It is the torque necessary to rotate the bolt around its own axis.
Pair of depression: It is the pair necessary to move the pin throughout its angular range.
Extraction load: It is the force in extraction necessary to extract the bolt from the housing.
case.
Steering Gear
The gear ofaddressnot only converts the rotation of the steering wheel to the
movements that change the rolling direction of the tires. This also reduces
thespeedfrom the steering wheel rotation in order to lighten the steering operation force,
increasing the operational force and transmitting it to the front wheels. Fig.25.
 Fig. 25
TYPES OF STEERING SYSTEM
Mechanics - rack
Hydraulic
Hydraulic-electronic
2.3.1. PINION-RACK STEERING GEAR
The rotations of a gear (pinion) at the end of the main shaft engage with the teeth that
they are supported on a round bar (rack) changing this turn to amovementto the left or
right. Fig. 26, 27, and 28.
The rack and pinion, as its name indicates, is formed by a toothed rack over which
engages a pinion that transmits the movement of the steering wheel through the steering column, transforming
this rotary movement in back-and-forth movement plus little rods that are connected to the rack, and from these,
through some joints, more spindles and from there to wheels.

Fig. 26
Fig. 27
 Fig. 28
2.3.2. CIRCULATING BALL STEERING GEAR
The space between the worm gear at the front end of the main shaft and the sector gear
that engages with this, has fitted balls that reduce friction. The steering wheel's torque
steering is transmitted to the wheels via these balls. The steering joint transmits the force from the
Articulated steering gear to the front wheels. This consists of a bar combined with arms.
Fig. 29.
 Fig. 29
ROTARY MOVEMENT CONTROL MECHANISM.
They are classified into:

Screw steering mechanism and sliding elements.

Ball circulating steering mechanism
Worm gear steering mechanism
Worm screw and roller steering mechanism
Steering mechanism with worm screw and rack
Steering mechanism by worm screw and roller finger.
2.4.1. PARTS OF STEERING MECHANISMS
Steering wheel: Allows the driver to direct the wheels.
Steering column: Transmits the movement from the steering wheel to the gearbox.
Gearbox: A gearing system that minimizes the driver's effort.
Control lever: Located at the output of the gear box, it directs the movement of this to the others.
elements of management.
Steering rod: Transmits the movement to the attack lever.
Attack lever: It is solidly connected to the coupling arm.
Coupling arm: It receives the movement from the attack lever and transmits it to the bar.
coupling and the sleeves.
Coupling bar: Allows the wheels to turn at the same [Link].
Pivots: They are connected to the front axle and when turning on their axis, they move into the spindles towards the place.
desired.
Clamps: They hold the wheel.
Front axle: Supports part of the steering elements.
Ball joints: They serve to connect various elements of the steering and make it possible that, even though they are connected, they...

move in the convenient direction.

Pitman Arm and Auxiliary Arm. Whenever a vehicle is driven through the streets of the city or
por los accidentados caminos de terracería, el excesivo movimiento en el sistema de dirección y de
Suspension can cause an unexpected movement of the steering components, which will lead to a malfunction.
vehicle handling as well as premature tire wear
FOR SCREW WITHOUT END.
In which case the address column ends up threaded. If it rotates when operated by the steering wheel, it moves a
gear that drives the control arm and the entire system Fig. 30.

Fig. 30
2.6. BY SCREW AND LEVER.
In which the column is also threaded, and through the threaded part a pivot or lever will move to which
the control arm is connected, thus activating the entire system Fig. 31.
 Fig. 31
2.7. BY RAIL.
In this system, the column ends in a pinion. When turned by being driven by the steering wheel, it moves a rack.
Toothed connected to the coupling bar, which sets the entire system in motion Fig. 32.

Fig. 32
2.8. HYDRAULIC STEERING SYSTEM.
Power steering
This system consists of a circuit through which flowsoildriven by a pump. When the wheel is turned,
la columna de dirección mueve, solamente, un distribuidor, que por la acción de la bomba, envía el aceite a un
cylinder that is fixed to the frame, within which a piston moves in one direction or another, depending on the
side to which the steering wheel turns.
In its movement, the piston drags the coupling arm, thereby driving the entire mechanical system.
Fig. 33.
 Fig. 33.
Vemos que el conductor sólo acciona el distribuidor al mover el volante.
There are heavy vehicles that have two or more axles at their rear and there are also those with two at the front.
front part. To facilitate its handling, all the wheels of the front axles are directional.
Steering box with worm screw.
It consists of a steering screw in which the steering nut moves by turning the steering wheel and has the
following components:
Address column
Screw without end
Nut
Balls or marbles
Sector
Output tree
Scrollable widget
HYDRAULIC POWER-ASSISTED STEERING SYSTEM
The need to exert more effort to steer the front wheels becomes apparent.
especially in different situations:
reduced speed
Lowpressuredeflated
Wheels with a large surface area in contact with the ground
Closed curves
For this, the implementation of is becoming increasingly necessarysystemsof hydraulic assistance in the majority
of current vehicles.
The main parts that basically make up a power steering system are:
The energy source
The regulation valve
The steering column
STEERING SYSTEMELECTRONICSO THE FOUR WHEELS (E4 WS)
The system is electronically guided to the E4 WS wheels, it is a steering system that directs the wheels.
rear ones in the same direction or in the opposite direction infunctionof the turning angle of the two wheels
front, the steering rotation speed and the vehicle speed. In this way, it enhances the
stability, handling and maneuverability of the vehicle at all speeds. And it has the following
components:
The speed sensor
Front gyroscope sensor
Revolution sensor
Auxiliary steering angle sensor
Rear steering mechanism
Rear gyroscope sensor
ECU
INCONVENIENCES AND THEIR CAUSES
The laxity of the kneecaps iscriticism. A small wear allows the counterattack to occur. This gives
I start with a pounding that, once it has begun, can quickly shatter the kneecap.
The irregularities of theground, like the effects generated by inertia forces and by forces
Centrifuges acting on a running car generate different types of oscillations.
The inertial forces during acceleration or braking create an oscillation around the axis.
transversal called 'Cabeceo'.
The centrifugal forces generated when taking a curve cause another type of oscillation around the axis.
longitudinal of the vehicle, called 'Rolling'. The third type of oscillation is called 'Shimmy',
known vibration produced by the rotational movement of the steering wheels, due to the imbalance
dynamic of them. This anomaly also occurs as a result of incorrect alignment of the
direction angles.
SYMPTOMS:
When the kneecap is worn, the following symptoms occur:
Vehicle deviation.
Excessive play in the steering wheel.
Noises and vibrations.
Tire wear.
RECOMMENDATIONS:
The first step to determine the degree of deterioration of the patella is a visual and tactile inspection of the
situation in which the joint boot covers find themselves. In case of deterioration due to cracks or
perforación con pérdida de grasa, la rótula debe sustituirse por una nueva inmediatamente.
Inspection of the chassis parts. Starting with a simple check, you can quickly locate the
worn or loose parts in the front system. To do this, we must unload the weight of the vehicle on the
rótula, usando un elevador, para que éste sea el que sujete el peso del vehículo. Sólo de esta forma se puede
guarantee a gooddiagnosis.
The replacement of thegamecomplete, since the use of components with different levels of use is one of
the factors that often determine the decrease in performance.
Wheel alignment according to manufacturer specifications.
[Link]
Vehicles tend to be faster and faster, but also moreinsurance. Theobjectiveit is to reduce the
number ofaccidentson the road thanks to specific equipment that provides stability to the
tourism and decreases theriskof collision. It is what is known as Active Safety, a term that
it encompasses the devices over which the driver can directly act:
Braking system: stops the vehicle and prevents wheel lock (ABS).
Suspension system: ensures stability during driving.
Steering system: turns the wheels according to the turn of the steering wheel.
Air conditioning system: provides thetemperatureappropriate during the march.
Tires: theirdrawingit is guaranteed grip, even in adverse weather conditions.
Lighting system: allows the driver to see and be seen.
Motor and gearbox: they make it possible to adapt the speed to the circumstances of the road.
Stability control system: prevents the vehicle from rolling over thanks to the so-called ESP system.
2.3. ALIGNMENT OF DIRECTION
For the reliable and safe driving of a vehicle, it must have a steering system that meets the following
conditions:
Semi-reversible: It should not return quickly nor be irreversible. This is achieved with the pipe of
gears.
Progressive: It means that if we turn the steering wheel a full turn, the wheels will turn more in the second half.
turn that in the first. The constant progression will be achieved by the type of gear and by the slope.
from the coupling bar.
Stable: A vehicle is stable when, under normal conditions, it moves straight with the steering wheel.
loose. This is achieved with the steering dimensions.
IT DETECTS VIBRATION WHEN DRIVING, THE CAR STEERS OFF IF THE STEERING WHEEL IS RELEASED OR DOES NOT RESPOND

WHEN DOES IT ENTER THE CURVE?

If the answer is yes to these questions, then your vehicle has a problem and needs a solution.
You should check the tires, steering systems, and suspension to determine the cause and correct it for
restore stability to your vehicle.
If the problem is not fixed, it will cause excessive wear on the tires and suspension, and the most critical thing is
that will endanger your integrity and that of your companions.
The alignment maintains the stability of the vehicle and prolongs the life of its tires.
DETECTS VIBRATION WHEN DRIVING, THE CAR VEERS IF THE STEERING WHEEL IS RELEASED OR DOES NOT RESPOND
WHEN DOES IT ENTER THE CURVE?
If the answer is yes to these questions, then your vehicle has a problem and needs a solution.
You must check the tires, steering systems, and suspension to determine the cause and correct it for
to restore stability to your vehicle.
If the problem is not solved, it will cause excessive wear on the tires and the suspension, and the most critical thing is
that will endanger their integrity and that of their companions.
The alignment maintains the stability of the vehicle and prolongs the life of its tires.
2.3.3. CASTER WHEN TO ALIGN THE VEHICLE WHEELS? Fig. 34.
Cuando se reemplazan las llantas con otras nuevas.
When the tires have irregular wear.
When a is carried outmaintenanceen el sistema de dirección o suspensión.
When the vehicle is not going straight, it releases the steering wheel.
After a collision with another vehicle, with a curb or pothole.
When the vehiclesamplesymptoms of poor alignment.
After 20,000 km since the last alignment or once a year.
 Fig. 34 Caster
Advance (Caster), sometimes referred to as caster angle. The caster angle is the inclination of a line.
imaginary axis around which the wheel rotates. Typically, this tilts toward the rear of the car (advancement
negative). The negative advance angle creates force that results in the following:
Returns the wheels automatically to the center position so that the car goes straight after the curve.
2.3.4. WHAT DOES ALIGNMENT CONSIST OF?
That the tires work in parallel with each other and roll at the correct angle.
Camber. It is the tilt of the top outward or inward. Each vehicle has its own
angles. These angles depend on the weight on each of the front and rear tires, design
yresistanceof springs, spirals or torque bars and other factors. Fig. 35.

Fig. 35
Output: The vertical of the axis is considered with the extension of the pivot in a transverse direction. It is usually 5º.
Fig. 36-

Fig. 36
Drop: The horizontal of the spindle and the spindle itself are considered in the transversal sense. It is usually 2º.
Fig. 37.
 Fig. 37
Convergence or divergence: Depending on whether the vehicle is traction or propulsion, respectively; it is considered
the hub and the extension of the axis, that is, the wheels are not completely parallel at rest.
The difference is usually 2 mm to 3 mm. Fig. 38 and 39.

Fig. 38
Convergence (Toe), sometimes called Divergence: Convergence is the difference between the front part of
a tire and its rear part. If the tires are pointing inward, the car will have greater
oversteer, while pointing outward, has less control and greater wear. To drive in lines
straight lines, this should be almost zero difference. When driving a lot on curves, one aims a little to
inside. Fig. 39.

Fig. 39
The convergence is usually regulated in the front wheels, but there are conditions where the
the vehicle is out of alignment and the rear tires are not parallel to the chassis. Certain vehicles have
adjustments of this condition, while others need to stretch the chassis with hydraulic jacks to return it to its
square
The vehicle with its alignment properly adjusted will have its steering wheel centered and straight, and it will pass through the same.
arch when turning right or left, and will show control in curves without jostling (while the
speed and acceleration are reasonable). It also provides longer life to tires, joints
homokinetics, rack, bearings, crosspieces, journals, bushings, dampers and others of the train of
rolled.
A vehicle is aligned when all the components of the suspension and steering (set of wheels
and the steering wheel) function correctly.
3.3.5. SYMPTOMS OF MISALIGNMENT IN THE VEHICLE:
Irregular tire wear, showing excessive wear on one extreme tread.
Strange feeling in the steering. The steering wheel feels harder than usual or the vehicle turns more easily.
to one side than the other.
In a straight line, the steering wheel is not in the correct position, that is, the vehicle is going straight but the steering wheel...
it is turned to one side.
The vehicle leans to one side while driving.
A vibration appears at a certain speed, but it disappears when going slower or faster.
The vehicle is misaligned, meaning the front wheels are pointing in one direction and the rear wheels in another.
The vehicle exhibits oversteer or understeer.
SAFETY IS THE MOST IMPORTANT REASON WHY YOU SHOULD INSPECT YOUR
VEHICLE. SAFETY FOR YOURSELF AND FOR OTHER ROAD USERS.
Why should it be inspected?
A defect in your vehicle that is found during an inspection could prevent you fromproblemsmore
go ahead. You could have a breakdown on the road that would cost you time andmoney, or worse, a collision
provoked by the defect.
Thelawsfederal and state authorities require drivers to inspect their vehicles. The inspectors
federal and state authorities can also inspect your vehicle. If they determine that the vehicle is unsafe, it
they will put 'out ofservice" until it has been repaired.
Types of Vehicle Inspection
Pre-trip inspection. A pre-trip inspection will help you find problems that could cause
a collision or a breakdown.
During a trip, for safety you should:
Look at the meters to detectsignalsof problems.
Use your senses to detect any problems (look, listen, smell, touch).
Review the critical parts when it stops:
Tires, wheels, and rims.
Brakes.
Lights and reflectors.
Brakes and electrical connections to the trailer.
Trailer coupling devices.
Devices to secure the load.
Inspection andreportpost-trip inspection. You should conduct a post-trip inspection at the end of the
same, of the day or the service shift, in each vehicle with which it has operated. Such inspection can
include having to complete a report on the condition of the vehicle that lists any problems present
Found. The inspection report helps the carrier know when the vehicle needs repairs.
What should be sought
Tire problems.
Too much or too little pressurepneumatics.
Bad weather. You need at least 4/32 inches of depth in each major groove in the
front tires. Needs 2/32 inches on the other tires. No fabric should be visible.
through the grooves or the side walls.
Cuts and other damages.
Separation of the tread.
Dual tires that come into contact with each other or with other parts of the vehicle.
Sizes that do not match.
Radial and bias-ply tires used together.
Cut or broken valve stems.
Newly grooved tires, which have been sealed, on the front wheels of a bus. These are
prohibited.
Problems with the wheels and tires
Damaged tires.
Rust around the wheel nuts, which may mean that those nuts are loose.
Check if they are tightly fastened. After changing a tire, stop for a moment for a while.
afterwards check again if the nuts are still tight.
The absence of clamps, nails or handles means danger.
The mismatched, bent, or broken tires are dangerous.
Wheels or tires that have been repaired with welding are not safe.
Brake drums or shoes in poor condition
Broken drums.
Brake pads or shoes with oil, grease, or brake fluid.
Worn out pads, dangerously thin, missing or broken.
Defects of the steering system
Nuts, screws, keys or other missing parts.
Bent, loose or broken parts, such as the steering mechanism, the gearbox, or the rods
ligatures.
If the address is equipped with hoses,bombsand the fluid level; check for leaks.
The steering game of more than 10 degrees (approximately two inches of movement in the wheel of
a 20-inch steering wheel) can make driving difficult.
3.4. SOMEGRAPHSOF ALIGNMENT OF DIRECTION
This angle is the tilt of the wheels towards the inside or outside of the vehicle.
When the wheel is tilted inward at the top, the camber is negative, and positive when the
the wheel is tilted outward at its top.
Thevaluecorrect depends on the design of the suspension system. Generally, camber helps to the
stability of straight direction and prolongs the life of the tire. The value of Camber on the wheel
left/right should be the same to avoid side pulls.
An improper camber value subsequently causes excessive wear on the sides of the tires.
CASTER
It is the forward or backward tilt of the body or arm of the lever. The angle is measured through
the upper and lower points of this body or arm spindle.
It is important that the caster angles are the same on the front wheels to avoid instability.
route with holes or during braking.
KING PIN INCLINATION–KPI
This angle is also known as Swivel Axle Inclination (SAI). The angle is determined
through the inclination of the line or axis that crosses the pivot points, up to the vertical. The angles of
pivot, they place the point at which the wheel is turned close to the center of the tire track, which reduces
the transmission of road interferences. When the body turns, it rises, and it is likely that when it
let go of the steering wheel, it tends to return to the 'straight ahead' position
Maximum turning radius
The distance between pivots (a) that is called the track and the length and inclination of the arms of
coupling as a function of the vehicle's battle (b), which corresponds to the wheelbase, determines
one of the characteristics of management, such as itsradioof maximum turn. This radius is determined by
In such a way that the wheels can turn describing a circle with a diameter four times greater than the battle of
vehicle.
The turn angle (Avi) for a given turn radius (R), according to thetrianglesrectangles 0AB and 0CD
From the lower figure, it is obtained by the trigonometric function of the angles formed by the wheels as a function.
of the battle (b) of the vehicle and of the track width (a).
Taking into account that the minimum turning radius in vehicles is usually about double that of
battle or distance between axles: R = 2 b. The maximum turning angle between the wheels is:

Suspension and steering geometry

 CHAPTER III

Brakesystem
INTRODUCTION:
I think that if I say not all vehicles have brakes, it is true that most of them [Link]
they carry brake discs but the older ones will remember that this has not always been the case... in fact, in the
Currently, there are still some with drum brakes.
To equip the vehicle with a series of mechanisms that are responsible for achieving it, allowing
carry it out under the best safety conditions: minimum time and distance, preservation of trajectory
of the vehicle, with a braking proportional to the driver's effort, under various load conditions, etc.
Now, we must take into account that if theprocessbraking is done very abruptly. The wheels
they lock and move without turning, causing a loss of their grip and therefore a ...
drift.
When the vehicle is in motion, a grip force is established in relation to the ground.
displaces. The value of that force depends, at each moment, on the load that gravitate on the wheel and the
coefficient of friction between the tires and the ground. Therefore, the braking force applied must be, in
at this moment, below the vehicle's adhesion limit. When we exceed this value, the wheels will
they will block.
Current legislation regulates the components that must equip the different vehicles according to
category and braking specifications that must be met.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completing the study of this system, you will be able to:
Describe thefunctionsof the braking system
List the main components of the different braking systems
Explain the design and operation of the various brake systems
Diagnose the most common faults of the braking system
Repair the faulty components of the braking system
Adjust the brake system
Providing service to an assembly of accessories and components
PURPOSE.
The purpose of brakes in a vehicle is to achieve, stop or slow down
the march of the same under the conditions determined by its driver, for this, the kinetic energy, in its
totality or in part, by means of friction, that is to say, transforming it intoheat. The braking effect
to produce or to friction some moving parts; disc, drums or pads.
Brakes are the devices that can prevent any type of collision, which is why manufacturers
they dedicate a large part of their time and effort todevelopmentof the most effective braking systems,
turning them into one of the most important active safety elements in design and assembly
automotive
BRAKES.
Most important active safety systems within a car, their function is to slow down the rotation of the
tires to achieve stopping the vehicle. As a result, manufacturers dedicate a large part of their
time and effort on the development of more effective braking systems.
From the first systems placed on the front and rear wheels to the latest advancements.
like the ABS system that prevents the tires from slipping, allowing to maintain control of the vehicle even
en una situación extrema, los frenos han sido los encargados de prevenir los accidentes o cualquier tipo
collision on the streets and highways.
Next, we will take a brief look at the main braking systems, theirevolutionand the advantages and
disadvantages that have accompanied it.
FUNCTIONING OF THE BRAKES.
The brakes stop the car by pressing a high-friction material (pads or shoes) against the discs.
or the drums ofironscrewed to the wheel, and that rotate with it. This friction reduces the speed of the
car until stopping it.
There are two types of brakes: disc and drum. Disc brakes work when the pads press.
both sides of the disk.
The drum ones press the brake pads against the inner face of the drum. Disc brakes are more effective,
because its design allows for greater heat dissipation by theair. There are also different systems of
Braking, the most common and used is the anti-lock braking system, better known as ABS.
Most cars have front disc brakes and rear drum brakes Fig. 40a and 40b.

Fig. 40ª
When the pads or shoes rub against the disc or drum, heat is generated. If this is not dissipated
quickly, the brakes overheat and stop working. This phenomenon is called crystallization of
brakes. The front brakes produce 80% of thepowerbraking of the car, and therefore, they are more
more susceptible to overheating than the rear ones. Most cars have front brakes
of disc because when cooling down by air, they are less prone to the crystallization of the brake pads
The parking brake, which serves to keep the car stationary, is a mechanical system of
levers and cables connected to the rear brakes. A pedal or a hand lever operates the brakes and a
The gear retainer holds them. A knob or button releases this sector and frees the brakes.
 Fig. 40b
3.5. TYPES OF BRAKES.
Mechanical brakes
Hydraulic brakes
Drum brakes
Disc brakes
Pneumatic brakes
ABS brakes
BRAKE FLUID:
Brake fluid is the element that, when pressurized by the pump, pushes the cylinders of the calipers.
against the pills, thus producing the braking action. For car users, it is the eternal
forgotten, that is to say, very few drivers give the importance that this element has. As we will see in
continuation its characteristics are those that ensure a proper braking, but it is an element that with the
use and the passage of time degrades and must be replaced.
The fundamental characteristics of brake fluid are as follows:
It is incompressible (like all fluids).
Its minimum boiling point must be above 230ºC. This will ensure it stays instateliquid
without boiling, when the braking demands are very high.
It must be lowviscosityto move quickly around the circuit.
It must be lubricant so that the moving elements of the braking system it encounters with.
contact should not be restrained.
MECHANICAL BRAKES.
This type of brake consisted of a cable that, when pressed with the foot, transmitted the power.
necessary to stop the vehicle; The system ceased to be functional when new and powerful engines
they began to develop high speeds, requiring a great physical effort to achieve deceleration the
automobile. The system evolved into hydraulic brakes, which achieved a greater effect with less effort.
much greater braking power.
The mechanical brake or 'parking brake' as it is known in some places, prevents a vehicle
stationed moves on its own, although this system can be used, if it is
necessary, as an emergency brake during the vehicle's movement Fig.40b.
It usually consists of a lever or pedal that is within the driver's reach; connected by a
metal cable to the brake lever. When activated, the levers exert pressure on the wheel brake pads.
rear ends causing a braking, which in the event of occurring while the vehicle is in motion, can be
quite abrupt.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES.
Hydraulic brakes are divided into two fundamental types of systems: hydraulic systems,
properly so and those based onmaterialsof friction. In hydraulic systems, when the brake of the
the vehicle is pressed, a cylinder known as 'master' inside themotor, is responsible for driving liquid
brakes through a pipe to the brakes located on the wheels, the pressure exerted by the liquid
produce the necessary force to stop the vehicle fig. 41.

Fig. 41
Friction pads or materials are usually metallic or made ofceramicscapable of withstanding high
temperatures. These parts are responsible for creating friction against a fixed surface (which can be
drums or discs), thus achieving the braking of the vehicle; the brake pads are replaceable pieces that suffer from
wear and should be inspected and changed periodically.
[Link]. TYPES OF HYDRAULIC BRAKES
[Link].1, DISK BRAKES
The disc brakes consist of a rotor attached to the wheel, and a caliper that holds the brake pads.
hydraulic pressure exerted from the master cylinder causes a piston to press 'like a clam' the
pads on both sides of the rotor, this creates enough friction between both pieces to produce a descent
of the speed or the complete stop of the vehicle. Fig.42.
Most disc brakes have sliding calipers. They are mounted in such a way that they can slide some
millimeters on both sides. When stepping on the brake pedal, the hydraulic pressure pushes a piston inside the
pinch and press a tablet against the rotor. This pressure moves the entire clamp in its assembly and also pulls the
another pill against the rotor.
 Fig. 42
This braking system has the following advantages:
The brake pads do not crystallize, as they cool down quickly.
When the rotor heats up and expands, it becomes thicker, increasing the pressure against the pads.
It has better braking in adverse conditions when the rotor [Link] dust by action
centrifuge
On the other hand, the disadvantages of disc brakes, compared to drum brakes, are that they do not have the
servo or power boost action call, and its pads are smaller than the shoes of the
drum brakes, and they wear out faster.
PARTS OF THE DISC BRAKE
Clamping device (jaw or caliper)
2. Brake disc or rotor
Brake pad (lining)
4. Cover of the piston
Wheel hub
5. Dust cover or dust jacket
6. Slide bolt of the clamp
7. Ventilation slots
8. Blow-off valve (purger)
9. Brake hose or pipe
[Link].2. DRUM BRAKES
These types of brakes consist of a metal drum attached to the wheel, a wheel cylinder, pads, and springs.
return. The hydraulic pressure exerted from the master cylinder causes the wheel cylinder to press the
pads against the inner walls of the drum, producing the corresponding decrease in speed
Fig.43.
 Fig. 43
Currently, drum brakes are only used on the rear wheels and with certain vehicles, already
that disc brakes enjoy greater braking force, which is why they are used in most of the
automobiles such as front brakes, although the trend indicates that the vast majority of cars will end up
using disc brakes on all four wheels.
PARTS OF THE DRUM BRAKE FIG. 44
Brake drum
2. Zapata
3. Brake pads or belts
4. Return springs for the shoes
5. Anchor
6. Anchor Plate
7. Adjustment cable
8. Hydraulic piston or cylinder
Wheel cylinder
10 Regulator
11 Brake booster
 Fig.44
BRAKE BOOSTER:
The brake booster is the system by which the force that must be applied to the pedal, to pressurize the circuit
At the same pressure, it reduces. That is, it is an element that reduces the effort that the conductor needs.
to pressurize the circuit by pressing the pedal. Fig. 45.

Fig. 45
The advantages of the power brake are not exclusively those ofto be able toapply greater pressure on the circuit
hydraulic, and consequently, on the pistons of the clamps with greater foot rest. If not, it
what is achieved is a better dosage of braking. Fig. 46

Fig. 46
The most common current servobrakes are those that operate by vacuum.
These devices take advantage of thedepressioncreated in the intake manifold when the foot is taken off the
accelerator to increase the force that the foot provides to the brake pedal.
Thevaluestypical pedal effort / servo for the type of system represented above are the
next

BRAKE PUMP:
The brake master cylinder is responsible for pressurizing the fluid throughout the hydraulic circuit.
As current legislation requires vehicle manufacturers to equip them with a dual circuit
brake, the brake pumps are of the tandem type. Fig. 47
 Fig. 47
The tandem system means that the pump has two pistons, placed one after the other, with
which addresses the supply of the liquid at an equal pressure for each of the
twocircuitsindependent normally distributed according to an 'X'. That is, a circuit acts on the
left front wheel and also on the right rear while the other acts on the wheel
right front and left rear as a safety element in case of loss issues
ofeffectivenessin one of the two circuits.
AIR OR PNEUMATIC BRAKE SYSTEM
The pneumatic system is installed in heavy vehicles, starting from six tons, and the transmission of effort
From the conductor to the wheels is done by releasing compressed air. Fig. 48.
 Fig. 48
AIR BRAKE SYSTEM SCHEMATIC
1.-……………………………………………
2.-……………………………………………
3.-……………………………………………
4.-………………………………..
5.-
6.-……………………………………………
7.-……………………………………………
8.-
9.-……………………………………………
10.-………………………………………….
11.-………………………………………….
12.-………………………………………….
13.-………………………………………….
The basic components of the air or pneumatic brake system are:
Air compressor
2. Governor or air controller
3. Tank or storagestorageof air
4. Drainage of water from storage tank
5. Alcohol evaporator
6. Safety valve
7. Brake pedal
8. The braking devices
9. The Supply Pressure Gauges
10. The Applied Pressure Meter
11. The Low Pneumatic Pressure Warning Signal
12. The Brake Light Switch
13. The Front Brake Limiting Valve
Spring brake
15. Pedal regulating valve
16. Quick release valve
17. Air chamber
18. Relay.
19. Emergency brake
20. Air brake pump
21. check valve tank pneumatic system
1.- AIR COMPRESSOR.- It is responsible for taking air from theATMósphere and store it in the tanks
installed for that purpose.
The air compressor pumps air into the air storage tanks (the reservoirs). The compressor
The air connects to the engine through gears or through a V-belt. The compressor can be
air-cooled or it can be cooled by the engine's cooling system. It can have its own
oil supply, or be lubricated by the engine oil. If the compressor has its own supply of
oil, check the oil level before driving
2.- AIR GOVERNOR OR CONTROLLER.- When the established maximum pressure is reached
(generally 120 to 125 PSI) the governor stops the flow of air to the tank, thus preventing a
Overpressure. When the pressure decreases by 10 to 15 PSI from the maximum level, it allows the flow again.
from air to the tank.
The air compressor controller regulates when the air compressor should pump air into the
air storage tanks. When the pressure in the air tank reaches the 'cut-off' level (around
at 125 pounds per square inch or 'psi', the controller stops the compressor from where the
air. When the tank pressure drops below the 'minimum' pressure (around 100 psi), the
controller allows the compressor to start pumping again
3.- AIR STORAGE TANK OR DEPOSIT.- They maintain a maximum pressure of 125 PSI.
The size and quantity vary according to the length, number of lines, and size of the chambers.
Air storage tanks are used to store compressed air. The amount and size
the air tanks vary according to the vehicles. The tanks must store enough air to
allow using the brakes several times even when the compressor stops functioning. Fig. 49.
 Fig.49
A tank typically has a tap or valve at its bottom for [Link] waterand the lubricant
accumulated.
We can also find a safety valve, which allows air to escape when it is exceeded.
the maximum pressure set by governor failure (150 PSI
4.- DRAINING WATER FROM THE AIR TANK.- Compressed air normally has a little water.
and some oil from the compressor which is harmful to the pneumatic brake system.
For example, water can freeze during cold weather and cause the brakes to fail. Water and the
oils tend to accumulate at the bottom of the air tank. Beinsuranceto empty the air tanks for
complete. Each air tank is equipped with a drain valve at the bottom. There are two types:
Manual, it is activated by turning it a quarter turn, or by pulling a cable. You must empty the tanks at the end.
of each daywork. See Figure 50.
Automatically, water and oil are expelled automatically. Thesevalvesthey can also be
equipped for drainagemanual.
Automatic valves are available with electric heating devices. These help to prevent the
automatic drain freezing in cold weather.
 Fig. 50
5.- EVAPORATOR [Link] pneumatic brake systems have an alcohol evaporator.
para introducir alcohol en el sistema neumático. Esto ayuda a reducir el riesgo de hielo en las válvulas del
brake pneumatic and other parts during cold weather.
The ice inside the system can cause the brakes to stop working. Check the alcohol reservoir and
Fill it when necessary and do it every day during the cold season. It still needs to be emptied.
daily air tank to eliminate water and oil. (Unless the system has valves of
automatic drainage.
6.- SAFETY VALVE.- A safety relief valve is installed in the first tank to which the
The air compressor pumps the compressed air. The safety valve protects the tank and the rest of the
excess pressure system. The valve is normally set to open at 150 psi. If the valve
The security system is letting air out, something is wrong. It has a problem that needs to be fixed by a mechanic.
7.- THE BRAKE PEDAL.- You apply the brakes by pushing down on the brake pedal. (It is also referred to as the
it is called the foot valve or pedal valve.) By pushing the pedal down harder, more pneumatic pressure
is applied. When the brake pedal is released, the pneumatic pressure is reduced and the brakes are released. When releasing the
brakes a little compressed air comes out of the system, so the pneumatic pressure in the tanks is reduced.
This must be raised again using the air compressor. Pressing and releasing the pedal
unnecessarily can release air faster than the compressor can replace it. If the pressure
brake too hard, the brakes won't work. Fig.
51. Fig.518.- THE
BRAKE DEVICES.- Brake devices are used on each wheel. The most common type is the brake of
cam brake in S. The different parts of the brake are discussed below: (brake of
drum). Fig. 52.

Fig. 52
The drums, the shoes, and the brake pads. The brake drums are located at each end of
the axles of the vehicle. The wheels are secured to the drums. The braking mechanism is inside the
drum. When braking, the shoes and the bands are pushed against the inner part of the drum. This causes the
friction that slows down the vehicle (and produces heat). The heat that a drum can tolerate without suffering damage depends
how much force and how long the brakes are used. Excessive heat can cause the brakes to stop
to function.
The brake levers in [Link] you push the brake pedal, compressed air enters each
brake chamber. The air pressure pushes the rod outward, thereby moving the tension adjuster,
rotating the brake camshaft. This rotates the cam in s (so called because its shape is like the
From the letter 'S'). The lever in s force pushes the shoes outward and tightens them against the interior of the brake drum.
When you release the brake pedal, the lever turns backward and a spring moves the shoes away from the drum.
allowing the wheels to roll freely again. See Figure 5.2.
The Wedge Brakes. In this type of brake, the lever of the brake chamber directly pushes a wedge.
between the ends of the two footings. This separates them and pushes them against the inner part of the drum of
brake. Wedge brakes can have a single brake chamber, or two; in this case, they are pushed the
wedges at both ends of the shoe. Wedge-type brakes can be self-adjusting or they can be
require manual adjustment.
The Disc Brakes. In air-operated disc brakes, the pneumatic pressure acts on
the brake chamber and in the tension adjuster, in the same way as in s-cam brakes. But in
place of the lever in s, a "power screw" is used. The pressure of the brake chamber in the tension adjuster
rotate the power screw. The power screw holds the disc or rotor between the brake pads of a
caliper, similar to a large clamp in the shape of a C.
Wedge brakes and disc brakes are less common than S-cam brakes.
9.- THE SUPPLY PRESSURE GAUGES.- All vehicles with pneumatic brakes have
a pressure gauge connected to the air tank. If the vehicle has a dual pneumatic brake system,
There will be a meter for each half of the system. (Or a single meter with two needles.) Dual systems
they will betreatiesLater on. These gauges indicate how much pressure is in the air tanks.
10.- THE APPLIED PRESSURE METER.- This meter indicates how much pneumatic pressure you apply.
to the brakes. (Not all vehicles have this gauge.) Having to increase the applied pressure to
maintaining the same speed means that the brakes are weakening. You must slow down and
you should use a lower gear. The need to increase the pressure may also be caused by
The brakes may be misadjusted, due to air leaks or mechanical problems.
11.- THE LOW AIR PRESSURE WARNING SIGNAL.- A signal is required for
warning that the pressure is low in vehicles with pneumatic brakes. A warning signal that
You can see it must be activated before the atmospheric pressure in the tanks falls below
the 60 psi. (Or below half of the minimum pressure of the compressor pressure switch in vehicles more
old.) The warning is usually alightred. It can also be used with a buzzer.
Another type of warning signal is the 'wig wag.' This device drops a mechanical arm in front of it.
View when the pressure in the system drops below 60 psi. An automatic wig wag will remove it.
From its view, the signal when the pressure in the system exceeds 60 psi. In the manual reset type,
the signal must be placed in the 'out of sight' position with the hand. It will not remain in that place until
that the pressure in the system is above 60 psi.
In large buses, it is common for low pressure warning devices to activate at 80-85.
psi.
12.- THE BRAKE LIGHT SWITCH.- Drivers behind you must be warned.
when you apply your brakes. The pneumatic brake system does this with an electrical switch that is
powered by pneumatic pressure. The switch turns on the brake lights when you apply the brakes
tires.
13.- THE FRONT BRAKE LIMITING VALVE.- Some older vehicles (manufactured before
from 1975) have a front brake limiting valve and a control in the cabin. The control has
two positions usually marked 'normal' and 'slippery.' When you place the command in the
In the "slippery" position, the limiting valve reduces the "normal" pneumatic pressure by half. The valves
Limiters were used to reduce the possibility of the front wheels slipping on surfaces.
slippery. However, these valves actually reduce the braking force of the vehicle. The brakes
the front wheels work well in any condition. Theteststhey have shown that it is not
It's likely that the front wheels will skid when braking, not even on ice. Make sure that the command
It is in the 'normal' position to have normal braking force.
Many vehicles have automatic limiting valves on the front wheels. These reduce the amount.
of air that reaches the front brakes except when the brakes are pressed very hard (60 psi or
more applied pressure). These valves cannot be controlled by the driver.
14.- SPRING BRAKES.- All trucks, tractor trucks, and buses must be equipped
with emergency brakes and parking brakes. They must brake through
strengthmechanics(because air pressure can eventually leak). Brakes are usually used
springs to meet these needs. When driving, powerful springs are held
by the pneumatic pressure. If the pneumatic pressure is removed, the springs apply the brakes. A command of
The parking brake in the cabin allows the driver to release the compressed air from the brakes.
spring. This allows the springs to apply the brakes. A leak in the pneumatic brake system that
because losing all the air will also cause the springs to apply the brakes.
The spring brakes on tractors and on rigid trucks will fully engage when the
pneumatic pressure drops below 20 to 45 psi (typically between 20 and 30 psi). Not
wait for the brakes to apply automatically. When the pressure warning light and buzzer
low pneumatic lights turn on first, take the vehicle immediately to a safe place to stop, while
he can still control the brakes.
The braking power of the spring brakes depends on them being adjusted. If the brakes are not
if properly adjusted, neither the normal brakes nor the emergency/parking brakes will work
correctly.
15.- PEDAL REGULATOR VALVE.- It is the valve for compressed air.
When the driver presses the pedal, it opens the passage of compressed air to the chambers in each wheel. To
maintaining a constant force on the pedal closes the airflow controlling the braking in this way
will, since by exerting greater force the valve opens again.
When releasing the pedal, the airflow to the chambers is closed again and the lines connect.
conducting with the atmosphere through the regulating valve allowing the decompression of the pipe.
16.- QUICK DECOMPRESSION VALVE.- It is installed on the longer lines (rear axles)
equidistant to the axle wheels to allow for quick deactivation of the brakes when releasing pressure more
removal of the pedal.
17.- AIR CHAMBER.- Converts the energy of compressed air into energymechanicstransmitting it to the
Adjustment lever (lock) which applies the bands against the bell to stop its movement. Fig. 53.

Fig. 53
18.- RELAY.- In certain vehicles, the air released by the pedal valve is not sufficient.
to operate the rear brakes.
In this case, it is necessary to install an additional line from the tank to a valve near the
rear wheels that collaborate with the main line in supplying air to the chambers
back. This valve is known as a relay.
19.- EMERGENCY BRAKES FOR AIR BRAKE.- The safety brakes known as brakes
de resorte son utilizados en el sistema neumático de freno aplicado a vehículos diseñados para transportar
load over 25 tons.
The goal is to use it as a parking brake and emergency brake in case of a loss of pressure in the system.
of air.
The parking brake is mounted behind the air chamber. Its operation is carried out through
a spring activated by compressed air that operates independently of the service air chamber
standard.
It not only fulfills the mentioned functions but also serves as an emergency brake.
Service air chamber
Service diaphragm
Emergency embolus
4. Retention
5. Emergency spring
6. Deactivator screw
7. Filter.
EMERGENCY BRAKE FUNCTIONING:
In the vehicle, there are two lines, one for service and the other for emergencies. The emergency line is operated
manually, it sends compressed air to the safety chamber, this retracts by compressing the spring and so
remains until their action is required.
Meanwhile, the vehicle utilizes its brakes through its service cameras.
In the event of a malfunction in the service line, the driver must activate the emergency system.
A manual valve (PP1) will release the compressed air from the emergency chamber and then the
the spring will expand pushing the brake lever. If the fault affects the compressor or the line of
emergency, the brake can be deactivated using the deactivating screw. In this way it is reactivated.
Compress the spring and the lever returns to its position and the brake is released.
With the emergency line, the driver applies the brakes when the vehicle is parked. That is,
apply the parking brake by releasing the air from the emergency chambers, simply by injecting it
compressed air again, the brake is released.
20.- AIR BRAKE BOOSTER.- We inform you that under this name the brake valve is known that
It is generally activated by the pedal.
Its function is basically to serve as a gate for the passage of air from the storage tank to the
brake chambers when the pedal is pressed and serve as a vent, releasing air into the atmosphere when it is released.
It is calibrated so that the air output pressure is almost proportional to the effort commonly applied.
to ensure that this pressure does not exceed 5.5 Kg/cm² (approximately 80 PSI) and to avoid excessive braking
brusque.
There is also a double brake valve to be installed in a vehicle with a double brake circuit and in
in this case, the brake valve has two outlets that operate independently and are activated in a manner
simultaneously when pressing the brake pedal. Under those conditions, the compressed air passes from the two tanks to
the brake chambers.
In general, the operating principle of brake valves has remained the same even though it has presented
changes in its external form.
21.- TANK CHECK VALVE PNEUMATIC SYSTEM.- A check valve orcheckhimself
place it at the entrance of the compressed air storage tank as this prevents it from discharging to the
damage the pipe between the compressor and the tank.
That is to say, this valve allows air in but not back out.
[Link].- PARKING BRAKE OPERATION
Most parking brakes require three levers to multiply the [Link]
conductor, the first of which is the control lever. By moving the control lever, the force of the conductor
it multiplies and is used to pull the front cable which, in turn, pulls the compensator lever.
The compensator lever multiplies the force applied by the control lever and pulls the rear cables.
This traction force goes through a compensator that ensures that the traction is the same in
both rear cables.
To fulfill this function, the compensator allows the cables to slide a little to balance the
slight differences in length or fit between two cables. In turn, the rear cables pull on the levers of
the parking brakes.
The parking brake levers are connected to the secondary brake shoes.
butts.
By pulling the lever, it pushes the connecting rod against its spring, compressing it; the connecting rod or lever continues
moving by pushing the primary shoe against the brake drum. When the primary shoe enters
contact with the drum, ceases the movement of the connecting rod or lever. At that moment, the brake lever of
The parking mechanism revolves around the end of the connecting rod and the upper part of the lever pushes the shoe.
secondary against the drum. In this way, the action of the brake lever multiplies the force again.
of the conductor.
Parking brake adjustment
A parking brake is considered properly adjusted when it meets the following
criteria:
1. The brakes are fully applied and remain in position after the pedal or lever is released.
has moved to less than half of its possible journey.
The brakes are completely loose when the pedal or lever is in the disengaged position.
that the parking brakes actuate the rear brake shoes, there must be sufficient
free space between the band and the drum. Therefore, before attempting to adjust a parking brake, one
You should inspect the belt, the drums, and the related parts. The operation of the
star regulator and adjust the brakes so that there is enough free space between the band and the
drum
Most car manufacturers have establishedproceduresspecifics to adjust the
parking brakes of the variousmodelswhat they produce; here is aproceduretypical for
adjust the parking brakes of a drum brake system
Put the gear shift in the neutral position.
2. Put the parking brake lever in the braking position.
3. Lift the car and support it with jack stands placed under the suspension.
4. Loosen the lock nut
5. Tighten the adjustment nut against the compensator until you can see that the rear brakes start to
offer resistance.
6. Loosen the adjusting nut until the brakes have completely released.
7. Tighten the locknut.
8. Check the operation of the parking brake.
9. Get the car down.
[Link].- ENGINE BRAKE
All engine tocombustioninternal, dragged by the vehicle and fed at idle conditions, offers
an internal resistant pair due to the friction between moving parts and to the depression during the
suction time;the workabsorbed during compression is largely restored over time
of expansion and the absorbed during the escape time is weak.
The value of the resistance pair depends on the type of engine (four-stroke or two-stroke, carbureted or injected)
and the rotation speed. In a four-stroke engine, whether carbureted or gasoline-injected, the
the butterfly must remain slightly open as it is necessary to feed the engine with oil. Finally,
for the Diesel engine, the depression in the intake is lower, but the friction is more significant due to
that the compression ratio is higher.
If Cr and Ni represent the internal resistance pair and the number of RPM the motor, n and r the number of RPM and the
radio of the drive wheels, the deceleration force, which develops at the contact of the tire with
the soil is worth approximately Cr Ni; for a given engine, the braking due to the engine is therefore a function of the
N/n relationship, that is, the demultiplication of motion transmission.
To increase the effectiveness of the engine brake, it is necessary to increase N/n while keeping N the maximum speed of
rotation determined by the constructor; this condition can be approximately satisfied when it
descends a slope using the gear reduction ratio that should normally be used for
upload it.
The descent of a slope on the appropriate gear ratio can prevent the action of
the friction brakes when the vehicle has an engine powerful enough in relation to the weight and
a gearbox with the sufficient number of speeds or gear ratios; this condition
It is generally not done in heavyweights and small vehicles.
When the slope exceeds a certain percentage, the engine brake may be insufficient to stabilize.
the speed of the vehicle without risking engine breakdowns; then it is necessary to resort to the brakes of
service with the resulting inconveniences or intensifying the effect of deceleration on the engine
increasing Cr.
ABS BRAKES.
The ABS (Anti-Lock Brake System). The ABS system (Anti-Lock Brake System) or Anti-blocking System
Brakes consist of a mechanism installed in the braking system of vehicles that prevents the
immobilization of the wheels when the driver applies the brake suddenly. Each of the wheels
it has a sensor that determines the revolutions and detects when any wheel decreases the amount of
turns in comparison to a predetermined value. If this occurs, the ABS system orders a decrease in the
braking force and prevents locking. Fig.55 and 56.

Fig. 55
 Fig.56
An anti-lock braking system (ABS) automatically controls brake fluid pressure, preventing
that the wheels lock when excessive pressure is applied to the pedal, generally in situations
high risk, optimizing the system's operation and allowing the driver, at the same time,
maintain the stability and control of the vehicle. Fig.57.

Fig.57
The initials that identify it come from its designation in English: Antilock Brake System. Some
Spanish authors have castilianized the term, calling them SFA (Anti-lock Braking System).
It is usually described as a reactive system, as it works by reacting to one or more locked wheels.
Brake fluid
Brake fluids are currently divided into twogroupsdepending on the characteristics that
present. Thus, currently two qualities of brake fluid can be marketed.
DOT 4: Whose boiling point is 255ºC. Used in disc/drum or disc/disc systems without ABS.
DOT 5: Whose boiling point is 270ºC. Fig. 58.

Fig. 58
It must be used for high-performance [Link] those equipped with ABS systems.
Both qualities of liquid are miscible with each other, but mixing them is not recommended. Although
is there a possibility of mixing them, it is advisable to read thebookof vehicle maintenance to know if
We need to fill in what kind of liquid our vehicle uses. When we proceed to replace the liquid.
It is advisable to clean the brake circuit with methyl alcohol to ensure that the new fluid retains
all its properties. Moreover, in any
Why is the ABS system beneficial?
The first advantage to highlight is that anti-lock systems allow the car to stop at shorter distances.
shorter. This is explained because by improving the pneumatic-ground contact, a higher coefficient is maintained.
of friction and, as a consequence, a greater is achievedefficiencyof braking.

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What is the tripoid?

The tripod is the component that connects the transmission of your vehicle.
with the wheels. They are normally located at the front of the
vehicle and they always go in pairs, that is to say, one to the right wheel and the other to
the left wheel. Its correct name is transmission semi-axis

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What is it for?
 The tripod transmits the rotary motion from the box of
changes up to the wheel, just like the chain on a bicycle transmits
the movement of the pedals to the rear wheel. Its main
A characteristic is that this transmission is done constantly regardless of
that we change the orientation of the wheel to be able to cross in the curves.

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Why do front-wheel drive vehicles and minivans use

tripods instead of cardan and universal joint systems?
In front-wheel drive vehicles, drive shafts and universal joints are not used.
because this system generates cyclical vibrations when it rotates with a
deviation angle between both axes greater than a few degrees.
The geometry of the cardan system produces a change in speed
between the shaft that transmits the power and the transmitted shaft, which depends on the
angle at which the system is working. The greater the angle
Among the axes, this variation in speed will be greater.
This occurs because the axis that transmits the speed will maintain a
turning speed (revolutions per minute) equal to that of the motor, but in
change, due to the cross-shaped geometry where the transmitted axis
it is positioned at 90 degrees from the transmission axis, the latter is seen
required to accelerate its angular speed and then decelerate it
alternatively, 4 times for each complete round, in such a way that
maintain the same amount of R.P.M., which generates the vibration that
mentioned at the beginning.
This does not pose a concern in rear-wheel drive vehicles.
because the angle of deviation between the driveshaft axis and the differential
the rear remains constant and is very similar to 0 degrees, moreover the
Crosses located at the ends of the system are positioned at 90.
degrees from each other in such a way as to cancel the effect of the vibration.
On the contrary, in a front-wheel drive vehicle, the joints that are
they find themselves coupled to the wheels may be forced to work almost at
45 degrees when the wheels are fully crossed towards one of
the two sides. This difference between the centers of the axes is too much for
a cardan system, and that is why the use of systems is necessary
homokinetic or constant speed.
Unlike the cardan system, the constant velocity joint
maintains the rotational speed (revolutions per minute) on the axis
transmitted exactly at the same speed as the rotating axis of the transmitter without
import the angle being worked on.

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What are its parts?

Normally, the tripod consists of 4 clearly differentiated parts.
First is the tip that goes placed towards the wheel. Nowadays, all
these tips are of the type known as joint
homokinetic (A) or constant velocity joint.
Previously, there was another widely used system.
by the Renault house and the Peugeot and what it is
known as tripod point or bear claw
This is the reason why in Venezuela
a semi-axis is popularly known as
tripod). Secondly, we have the tip of
couplings that go to the box. These can be of
3 different types. The most popular is the triceta one.
and cup (B), but there is also the conventional sliding system and
cartridge slider. Third, we have the shaft or bar of
transmission (C) that connects the external tip to the internal one. And finally
we have the lubrication system (D) composed of the bellows,
the metal clamps and the grease.

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When do the CV joints get damaged?

There are three reasons why the tripod joints or half shafts get damaged.
transmission

. Use. This brings with it a normal wear and begins to be observed.

after 150,000 km
. Impacts or shocks. Especially those that are direct on
the wheels or the bottom part of the car.
. Lubrication Problems. The lubrication of the tripoid depends on
three elements, the grease, the dust cover or boot, and the clamps.
Any failure in any of them will cause the tripod a
premature wear drastically reducing its lifespan.
. The Fat. The use of inappropriate fat increases
notably the wear of the tripod.
. The Dust Cover. When the dust cover breaks, the large
The speed at which the tripod rotates will cause the grease to come out.
detached and gradually falling away until remaining
dry the mechanism. Additionally, particles enter.
solids and water that accelerate its wear and oxidation. This
it is the main cause of damage to the triploids in Venezuela.
. Clamps. The clamps keep sealed and in
position the dust cover. When these loosen or become
They break, the fat begins to drip until it is dry.
the system.

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How to know if the tripods are damaged?

When the tripod joint is damaged, it will typically produce a noise
metallic and repetitive similar to that of the castanets. There are two ways
simple to identify a tripod problem.

. On a street or parking lot with little traffic, with the

vehicle stopped, turn the steering wheel all the way to one side and
then move your vehicle forward. Repeat this test by turning the steering wheel
hacia la dirección contraria. Si en alguno de los casos detecta el
noise described earlier, your vehicle has some problem with the
triploid.
. Con el vehículo levantado en un puente como el utilizado para el
oil change, visually inspect the boots and the
clamps. If you notice any of these items damaged or if
observe accumulation of fat on the body, must send to
check the tripods.

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If the tripod of my vehicle is damaged, can a wheel come off? What?

What are the consequences if the tripods of my vehicle are damaged?
There is a general belief, supported by some mechanics, that if the
if the tripoint is damaged or breaks, the wheel of the vehicle may come off, or it can.
losing control of the steering or worse yet, you could run out of brakes.
None of these dangers are directly associated with
functioning or not of the tripods, and in the extreme case where these
if things happened simultaneously, they would be explained as different failures
of the vehicle that coincide at the same moment.
The tripod joint or transmission semi-axis has the function of
transmit the rotational movement that comes from the box to the wheels, to the
just like a bicycle chain transmits the movement of the
pedals towards the wheel. In this way, the tripod is not responsible for
hold the wheel in position, just like the bicycle chain does not
hold the bicycle wheel. It doesn't take care of braking much either.
less about steering the wheels when we turn the steering wheel (All this
it can also be easily seen in the analogy of the chain of the
bicycle). So, if the tripod were to break or simply be
we remove the car, it would stop moving due to the effect of the movement of the
motor, having the same effect as when the box is placed
vehicle speeds in neutral. That is, the vehicle can be
pushed or pulled and the driver can brake and change direction
turning the steering wheel but it wouldn't move driven by the engine.
However, it should be clarified that the vehicle may suffer damage if...
at the moment of breaking, the tripod is spinning at high speeds and
some of its parts may detach by hitting the engine, the case or
some other part of the vehicle.
In any case, the tripod has the ability to notify through a
characteristic noise when worn and in most cases is
able to work with this noise for a sufficient time before
 to split.
Based on this, we can conclude that while one should avoid in
in any case, if the tripoint deteriorates to the point of failing
completely, in general, the danger lies more in getting stranded
at the least opportune moment considering the problems of
insecurity plus the risk of being run over and in the best of cases
having to pay a large sum of money to a tow truck to tow
your vehicle.

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-------------------------------

What you are saying seems to indicate that your Golf has a problem with alignment. When you align the steering, you only...
they have adjusted the front wheel alignment, which is the only generally adjustable parameter. If the
the car has problems with falling or moving forward, due to the impact, this will not be solved for you in a
normal height. But what they should tell you is if these problems exist, because the
diagnostic machines that are used if they return the value of said parameters. If the
the problem was due to constraints, it may be due to some bent or damaged element in the
suspension, like a hub, a triangle, or even a shock absorber (it could also be a
silentblock). My advice is to take the car to a workshop specialized in suspension or
even to the house, where they check all the suspension measurements and try to see in
detail if there is any damaged element.
Greetings.

Alignment

This chapter could also go in the suspension section, since steering and
suspension and van are closely linked. Since alignment is a little discussed chapter
known in general terms, let's review the basic concepts first and
the specific aspects in the RX-8 below.

What is alignment and why should it be cared for?

The alignment of a vehicle is a combined set of parameters of

direction and suspension that relates to centrifugal forces, thrust,
of friction and static (weights) that occur with the movement of the car.

As we will see below, the alignment depends on the geometry and adjustments.
of the direction and of the suspension. The direction is what allows to guide the
vehicle to the desired location and the suspension is what positions the wheels in
relationship to the vehicle itself and to the road, so that the vehicle goes where
The driver gives orders.
The correct alignment is key for the vehicle to move.
smoothly, with an appropriate grip between the wheel and the pavement and also
to maintain good stability in a straight or curved line.
It will also minimize unnecessary friction with the pavement, which causes
useless wear on the tires.

Therefore:

A proper alignment is important in any vehicle, but in a

sports is something crucial

What are the alignment parameters?

Since it is very common for alignment machines

provide the measurements in English, we will translate the names of these
parameters for you to use when it's your turn to make the alignment of
your car.

The Convergence

Also known as Toe

in(out) is the most parameter
alignment critic. Of one
in a very simple way, it can be said
that convergence is how
the front wheels are located
and the rear ones.

Technically speaking it is the

difference between the distance to the axis
of the vehicle from the front
of a wheel and the back part of
this same wheel. It can be measured in distance (mm) or alternatively in
angle (radians or more commonly degrees and minutes).

It is said that positive convergence occurs when the wheel 'looks' inward.
vehicle in the usual direction of travel (Toe in). When the wheels
"looking" outward, it is said that the divergence is negative or that there is
divergence (Toe out).

On numerous occasions, the term total convergence of the train is commonly used.
forward and total of the rear. In this case, it is the sum of the 2 angles.
of convergence of the left and right wheel of the same train (or of the 2
individual distances). In most cars (if not in all) the
ángulo de convergencia total debe ser la suma de 2 ángulos individuales
identical, so that both wheels are inward or outward on the
same 'quantity'.

The function of convergence is to establish stability in a straight line and the

directionality in the curve.

An excessively positive or negative convergence will cause the wheels

affected suffer more, experience more friction and heat more, and therefore that they
wear out prematurely. This additional effort will also cause that to
the vehicle makes it more difficult for you to move forward.

If the convergence is unequal between the left and rear wheels of an axle, the
the vehicle will have leanings to one side and the limits of acceleration and braking
may be less (due to lower total grip and unequal distribution).

Manufacturers usually print a certain amount of convergence to the

wheels with the car unloaded and at rest to compensate for the difference in
convergence that occurs when varying the suspension/steering angles
Once the vehicle is loaded and traveling on curves. The general idea is to tend to
to have a 'zero' convergence on both trains with the vehicle in motion.

The Fall

Also known from English

Camber is the angle formed
between the line that connects the point
upper and lower middle of the
wheel in relation to that of a
perfectly vertical wheel.
The function of the suspension is to distribute the weight of the vehicle over the surface.
of the wheels in such a way that it is the most uniform under certain conditions
of lateral effort.

In other words, at a standstill or at low speeds, a 'zero' fall is the one that
will distribute the weight of the vehicle in the most even way making the grip
road wheels/tires should be maximized and tire wear should be the most uniform.

However, on a right curve at high speed, the support of the

outer wheels (the main responsible for maintaining the trajectory of
car) will be greater if the drop is positive. Attention, one has to think that the
inner wheels will have a weight supported on a smaller surface reducing the
grip. The maximum combination of the sum of 'right' and 'left' grips of
each fall angle for each train, the support is what will determine the angles of
fall ideals for a vehicle and a road and type of use. The manufacturer
prescribe those that are suitable for the general public and average roads.

It is quite common for cars to use some camber in the front axle.
positive at rest and without load, to compensate for the creation of negative drop that
it will be taken into account with the weight of the occupants and turns in curves. The idea of this is to tend
to have in those real marching conditions a fall close to 'zero'.

A very positive drop will cause the outer edges of the wheels to
they wear out at a faster rate and on their part a very negative drop will cause the
inner edges wear out more. If the drop between the left wheels and
the right side of a train is uneven, it will generate preferences of the car towards a
side, trend of the rear wheels advancing ahead of the front ones due to the
right or left and unbalanced braking.

The Advance

The advance is the measured angle.

between the axis of the suspension with
regarding their position completely
vertical. In English, it is called Caster.

The main functions of

advance to provide
directional stability and in the case of the front axle provide the return
automatic steering wheel to center.

A positive advance (see photo) projects the geometric axis of rotation forward.
advances the charging point with respect to the contact point of the wheel on
the road. This creates in the wheels a tendency to remain oriented
with the directional force of the vehicle, facilitating in a physically natural way,
the turn of the vehicle towards where the wheels indicate.

If the advance is lower (less positive) than specified by the manufacturer, it

will reduce directional stability at high speed, although "in exchange", it
it will reduce directional effort at low speed.

On the contrary, a greater advance than specified will increase stability.

high-speed directional (note that starting from a point it will cause
vibrations) and will increase the directional effort required at low speed.

If the advance is unequal between the two wheels of the same train, the vehicle
may suffer from a bias towards one side, erratic direction, and instability in
braking at the limit.

Interior and exterior angles of rotation

During a turn, the steering/suspension system turns unevenly.

wheel that remains on the inside of the curve with respect to the one that remains on the
exterior.

These differences in the turning radii of the inner and outer front wheels to
a turn allows the front wheels to roll with less drag, avoiding
the overexertion that will cause wear and decreased adhesion.
We could say that it is used to make the differential effect of the transmission,
but in the direction.

Therefore, there are 2 angles that manufacturers provide: the ones that must have.
the inner/outer wheels with the steering fully turned in a
meaning. In the other sense, if the components of the direction/suspension are
Well, the angles must be the same.
Inclination angle of the steering axis

Also called Steering Angle

Inclination (SAI) Oh King Pin
Inclination(KPI)

It is the angle formed between the axis

from the front suspension and the
vertical natural, seen from the
front of the vehicle. On both sides
the front train must be the
same.

This angle cannot be adjusted.

unless the geometry of the suspension/steering is redesigned.

Manufacturers mark this angle as a diagnostic of the condition of the

front suspension and steering components. If there is a component
deformed, the UPS will change with respect to the prescribed value and its measurement can
serve to diagnose this problem.

Combined or included angle

Also called Included Angle, it is

the angle formed as
combination between the angle of
inclination of the steering axis
(the previous one) and the angle of fall of
the front wheels.

It is not adjustable and serves like the UPS.

to perform state diagnostics
of the components of the
front suspension and the direction.

On both sides of the front axle, the combined angle must be the same.
Other parameters

The last two parameters we have seen earlier are used for
diagnose possible problems (due to accidents, bumps, deterioration) in the
components of suspension or steering. The following parameters are useful
for this same function and therefore they are not adjustable.

Cradle
Coaxial difference of the front axle (set back)
Rear axle directional line (positive thrust angle)
Total parallelism

Things to consider

Having seen the above, before starting to adjust the parameters of

the alignment of a vehicle, the first thing to do is to check if there are any
damages or alterations in the components of the suspension and steering. If
either a lineup in the correct values could not be made, or
Well, the dynamic functioning of the vehicle may not be correct (or both
things).

For the suspension and steering components to function properly

A good alignment must be made, but at the same time, the good alignment depends
that these components are in good condition.

Therefore, first of all, it is necessary to check if there are any damages in any of the
steering and suspension components including among these, the wheels
same (e.g., the inflation pressure). If there were damages or alterations, before
Aligning will require fixing or replacing the damaged parts.

On the other hand, the geometry of the suspension/steering varies with the height of the
vehicle, so manufacturers provide alignment values for different
heights. In other words, if the intention is to lower the suspension by 20 mm with
regarding the series, the alignment values will be those corresponding to a
height of -20 mm compared to the standard one.
In the case of having adjustable suspension in height, before proceeding to adjust
the alignment requires selecting the height of each train to the desired value and only
after making the alignment.

What can be regulated in an RX-8

In this car, everything adjustable in a car can be adjusted:

Inner and outer steering angles of the front axle

Convergence of the front axle and the rear axle
Fall of the front and rear train
Front train advancement

---------------------------------

Suspensionsystem
INTRODUCTION
The repair workshop activity is regulated by aLawsand ofsecuritythat encompasses in a way
generic the activity of vehicle repair. For this reason, we will present first,
In its entirety, all the content from the different sections regarding concepts.
and classifications; conditions and requirements of the activity; centers ofdiagnosistechnical reports;
warranties and liabilities;competencies, violations and sanctions, etc.
Another important section that has a close relationship with the work done corresponds
to the aspects related to the important reforms being carried out on the vehicle. In
sayingsystemsA definition of the parts of the vehicle is [Link], suspensionaddress, brakes, box
of speeds, differential auxiliary systems etc. subjected to regulation: frame,structureself-supporting,
chassis number, etc. Also the types of reform,documentation, technical inspection, etc.
Finally, we will learn about the aspects that we need to take into account in the workshop related to
theevaluationofriskslabor issues arising from the exercise of the activity. To this end, we present the points
most important that we must consider in the workshop to achieve a safer activity and amedium
environmentlabor
Learning Objectives
Upon concluding the study of thissystem, you will be equipped to:
Describe thefunctionsof the suspension system
List the main components of the different suspension systems
Explain thedesignand the operation of the different suspension systems
Diagnose the most common faults of the suspension system
Repair the damaged components of the suspension system
Measure the height of the suspension
Give itservicean assembly of accessories and components
SUSPENSION SYSTEM
It is known as automotive suspension, the ways of using mechanical forces oftwist, with the
intention, to cushion and smooth the movement of a vehicle over surface irregularities
of a land.
It is known as a torsional component to anything that, when compressed understrength, the weight, it deals with
return to yourstatenaturally, shock absorbers are added to this type of components, which have
thefunctionto graduateprocessofactionand reaction; helping to ensure that the torsional forces have
amovementsuave. A lot has happenedwaterSince the first vehicle was invented, and as one might expect, the
manufacturers have been testing and developing ways or systems to harness torsional forces,
in order to achieve a smooth movement, andsureof a vehicle. The suspension systems,
inmechanicsaAutomobiles vary in shape, style, design, figure, and components; but theprinciplesyobjectives,
they are still the same:
The displacement will feel smooth, pleasant, and safe, both when braking and taking turns; But if you
exceed the specified weight and/or speeds, the system will be pushed to the limit, and under these conditions, the
Driving will be difficult and dangerous.
Based on the principles of aerodynamics, and the variations applied by manufacturers, with the
intention, to provide stability, comfort, durability, safety, and versatility, to the movement of a
vehicle. We have designed these pages that we hope will help understand, andto be ablegive it
amaintenanceadepressed, that helps him feel calmer when driving his vehicle.
Some components of the system Fig.1.

Fig. 1
1,2. PURPOSE.
The vehicle's suspension system is responsible for keeping the wheels in contact with thesoil,
absorbiendo las vibraciones, y movimiento provocados por las ruedas en el desplazamiento de vehículo, para
that these shocks are not transmitted to the frame.
STRUCTURE OF THE AUTOMOBILE.
Bodywork
Frame
Bodywork.- It is the part of the vehicle that covers the engine and other systems, in which the interior houses the
passengers (people) or cargo. Fig. a.
 Fig. a
Typical chassis or frame. We can observe the rear axle, the front axle, the gearbox and
transmission, just need to mount the engine Fig. b.

Fig. b
MAIN COMPONENTS OF SUSPENSION SYSTEM
Frame or chassis
Ballestas
Docks
Torsion bar
Stabilizer
Shock absorbers
Trapezoids
Supports
Trapezoidal patellas
Tires
Front train
Fund
Sensors
ECU
CLASSES OF SUSPENSION.
FRAME:
All the elements of a car, such as the engine and all its transmission systems, must be installed.
About a rigid framework. It is easy to deduce that we need a solid structure to support these organs.
The structure that will achieve that robustness is called a frame and is made up of two strong beams (L) and
various crossbars (T), which ensure their rigidity (Fig.2).

Fig.2.

Nowadays in the manufacturing of cars, the body-on-frame system is used, also called chassis.
self-supporting or monocoque, in which the body and the chassis form a single unit (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3.
The elements of the suspension are complemented by those of the damping, which, contrary to what
many people think, it's not the same.
BALLASTS:
It is a type of spring made up of a series of sheets ofsteel, overlapping, decreasing in length.
Currently, it is used in trucks and heavy vehicles. The longest leaf is called the master and between the
sheets are interleaved with the zinc plate to enhance its flexibility (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4.
SLEDS:
They are made of a steel wire wound in a spiral shape, and they function to absorb the
impacts that the wheel receives (Fig. 5.)

Fig. 5.
TORSION BAR:
It is made of a special steel for springs, with a round or square cross-section and whose ends are fixed,
one, at a fixed point and the other at a moving point, where the wheel is located. In the oscillations of the road
the wheel must overcome the torsional effort of the bar.
STABILIZER BAR:
It is a bar ofiron, that is usually placed in the rear suspension, itsmissionto prevent the spring from
one side is excessively compressed while the other is distended.
SHOCK ABSORBERS:
They are tasked with absorbing the excess rebound force of the vehicle, that is, eliminating the effects.
oscillatory springs. They can be friction or hydraulic, and the latter are divided into rotary, of
piston and telescopic, these are the most used.
Both systems allow for the oscillations caused by the irregularities of the gait.
be more elastic. To control the number and amplitude of these, they are incorporated into the suspension.
shock absorbers.
The first are seldom used and consist of two arms attached, a frame, and another to the axle or wheel.
corresponding. The arms are joined together with discs made of asbestos or fiber that oscillate
they offerresistanceto the crossbows or springs (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6.
The hydraulics are also joined at one end to the frame and at the other to the axle or wheel and are made up of
by two eccentric cylinders, within which a rod moves due to the effect of oscillations at
those that offer resistance (Fig. 7).
 Fig. 7.
Shock absorber components:
Seal ofoilthe retention
Axis Guide
Shock absorber axis
Upper chamber
annular camera
Embolus
Valve ofcontrolsuperior
Lower chamber
Lower control valve
Anti-foaming spiral reflector
TYPES OF SUSPENSION
a) Independent suspension
Mechanical suspension
Hydropneumatic suspension (active)
Hydraulic suspension
Air suspension
Citrón SC suspension
b) Rigid suspension
Mechanical suspension
Active hydropneumatic suspension
Hydraulic suspension
Air suspension
Citroën SC suspension.
1.6.1. INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION
An independent suspension means that each wheel is connected to the car separately.
with the other wheels, which allows each wheel to move up and down without affecting the wheel
on the opposite side. Independent suspension can be used on all four wheels Fig.8 and 9.
Semi-independent
It is used in some front-wheel drive cars, which allows for independent movement.
limited from each wheel, when transmitting a torsion action to the solid connection axis.
 Fig. 8
Main components:
Dock
2. Fund
3. Stabilizer
Crown casing
5. Drum
6. Frame bridge
7. Frame or chassis
8. Transmission tree or shaft (cardan)
9. Stabilizer bar
10. Shock absorber
 Fig. 9
Components:
Shock absorber
2. Dock
3. Universal Assembly
4. Differential cover
5. Trapezoids or control arms
6. Axis of oscillation
Tires
Independent rear suspension scheme for rear-wheel drive vehicles Fig. 9a

Double front suspensiontrianglesoverlapping Fig. 9b

 Fig. 9b
1.6.2. RIGID SUSPENSION.
This system is intended to directly cushion in [Link] two wheels
(tires), whether they are two front or rear (back), thus we have from a truck the wheel or
The right tire receives a hit and this hit is noticed by the left tire Fig. 10.

Fig. 10
Components:
Swinging swing of the spring package
2. Crossbow package
3. Spring pack clamp
4. Differential cover or lid
5. Shock absorber
6. Rear axle cover
7. Tire
The stability of the rear suspension involves control arms [tensioners], oscillating between the axle sleeve, and the
chassis. Likewise, a diagonal control arm. In this case, the control arm, diagonally [tensioner], has
the function of preventing the rear part of the vehicle from 'bouncing' [going up and down uncontrollably] this would make
very difficult vehicle control Fig. 11.

Fig. 11
PNEUMATIC SUSPENSION
This suspension is based on the same principle as conventional or hydraulic suspension. It consists of
interpose a pneumatic spring between the chassis and the axle of the wheels or the suspension arms.
The pneumatic spring is made up of a structure of reinforced synthetic rubber with nylon fiber that
it forms a cushion or ball empty inside. It is connected at the bottom to a piston attached to the axis or arms of
suspension. Above, it is closed by a plate attached to the chassis.
1.7.1. FUNCTIONING:
When a wheel goes up or down due to the irregularity of the surface, the variation ofvolumecauses a
variation ofpressureinside the spring, which forces it to return to its initial position after passing the
obstacle. The reaction force depends on the displacement of the piston and the internal pressure. Fig.
12.
This system requires a source ofaircompressed. It can only be used in equipped vehicles
with compressed air brakes, taking advantage of the installation.
1.7.2. ARRANGEMENT OF ELEMENTS IN THE VEHICLE:
It consists of two parts:
PARTMECHANICSFROM THE AIR SUSPENSION:
A single propulsion axis:
It is supported at its lower part on the y-axis and at the upper part connected to the frame.
Two axes
The two pneumatic bellows act on each side of the rocking support that rests on the axis.
propeller.
Two propulsion axes:
This system consists of theadoptiontwo bellows on each side and on each axis
Compressed air circuit
Power supply circuit:
Thenutritioncompressed air is provided by the compressor for the general brake circuit and
air suspension
Height level control remote
Device that allows maintaining the same level of charge regardless of the load.
Operation of the pneumatic circuit
The air coming from the compressor passes through the wet reservoir for drying, after which it passes through the
limiting valve and the 4-way valve to the pneumatic brake circuit.
ThevalvesThe safety team maintains the pressure of the circuit.
Relief valve:
Composed of a flow valve with its corresponding calibrated spring. It is located at the entrance of the circuit.
of suspension. Its function is to allow the passage of air to the suspension when the brake circuit
Solenoid valve:
It consists of a body with openings through which air circulates, controlled by an inducer.
combined with the action of a coil. Its mission is to distribute the air to the pneumatic bellows.
through the leveling valves
Level valve:
Formed by a passage valve fixed to the frame connected via a rod to the wheel axle. By means of
this rod calibrates the level of the wheel's bellows
Pressure limiting valve:
It consists of a piston with its corresponding antagonist spring. Its function is to maintain the
constant pressure within certain margins
Height limiting valve:
Made up of a valve ofstrikeanchored to the frame, which is holding a rod or mobile cable connected to the
For example. Its mission is to prevent the elevation of the platform from becoming excessive and potentially harmful to
system. The operation consists of the movement of the rod allowing air to pass into the bellows
tires or allowing the expulsion of air from the pneumatic bellows.
SELF-LEVELLING UNITS.
The springs and shock absorbers are very important for safety and comfort in driving.
vehicle.
When transporting cargo or a trailer, the car tilts backward and the suspension becomes more
spongey.
There are two cameras
The low-pressure chamber
The high-pressure chamber
1. Operating principle:
The pressure inside the two chambers equalizes in a vacuum, but at full load, the high-pressure one has
about 10 times more pressure than low pressure.
Characteristic curve of a traditional shock absorber and a self-leveling unit:
The traditional shock absorber is equipped with a spring of constant stiffness, which causes the car to sink.
proportionally to the load supported and its characteristic is linear.
The self-leveling unit is equipped with springs of lower stiffness, to which the elastic effect must be added.
delgasvariable compressed according to the weight and the elastic limit of the end of the stroke. This implies three curves
characteristics:
Linear characteristic curve of the only mechanical spring, less steep than that of the traditional damper due to
be less rigid.
Characteristic curve of the self-leveling unit in a vacuum that sums the elastic effects of the mechanical spring,
of the compressed gas and the end-of-travel stop.
Characteristic curve of the self-leveling unit at full load, which is distinguished from the previous one by a
major component due to compressed gas.
2. Advantages of self-leveling units:
More driving safety and greater comfort.
Optimal stability of the car.
Load-dependent damping.
Better tire support.
Intervention in the suspension systempneumatics:
Precautions:
Before intervening, carefully clean the area ofwork, organs and channels that we go over
let's work.
2. Maintenance:
Checking the oil level of the compressor, replacing the oil of the compressor, cleaning and replacement
of the air filter and checking that the pressure is at thevalueestablished. Fig. 12
Ventajas y desventajas de la Neumática
A) Advantages:
The air is easily captured and abundant on Earth.
The air does not have explosive properties, so there are no risks of sparks.
Actuators can work at reasonably high and easily adjustable speeds.
Working with air does not damage the components of a circuit due to water hammer effects.
Overloads do not constitute dangerous situations or permanently damaging to the equipment.
The changes oftemperaturedo not significantly affect.
Clean energy
Instantaneous changes of meaning
B) Disadvantages
Incircuitsvery extensive considerable load losses are produced
It requires special facilities to recover the previously used air.
The pressures they normally work under do not allow for the application of large forces.

Fig. 12
1.7.4. PROPERTIES OF COMPRESSED AIR
It will be astonishing that pneumatics has been able to expand in such a short [Link] with so much
Speed. This is due, among other things, to the fact that in the solution of someproblemsofautomationno
Another means that is simpler and more economical can be made available.
What are the properties of compressed air that have contributed to its popularity?
Abundant: It is available for consumption virtually all over the world, in unlimited quantities.
Transportation: Compressed air can be easily transported through pipes, even over long distances.
It is not necessary to have return pipes.
Storable: It is not necessary for a compressor to remain continuously in service. Compressed air
It can be stored in tanks and taken from them. Additionally, it can be transported in containers (bottles).
Temperature: Compressed air is insensitive to temperature variations, ensuring safe work.
even at extreme temperatures.
Antideflagrante: There is noriskof explosion or fire; therefore, it is not necessary
[Link] PNEUMATIC EQUIPMENT
As a result of automation and rationalization, the workforcemanualhas been replaced
by other forms of energy; one of these is often compressed air
Example: Package transfer, lever activation,transportof pieces etc.
Compressed air is an expensive source of energy, but it undoubtedly offers undeniable advantages. Theproductiony
accumulation of compressed air, as well as itsdistributionat themachinesand devices
they supposeexpenseselevated. It could be thought that the use of pneumatic devices is related
con costseespecially high. This is not accurate, as in thecalculationto have profitability
keep in mind, not only thecostof energy, but also the costs that are incurred in total. In
aanalysisdetailed, it turns out that the energy cost is negligible alongside thesalaries, costs of
acquisition and maintenance costs.
1.7.6. PHYSICAL FOUNDATIONS
The surface of the Earth is surrounded by an air envelope. This is an indispensable mixture for
life and has the following composition:
Nitrogen approx. 78% by volume
Oxygen approximately 21% by volume
It also contains traces of carbon [Link], argonhydrogen, neon, helium, krypton, and xenon.
For a better understanding of the laws andbehaviorThe magnitudes in the air are indicated first.
physical quantities and their correspondence within the measurement system. In order to establish relationships here.
unequivocal and clearly defined, scientists and technicians in most countries are on the verge of
to agree on a measurement system that is valid for everyone, called the "International System of Measurement."
1.8. HYDRONEUMATIC SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
Citroën has been the manufacturer that has bet the most on thecontrol systems of the suspension of
hydraulic type. Along itshistoryincorporated different devices into their vehicles
stabilizers that we could summarize in:
"Passive" hydro-pneumatic suspension
Semi-active hydropneumatic suspension
Active roll control suspension "active"
HYDRAULIC SUSPENSION: This type of suspension is based on the use of some
spheres that contain a gas 'nitrogen' inside, which is compressible and is located in each one
of the wheels.
HYDRACTIC SUSPENSION: This system is characterized by the ability to obtain two suspensions in
one, by allowing the use of a comfortable suspension and switching to a stiffer suspension when
The marching conditions dictate this, some stiffer settings are agreed upon to minimize efforts.
from the bodywork: cases of sudden steering wheel impacts, sharp turns, sudden braking, etc.
HYDRAULIC FUNCTIONING: This solenoid valve is protected from any impurities by means of
a mitigated filter in the high pressure power supply circuit:
A. IN SOFT STATE: With the solenoid valve powered, the plunger 3 is subjected from one side,
high pressure HP and, on the other hand, the suspension pressure PU.
B. RIGID STATE: The solenoid valve is not powered. Piston 3 is subjected, on one side to the
suspension pressure PC and on the other hand, the tank pressure PR.
1.10. THE CITROEN ACTIVE ROLL CONTROL SYSTEM SC. CAR
This system constitutes ainnovationnotable in thedevelopmentof systems that contribute to even greater comfort
and passenger safety in the automobile. The suppression of roll and the precision and liveliness of
vehicle provides the driver all theelasticityand thedomainWhat is generally sought in the flyer.
The SC. CAR system, to an independent q, is added to the effects produced by the hydraulic suspension.
Fig. 13.
ELECTRONICS
HYDRAULICS
 Fig. 13
1.10. THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SUSPENSION
The current technological implementation allows for responding to the different demands of the suspension system.
through the implementation of three different purposes:
Passive suspension
The semi-active suspension
Active suspension
1.10.1. PASSIVE SUSPENSION: The suspension and damping between the wheels must compensate for a
It reduces unwanted movements of the vehicle caused by the road surface and driving maneuvers.
THE SEMI-ACTIVE SUSPENSION: Through theemploymentseveral are allowed from regulated systems
the suspension and damping mechanisms to adapt them to the needs of sports use or
comfort.
ACTIVE SUSPENSION: These systems are called semiassetsand they do not need an external channel of
emergency. There are two distinct and interdependent functions.
Variable damping according to three laws 'sporty, medium, and comfort'
Correction of the height under the helmet.
MC PHERSON SUSPENSION.
Most widespread suspension scheme in the entire automotive fleet. Fig. 14 and 16.
Gives the vehicle great stability.
Column assembly made up of a telescopic element that has a damper and spring
on the same axis the first inside the second, all anchored at the bottom by some straps
Transverse. The top part of this column is called a turret and is anchored to the chassis.
The turret part is the weakest of the set and the one that must withstand the greatest efforts.
Se puede también colocar para el eje trasero, pero el volumen del maletero se ve perjudicado por el volumen
what the turrets occupy.
While the top part does not vary, the design of the bottom part is very variable as it can be placed with a
lower triangle or transverse arms.
 Fig. 14

Fig. 15
McPherson front suspension with double lower arms anchored to a subframe. Fig.16
 Fig. 16
[Link] THE SUSPENSION
To understand in greater detail the various suspension systems that exist, it is necessary to...
detailed definition of thevariablesthat define the behavior of a suspension.
Angle of convergence and angle of divergence: It is the angle defined between each of the wheels and the
longitudinal axis of the vehicle, always in its horizontal projection. Fig. 17

Fig. 17
Castor angle: It is the one that causes the self-alignment of the wheels, giving the vehicle a high
degree of stability. Fig.18.

Fig. 18
Fall angle: It is an angle defined between the plane of a wheel and the vertical to the ground.
In the figure, we can see that the fall is positive since the highest part of the wheel protrudes more than any other.
another part of the tire. There is also negative camber when the part in contact with the ground protrudes.
more than any other part of the tire. This second case usually occurs in large [Link] of
competition. Fig. 19

Fig. 19
Off-center from the wheels orradioof pivoting: It is the lateral distance between the point where the
the prolongation of the pivot axis cuts the ground (B) and the central point of thedrawingof the tire (A). Fig. 20
If the pivot axis cuts the ground at the inner part of the tire's tread drawing, it is said that the
The pivot radius is positive. If, on the contrary, the pivot axis crosses the vertical of the tire and the
The cut with the ground plane occurs beyond the tire tread strip, we say that the radius
pivoting is negative.

Fig. 20

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Know what the symptoms of steering problems are and how to fix them.
proper maintenance.
Does the stability of the vehicle depend only on the steering?

No. But if the address is missing, it is what authentically guides the car at will.
its driver, the consequences can be very serious. The stability of the vehicle
is given by what we could call the 'Security Triangle', which is
composed of the steering system, the suspension system (fundamentally
for the shock absorbers), and the brakes.

The components that make up the "Safety Triangle" of a car are so

interconnected, to such an extent that just the wear of one of its parts can
to seriously compromise a driver's ability to drive,
stop, or maintain the stability of the vehicle.

Symptoms of management problems

If you notice that the steering becomes "stiffer" than usual, it may be due to:

- Low pressure in the front tires. - Failures or wear between the pinion and
zipper.
Malfunction of the power steering (if applicable).
Shock absorbers in poor condition.

If the vehicle pulls to one side, it may be due to different tire pressures.
forwards, or due to bad alignment of the front axle.
If the steering wheel vibrates: some of the front wheels are unbalanced, or some
the tire is deformed.
If it has power steering and when turning the wheel you hear strange noises or feel like
it could have reached a limit in some position: the system may be low on oil or the hydraulic pump might be lacking
it has some functioning problem.

Proper maintenance of the steering system

1. Regularly review all the elements of your system:

In the address bar, the elements that deteriorate the most are the ends.
zipper, and the guide bushings of the bar.
In the address column, check the pinion.
In the hydraulic system for power steering, the pressure must be checked.
The important thing is to connect the pump and ensure that no leaks occur in the circuit.
2. Check with the vehicle in motion that the steering elements (whether it is
mechanical or assisted) function correctly. Adjust the alignment of the
alignment and balance the tires if necessary.

3. The lack of hydraulic fluid, poor pressure, or excessive wear on the tires,
poor condition of the shock absorbers or the wear of the mechanisms themselves
Direction are elements that seriously harm the system.

to return