FERHAT ABBAS SETIF-1 UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF NATURAL AND LIFE SCIENCES (SNV)

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC STUDIES

1EREACADEMIC LICENSE YEAR (S1)

SERIES OF PRACTICAL GEOLOGY WORKS

INTITULE : LECTURE ET PRESENTATION DE LA CARTE

TOPOGRAPHIC

RESPONSABLE DE MODULE :[Link]

Academic year 2020-2021

Intitulé de la matière : TD Géologie 2020/2021

Detailed program:

1- Reading topographic maps (1h :30)

-Definitions
The information found on a topographic map
The colors used on the topographic map (Green; blue; brown or umber and black)
The fundamental elements of the map
2- Notion of scale and its applications(1h:30)
(Definitions, large and small scale, numerical scale and graphic scale).
Calculation of real distances from distances on maps and vice versa
3- Reminders about unit systems (1h :30)
The units of measurement for angles
The equivalence between distances, angles, and time
Application for the conversion of degrees to grads and vice versa
4- Geographic coordinates (3h :00)
international network and local network (references; origins and coordinates)
Use of coordinate networks:
Determination of the coordinates of a point on a map.
Projection of a point on a map from its coordinates.
5- Map coordinates: 1h:30
- Lambert network and UTM network. (reference points; origins and coordinates)
Use of coordinate networks:
Determination of the coordinates of a point on a map.
Projection of a point on a map based on its coordinates.
6- Representation of reliefs on a map (3h:00)
Definition of contour lines (normal contour line; master contour line, intermediate contour line)
Concept of equidistance (learn to calculate equidistance; recognize the master curves)
Rules for recognizing the slope's meaning (CNM slope; V point in the valley).
The slopes:
Definition of a slope
Recognition of steep and gentle slopes by the spacing of contour lines
Forms of elementary slopes (convex, concave, and straight) and their recognition on a
topographic map
Calculation of slope when it is linear.
7- The orientation of the topographic map (1h:30)
Geographic North,
Magnetic north
Definition of magnetic declination, calculation of declination for a date later than that of
the creation of the map.

8-Revision series (3h:00)

 Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences
Department of Basic Studies 1eraAcademic Year License
Module : Géologie Responsible: Lakkaichi. A

TD Series No. 01: Reading Topographic Maps

Definitions

1-Topography: (from the Greek 'topos' which means place and 'graphen'
significantdepicting)isagraphicdescriptionorarepresentationona
supportplanofaportionoftheearth'ssurface,withitsconfiguration.

2-The topographic map: it is the flat representation of a portion of the

earth'ssurface.

The topographic map must represent the shape of the terrain relief and the
terrainelements(cities,roads....)

The relief will be represented by contour lines.

2-1-Information found on a topographic map:

Artificial elements: cities, roads, railways (railroad).

Hydrography: rivers, lakes, seas.......
- Relief : montagnes, collines.
Vegetations: forest, agricultural lands....
Toponymy: names of cities, names of regions, roads...

2-2- The colors used on a topographic map: there are seven main colors.

- Black: to represent cities, railways, toponymy.

Green: the vegetation.
- Blue: hydrography, seas, lakes, rivers....
Red: paved roads
Brown: contour lines
Orange: trails (unpaved roads)
- Gray: map legend.

2-3-The fundamental elements of the map:

- The scale, the legend, the orientation, the coordinates, and the conventional signs.

1
 Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences
Department of Basic Studies 1eraAcademic License Year
Module: Geology Responsible: Lakkaichi. A

TD Series No. 02: Notion of scale and its applications

Scale of a map
The scale is the ratio of the distance between two points on the map to the actual distance.
horizontally between the two corresponding points on the ground.
1.1. Digital scale

The scale is expressed as a fraction.

Scale =

Example: if two points are 8 km apart on the ground and 10 cm apart on the map, the scale

of this one is:

So the scale of the map That is to say 1 cm on the map represents 80000 cm

or 800 m on the field.

-Note:

A map is said to be large scale when the reduction it allows is small, thus the
the denominator is small.

A map is said to be at a small scale when the reduction it allows is large, the fraction
being small (a large denominator).

1.2. Graphic scale

The map or plan is accompanied by a graphical representation of the scale that allows
to avoid calculations.
The graphic scale is a line divided into equal parts, each representing one unit.
chosen.

The use of this scale is very simple. You measure the sought distance on the map.
using a compass, a strip of paper, or a ruler. Then we report
this distance along the graphic scale to obtain the actual value of the distance.

2
2. Measuring a distance on the map
Straight distances are measured on the map with an ordinary double-decimeter; in
multiplying the reading taken between two points by the number that expresses the scale of the map, you
obtain the horizontal distance between these points:
Example: On a map with a scale of 1:25,000, two points that are 7.00 cm apart are
distances on the ground of: 7.00 cm x 25,000 = 175,000 cm or 1,750 m.

3. Application on the scale

EXERCISE 1
Use the scale to find the actual distance based on the distance on the map.
Distance card Scale Real distance Real distance
Card1 10 cm 1 in 100,000 ................ cm .................. km
Card 2 4.5 cm 1/50,000 ................ cm .................. km
Card 3 13.2 cm 1/25 000 ................ cm .................. km
Card 4 7.8 cm 1/200,000 ................ cm .................. km
Card 5 9 mm 1/5,000 ................ cm .................. km

EXERCISE 2
Use the scale to find the distance on the map based on the actual distance.
Real distance Scale Distance card
Card1 25 km 1/100,000 ................ cm
Card 2 31 km 1/50,000 ................ cm
Card 3 4,5 km 1/25 000 ................ cm
Card 4 150 km 1/200,000 ................ cm
Card 5 600 m 1/5 000 ................ cm

EXERCISE 3
On the road map, the distance between 2 cities is represented by a segment of 8 cm.
The scale of the map is 1/1,000,000. Calculate the actual distance as the crow flies in kilometers.
between these 2 cities?
EXERCISE 4
On a map at a scale of 1/50,000

a. How many km are represented by 10 cm

b. How many cm does 2 km represent?

3
 Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences
Department of Basic Studies 1yearAcademic License Year
Module: Geology Responsible: Lakkaichi. A

Series of TD No. 03: Reminders on units of measurement systems

According to the scale, the date, and the country of publication of the map, the units used may differ.
Before getting into the topic of topographic map coordinates, this series of exercises
propose some reminders regarding angular units, distance units and some
orders of magnitude that will allow to use and interpret the topographic map optimally.

1- The measures of angles

The degree and its submultiples.
The degree is the angular unit that divides a circumference into 360 degrees. The notation of the degree
is "°". It is a sexagesimal system (Base 60). The sub-multiples of the degree are:
-the sixtieth minute, noted as "'" such that 1° = 60'.
the second of arc, noted " '' " such that 1' = 60''.
So: 1° = 60' = 3,600''.
Example: 21°06'34'' We can convert this angle into decimal degrees: we find 21.1094°
The degree and its submultiples.
The grade is the angular unit that divides a circumference into 400 grades. The grade is denoted by
"Gr". This is a centesimal system (Base 100). The submultiples are:
the centesimal minute noted " ' ": 1 gram = 100' grams
the centesimal second noted as " '' ": 1’ = 100’’
So: 1Gr = 100' = 10000''.
Example

40Gr71’ 88’’ We can convert this angle into decimal grades: we find 40.7188Gr

Note:
To convert degrees to gradians and vice versa, it is important to remember that:
360° = 400Gr1° = 400Gr/360° = 10/9 Gr
1 Gr = 360° / 400Gr9/10 °
2-The equivalence between distances and angles
The circumference of the Earth is approximately 40,000 km,
So 400Gr⇔ 40,000 km and 100Gr⇔10,000 km⇔ 1Gr100 km
Likewise 360°⇔ 40,000 km and 90°⇔ 10 000 km⇔ 1° = 111 km
3-The equivalence between time and angles
It is known that the Earth rotates around the axis of the poles to the east with a period of 24 hours.
So 360°⇔ 24 h and 90° ⇔ 6 h⇔ so: 15° = 1 h
Likewise 400Gr⇔ 24 h et 100 Gr⇔ 6 h⇔ so: 16,667Gr= 1 h

4
4-The equivalence between distances and hours (or angles)
We saw earlier that the rotation of a quarter turn of the Earth lasted 6 hours. Now, at
the equator we know that the circumference of the earth is approximately 40,000 km, so
To travel 10,000 km (a quarter of the circumference) it takes 6 hours.
(24 h/4). So in 1 hour, we cover 1,667 km. Thus at the equator our relative speed by
The speed at the center of the Earth is 1,667 km/hour.
5- Application on the conversion of degrees to gradians

Exercise 1: Convert 2° 20’ 14’’ to degrees (this is the angle between the Greenwich meridian and
the meridian of Paris).
Solution :
Let's convert sexagesimal seconds into sexagesimal minutes:
14’’/60 = 0.233’, so we have 20’ + 0.233’ = 20.233’
Let's transform the sexagesimal minutes into sexagesimal degrees:
20.223'/60 = 0.337°, we have: 2.337° 2° + 0.337° = 2.337°
Convert degrees sexagesimal to grades: 2.337° X 10/9 = 2.5966Gr
Let's convert these angles from decimal form to degrees, minutes, and seconds.
centiseconds. To do this:
let's convert the decimal part of the degree into centesimal minutes
0.5966 X100 = 59.66' (centesimal minutes)
let's transform the decimal part of centesimal minutes into centesimal seconds
0, 66 X100 = 66'' (centiseconds). Finally, we have: 2°20'14'' = 2Gr59 minutes 66 seconds

Exercise 2: Convert 22° 32’ 45’’ into degrees.

Solution: 25Gr 05'09''

Exercise 3 Convert 48Gr52’ 84’’ en degrés.

Solution: 43° 40' 32.016"

5
 Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences
Department of Basic Studies 1eraAcademic Year License
Module: Geology Responsible: Lakkaichi. A

TD Series No. 04: Geographic Coordinates

1-The meridians and the parallels

For positioning purposes, the Earth globe as represented is divided into:
-360 (or 400) fictive lines, equidistant and oriented according to the axis of rotation of the earth. They
are called the meridians. The prime meridian is called the Greenwich meridian or
meridian international.
The meridians are counted positively to the East of the origin meridian (from 0 to +180° or from 0 to
+ 200Gr), and negatively to the West of the prime meridian (from 0 to -180° or from 0 to -200GrAll
These meridians meet at the North Pole and the South Pole.
-180 fictitious lines, equidistant and oriented perpendicularly to the first ones and called
the parallels. The parallel that passes through the middle of the globe is called the Equator. The
parallels are counted positively in the Northern Hemisphere (from 0 to +90° or from 0 to +100Gr),
and negatively in the Southern Hemisphere (from 0 to -90° or from 0 to -100Gr).

2-Coordinates of a point
The geographical coordinates of a point on the Earth's surface are its longitude and its
latitude and altitude (Z) that allow it to be defined exactly.
Longitude: The longitude of a point is the angle formed by the meridian plane containing that point.
with a meridian plane taken as the origin. Longitude is measured from 0 to 180 degrees (or from 0
at 200 degrees) to the east and west of the prime meridian.
On the old maps of Algeria at scales of 1 / 25,000, 1 / 50,000, and 1 / 100,000, the
Longitudes are expressed in degrees and the prime meridian is the meridian of Paris. On the
6
smaller scale maps, they are expressed in degrees and the prime meridian is the
Greenwich Meridian or International Meridian. The Paris Meridian is located to the east of
International Meridian at 2°20'14" or 2.5969 degrees.
Latitude: The latitude of a point is the angle formed by the normal to the ellipsoid.
from this point to the plane of the equator. It is measured from 0 to 90 degrees (or from 0 to 100 grades) at
north and south of the equator.
Altitude (Z)
The altitude of a point is the vertical distance that separates this point from a theoretical surface of
reference, called zero level surface or geoid.

So a point on the surface of the Earth is defined by longitude, latitude, and altitude and
-X=3Gr24° 35'' East -Y= 40Gr42°09' North - Z = 762 m

Note: The Algerian territory is located approximately:

longitude between: -08°40' and +12° latitude between: +19° and +37° 05’

3- La détermination des coordonnées géographiques d’un point

The geographical coordinates of a point on the topographic map are calculated by
relative to the geographical meridians and the geographical parallels that are drawn on
all the topographic maps. On some maps, these meridians and parallels are
counted in degrees and on other maps, they are mentioned in grades. It is easy to
transform the coordinates from degrees to grades and vice versa, by doing the
transforming values from degrees to grads (or the other way around), while ensuring that
the origin of the meridians which is the Greenwich meridian for degrees and the meridian of
Paris for grades. Knowing that the Paris meridian is located at 2°20'14'' East of the
Greenwich Meridian
Example:

Determine the geographical coordinates of point A, located on the topographic map of

the figure below and convert these coordinates into degrees taking into account
the origin of the meridians.

7
 5 degrees 175°18' 5°18'30''
minutes 30 seconds 5°19' 5°19’30’’ 5°20’

36°34'30'' 36 degrees 34 minutes 30 seconds

36°34' 36°34'
A

36°33'30'' 36°33’30’’

36°33’ 36°33’

36°32'30'' 36°32’30’’
0 250m

5 degrees 175°18’
minutes 5°18'30''
30 seconds 5°19' 5°19'30'' 5°20'

Solution :

Point A is located between the geographic meridians 5°18' and 5°18'30'' and between the
geographical parallels 36°33'30'' and 36°34'.
20mm
36°34'
8mm
Y A

20mm
17mm

36°33’3
5°18’ X
1-Determining the longitude 5°18'30''
let's determine the difference in longitude between the two meridians closest to our
point A. 5°18'30'' - 5°18' = 5°18'30'' - 5°17'60'' = 0°0'30'' = 30''
let's determine the distance in millimeters between the two closest meridians to our
Point A is 20mm.
Let’s draw a line between our point A and the meridian 5°18’ and it needs to be parallel.
to the geographical parallels of the map and determine its length in millimeters which is 8mm.
8
Let's determine the longitude corresponding to this distance of 8mm by applying the rule of three:
20mm 30 seconds X = 8mm x 30''/20mm = 12''
8mm X
Let's determine the longitude of our point A by adding this value to the value of the
the meridian that precedes our point is: 5°18' + 12'' = 5°18' 12''
Longitude = 5 degrees 18 minutes 12 seconds
2- let's determine the latitude
Let's determine the difference in latitude between the two parallels closest to our point.
A. 36°34' - 36°33'30'' = 36°33'60'' - 36°33'30'' = 0° 0' 30'' = 30''
let's determine the distance in millimeters between the two closest meridians to our
point A is 20mm.
Let's draw a line between our point A and the parallel 36°33'30'' and it needs to be
parallel to the geographic meridians of the map and determine its length in millimeters
17 mm.
Let's determine the longitude that corresponds to this distance of 8mm by applying the rule of three:
20mm 30''
X = 17mm x 30’’/20mm = 25.5’’
17mm y
Let's determine the latitude of our point A by adding this value to the value of the parallel.
which precedes our point is: 36°33’30’’ + 25.5’’ = 36°33’55.5’’
Latitude = 36°33’55.5’’
The geographical coordinates of point A are:
X= 5°18' 12'' Y= 36°33’55,5’’ Z= 120m

Conversion of geographic coordinates into degrees.

1-Conversion of longitude: 5°18' 12''
Let's convert sexagesimal seconds into sexagesimal minutes:
12"/60 = 0.20', so we have 18'+0.20' = 18.2'
-Let's convert the sexagesimal minutes into sexagesimal degrees:
18.2’/60 = 0.3033°, we have 5° + 0.3033° = 5.3033°
Convert degrees sexagesimal to grades: 5.3033° X 10/9 = 5.8925Gr
Let's change the origin of the meridians to: 5.8925Gr- 2,5966Gr= 3.2959Gr
Longitude in degrees = 3Gr 29 minutes 59 seconds

1-Conversion of latitude: 36°33'55.5''

Let's convert sexagesimal seconds into sexagesimal minutes:
55.5''/60 = 0.925', we have therefore 33' + 0.925' = 33.925'
Let's convert the sexagesimal minutes into sexagesimal degrees:
33,925’/60 = 0,5654°, nous avons 36° + 0,5654° = 36°,5654°
-Converting sexagesimal degrees to grades: 36°,5654°X 10/9 = 40,6282Gr

Latitude en grades = 40 Gr62 degrees 82 minutes

The geographic coordinates of point A in degrees are:
X= 3Gr29 minutes 59 seconds Y= 40Gr62 minutes 82 seconds Z= 120m

9
 Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences
Department of Basic Studies 1eraAcademic Year License
Module: Geology Responsible: Lakkaichi. A

Series of TD No. 05: cartographic coordinates (UTM, Lambert)

All topographic maps have a kilometer grid. It is a grid

UTM on maps where the projection system is UTM and a Lambert grid on the
maps whose projection system is Lambert.
Fundamental problem: The earth is round, the map is flat. How can one represent
a part of the irregular spherical shape of the Earth on a flat sheet of paper?
The principle of projection involves projecting positions from the Earth's surface onto a
Geometric surface given in sequence this surface can be cut to take a shape
plane (the map). In general, two types of projection are used on Algerian maps,
one called equivalent cylindrical (UTM) and the other conformal conic (Lambert)
Equivalent cylindrical projection (UTM)
In this case, the map is wrapped around the globe in such a way as to form a
cylinder. The meridians and parallels are projected onto the plane in such a way that a grid
Rectangle is created during the projection.
The UTM representation is an equivalent representation, meaning it preserves the
surfaces at the expense of angles and distances.

The UTM zones

This system consists of 60 zones with a difference of 6° in longitude, numbered from
the antipodal meridian of the international meridian. The meridian of Greenwich is therefore between the
zones 30 and 31. The zones that concern Algeria are zones 29, 30, 31 (of which the
Wilaya of Sétif) and 32 originating respectively from the meridians.

10
Conformal conic projection (Lambert)
If you place a cone at the top of the earth and then unroll it onto the plane, you create a figure
cone. The most frequent and simplest use. The apex is aligned with the two
geographical poles and represents the closest pole. The meridians therefore extend from there with the
the same angle and the parallels form concentric circles around the intersection point
of the meridians. This projection is often applied to regions located at latitudes
averages. The Northern part of the globe is projected separately from the Southern part.
The Lambert representation is a conformal representation, meaning that it preserves the
angles at the expense of surfaces and distances.

3- The determination of the cartographic coordinates of a point

The principle of determining the cartographic coordinates of a point on the map
The topographic is the same for both projection systems (UTM and Lambert).
Example:
Determine the UTM coordinates of points A(90m), located on the topographic map of the
following figures. 544 544.5 545 545.5 546 546.5km

943 943km

942.5 942.5

942 942

941.5 941.5

941 941
0 250m
2
544 544.5 545 545.5 546 546.5
Solution :

Point A is located in the square defined by UTM meridians 544.5 and 545 and between the
UTM parallels 942 and 942.5.
Draw these two meridians and these two parallels.
2cm
942.5

0.8cm 2cm
Y A(90m)
1cm

942
X
544.5 545

The coordinates to search for are: XA= ? , YA= ? and ZA= 90m
1eramethod
X A= ?
Measure the distance from point A to the UTM meridian 544.5 orthogonally, or
0.8cm.
Let's determine the value X that corresponds to this distance of 8mm by applying the rule of
three
2cm 50000cm
0.8cm x X = 50000 x 0.8 / 2 = 20000cm = 200m

Let's determine the value XAfrom our point by adding this value to the value of the meridian
The UTM that precedes our point is: 544.5 km + 200m = 544.5 km + 0.2 km = 544.7 km
So: XA544.7 km
Y A= ?
Measure the distance between point A and UTM parallel 942 in an orthogonal manner.
1cm.
Let's determine the value Y that corresponds to this distance of 1cm by applying the rule of
three
2cm 50000cm
1cm y X = 50000 x 1 /2 = 25000cm = 250m

Let's determine the value YAfrom our point by adding this value to the value of the meridian
UTM preceding our point is: 942 km + 250m = 942 km + 0.25 km = 942.25 km
So: YA= 942,25km
XA544.7 km YA942.25km ZA= 90m

12
2thmethod
Determine the numerical scale of the map:
From the graphic scale of the map, we have:
1cm 250m that is to say 1 25000 cm cm therefore = 1/25000

X A= ?
Measure the distance between point A and the UTM meridian 544.5 orthogonally, that is
0.8cm.
The gap between point A and this meridian is: 0.8 cm x 25000 cm = 20000 cm = 200m = 0.2km
XA=544.5 km + 0.2 km = 544.7 km Therefore: XA544.7 km
Y A= ?
Measure the distance between point A and UTM parallel 942 orthogonally, Let
1cm.
Let's determine the value Y that corresponds to this distance of 1cm by applying the rule of.
three
2cm 50000cm
1cm y X = 50000 x 1 / 2 = 25000cm = 250m

let's determine the value YAfrom our point by adding this value to the value of the meridian
UTM preceding our point is: 942 km + 250m = 942 km + 0.25 km = 942.25 km
So: XA= 544,7 km

Measure the distance between point A and UTM meridian 642 in an orthogonal manner, that is
1cm.
The gap between point A and this parallel is: 1 cm x 25000 cm = 25000 cm = 250 m = 0.25 km
Y A =942 km + 0.25 km = 942.25 km Therefore: YA942.25 km

XA= 544,7 km YA= 942,25km ZA= 90m

13
 Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences
Department of Basic Studies 1eraAcademic License Year
Module: Geology Responsible: Lakkaichi. A

Series of TD No. 06: The representation of relief on topographic maps

The contour lines

Definition
The relief on the topographic map is represented in the form of brown lines as well.
called contour lines (brown lines on the map).
The set of points on a topographic surface that have the same... is called a contour line.
altitude, that is to say the intersection of the topographic surface with a horizontal plane.
1– Principle of the establishment of contour lines (Fig. 1)
Let's consider a series of horizontal planes (H2, H2, and H3) that are parallel and equidistant.
ideally cut across topographical surfaces (a hill for example). The intersections
from the hill with these plans (1, 2, 3) are projected onto plane P. These projections (1', 2', 3') are
Comment, contour lines.

Fig. 1: Principle of establishing contour lines

14
Equidistance and spacing (Fig. 1)
Equidistance is the difference in altitude between two consecutive curves.
The equidistance of the curves on a map is always noted in the bottom left corner of the map.
The distance between two consecutive contour lines is called spacing.
measurement is taken along a segment perpendicular to the 2 curves.
One should not confuse equidistance with the spacing of curves in projection on the
On the map, the equidistance is constant but the spacing is variable; it depends on the relief.
2 - Properties of contour lines
a - Different types of contour lines (Fig. 2)
We previously saw that there were several types of brown lines on the map,
each of them has a name:

Master curves: They are drawn in strong (thick) lines which are identified by a
Concept of altitude. It allows to quickly give the altitude of a point.
Normal curves: They are drawn in fine lines, interspersed between the curves.
mistresses. Note that between two main curves there are often 4 normal curves
- Intermediary curves: They are generally drawn as dashed lines. When the surface
The topography is flat, the contour lines are spaced out, to bring more precision.
we are led to add a so-called intermediate curve whose altitude differs by half-
equidistant from that of the two curves that frame it.

Fig. 2: Different types of contour lines

b - Altitude of the contour lines (Fig. 3)
The altitude of the curves is often indicated along their course. In principle, the bottom of the
numbers indicate the bottom of the slope, the top indicating the peak.
-The side points: We also observe on the map points accompanied by altitude, we
They are called side points. They indicate a precise altitude at the summit of a mountain or at
the lowest level of a valley. They are often associated with a closed contour.

Top of the slope

300
.537

Bottom of the slope

Fig. 3: Reading the altitude on the topographic map

15
c – the density of the contour lines
Account for the relief: steep slopes are characterized by numerous curves and
narrow; to widely spaced few curves corresponds a flat or low region
five.
3-Determination of the altitude of a point on the topographic map.
The determination of the altitude of a point on the topographic map is done in three ways:
-The point is a geodesic side point: The altitude value is indicated next to it.
point.
The point is located on a contour line: The altitude value is that of the curve.
level.
The point is located between two contour lines: the altitude value is intermediate.
between the two values of the two contour lines. To determine it more accurately
We proceed as follows:
Measure the spacing of the two contour lines, perpendicular to both.
curves and passing through our point; it is 'd';
b- measure the length of the segment between our point and the curve that precedes it in such a way
perpendicular too; it is 'of';
c- determine by applying the rule of three, the corresponding altitude to this segment;
d- add this altitude to the altitude of the contour line that precedes our point; and you
have the altitude of this point.
Application: Determine the altitude of point A in the following figure?

Solution :
determination of equidistance:

So: e = 150 - 100 / 5 = 10m -Spacing d= 30mm Length of the segment d = 13mm
-corresponding altitude to this segment = (10m x 13mm) / 30mm = 4.33 m.
Altitude of point A = 120m + 4.33m = 124.33m.
4- Characteristic lines in contour curves
1 - Shapes of the slopes
A slope is the area connecting a ridge line to a thalweg line, it can be decomposed.
in a certain number of elements.
a - Constant slope (Fig. 4)
When the contour lines are evenly spaced:
the steeper the slope, the closer the contour lines are
the gentler the slope, the further apart the contour lines are.

16
 C D A B

0 500m 0 500m 1km

Fig. 4: Low constant slope (AB) and steep slope (CD)
b - Regularly variable slope (Fig. 5)
An upward concave slope is characterized by increasingly spaced contour lines.
spread apart going downwards. An upward convex slope is characterized by curves
from tighter levels going down.

Convex slope
Concave slope

A B C D

0 500 1km 0 500m 1km

Fig. 5: Regularly variable concave slope (AB) and convex slope (CD)

17
c - Slopes with sudden variations: Slope break, steep and cliffs (Fig. 6). The spacing
contour lines change abruptly.

A
B

0 500m 1km
Fig. 6: Slope with sudden changes
d - Summit (Fig. 7)
The contour lines are concentric, the central point has an altitude higher than that of
curves that surround it.
e - Cuvettes (Fig. 7)
The contour lines are also concentric, the altitude of the central point is lower than
that of the surrounding contour lines, sometimes an arrow indicates the center of the
depression (sometimes occupied by a lake).
A- sommet B- cuvette

Fig. 7: The peaks and the dips.

2- Forms of valleys (Fig. 8)
The thalweg line: It is the line connecting the lowest points of a valley: this is
characterized by a V-shape of the contour lines, the tip of the V more or less sharp or
Dulled indicates the upstream of the valley, the enveloping curve is at a higher level than the curve.
wrapped.
a - V-shaped valley: The contour lines show an angular reversal at the
crossing of the thalweg.

18
b - Valley with a flat or 'U' bottom: The drawing of the contour lines resembles the shape of the
valley, close together on the slopes, they are spaced out in the flat part.
A-Valley type- V B-Valley type- U

Fig. 5: Valley shapes (A) V-type and (B) U-type.

3- determination of the topographic slope

The slope of the land is its inclination in relation to the plane of the horizon. This slope can be
determined precisely in the form of the angle of inclination (α) or in the form of a
percentage.
With:

d = actual horizontal distance between A and B

h = the elevation difference (altitude difference) between A and B

Example: calculate the slope in angle α and in percentage % between the two points A and B in
the following figure? A Echelle= 1/25000
A
*
AB= 8cm h

*B α
B
d

Solution :
Real horizontal distance between A and B: d = 8cm x 25000 = 2000m
Difference in altitude between A and B: h= 150m-100m=50m
A) determination of the angle α: Tang α = h/d = 50/2000 = 0.025 α = arc tag (0.025) = 14.04° = α
B- determination of slope in the form of a percentage%
Slope in % = (h/d) x 100 = (50m x 100%) / 2000m = 2.5% thus: Slope in % = 2.5%

19
 Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences
Department of Basic Studies 1eraAcademic License Year
Module: Geology Responsible: Lakkaichi. A

Series of TD No. 07: The orientation of the topographic map

Introduction
To orient the map means to align the north direction of the map with the
north direction on the ground. This word comes from the fact that medieval maps had the East at
their peak. In modern maps, it is the North that is always placed at the top. Generally
On the map, we distinguish two norths: true north (TN) and magnetic north.
(NM) who are mentioned in the legend by arrows.
1. The different Norths of the topographic map:
a- the geographic north (GN): it corresponds to the direction of the meridians. The maps
topographic areas are delimited to the east and west by geographical meridians; the edge
The map indicates true north. It is often marked by an arrow in the
legend of the map.
In the absence of this arrow, the user can locate north based on the name.
places (agglomeration, village, town, etc.) that are oriented toward the north.
b- magnetic North (NM): In addition to the arrow that indicates geographic North (NG), it
there is an arrow indicating magnetic North (NM) which corresponds to the direction given by the
compass. It is slightly different from true north, the angle between the two arrows
is called the magnetic declination whose value can appear in the margin of the map
topographic.
This magnetic declination decreases over time and the rate of decrease is
also mentioned and the card user can calculate the angle between North
geographic (NG) and magnetic North (NM) at the time of using the map.
2. Calculation of magnetic declination
What are we trying to calculate?

Each year, the magnetic north of the Earth shifts slightly. The declination
Magnetic represents the angle that separates magnetic north (MN) from geographic north.
(NG), in other words, we seek to know how much the magnetic north is offset, and in
what meaning.

NB: To perform the calculation, it is necessary to consider that the angles are expressed in degrees or in
grade. It should be noted that there are sixty minutes in a degree (1° = 60') and 60 seconds in
one minute (1' = 60") and that there are one hundred minutes in a grade (1gr= 100') and 100 seconds in
one minute (1’ = 100”)

20
Example:
It is January 2018, we are using a map where magnetic north is located at
the west of geographic north and whose magnetic declination is 2°45' east corresponds
at the center of the sheet at 1erJanuary 1989. It decreases each year by 7 sexagesimal.
What is the current magnetic declination?
What is the new figuration of the north? NG
NM
Solution :
Figuration of the North in 1989:
2°45’

In 1989

Number of years since the creation of the card: 2018 - 1989 = 29 years
-variation of magnetic declination: 29x7’ = 203’ = 3°23’
Current magnetic declination = d1988 - 3°23' = 2°45' - 3°23' = -38'
So the magnetic declination was 1erJanuary 2018 = -38' the sign (-) signifies the position of
magnetic north in relation to geographic north.
That is to say, in our example, magnetic north is located to the east of geographic north.
In 2018, the new northern figuration is given as follows:
NG
NM
38'

Example 2:
In 2018
Calculate the magnetic declination corresponding to the center of the sheet, at 1erjanvier 2020.
NG
give the new figuration of the north?
NM

5.89gr

Magnetic declination
corresponds to the center of
sheet, at 1heJuly
1994 it decreases
each year of 0.08gr

21
 Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences
Department of Basic Studies 1eraAcademic License Year
Module: Geology Responsible: Lakkaichi. A

TD Series No. 08: Revision Series

341 Km

340
395

36°16/ 30//
339
484

C 453 338

337

D
336
36°15/ 00//

335

712 713 714 715 716 717 718 719 Km

5°30/ 30// 5°32/ 00//
N.G
Questions : N.M
Y
1. Determine the numerical and graphical scale of the map?
2. Determine the equidistance of the map?
3. Calculate the geographical coordinates of points C and D? 1:15/
4. Convert these coordinates into grades, taking into account the origin of the 1°45/
meridians?
5. Calculate the UTM coordinates of points C and D?
Corresponds to
6. Calculate the actual horizontal distance between points C and D? center of the leaf
7. Calculate the slope between points C and D in degrees and in percentage? January 1, 1984, and
8. Calculate the magnetic declination in 1erJuly 2018? decrease each
year by 7 minutes
22 sixty
Bibliographic references

1. Denis Sorel and Pierre Vergely; 2010 - Introduction to geological maps and sections. Ed.
Dunod, Paris, 115p.
2. Fahim Belhadad; 2009. Practical work in geology, maps and topographic sections
Faculty of Science Mohammed V University - Agdal Rabat.
3. Patrick Bouron, 2005. Cartography and map reading, national school of sciences
6 and 8 Blaise Pascal Avenue 77455 Marne la Vallée Cedex 2.