1.

Introduction
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[Link] and accessories
4. Procedure
[Link] framework
[Link] in measurements with tape
[Link] angles with a tape
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[Link] and results
[Link] of results
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Introduction
Through thehistorythe manit has been necessary to measure land and to carry outprojectswhat
faithfully represent theaccidentsofthe earthforto be able touse them in the various activities of your
daily life.
It was then that he devised severalmethodsto make such measurements and among these we find
the measurements of horizontal distances in different situations on flat, sloped terrain between
others.
It is understood asmeasurementof distances, to the set ofoperationsthat are executed in the field, and of
themeanspractices implemented to determine the position of points and their subsequent representation in the
plan. There are various methods to take a measurement depending on the terrain; this practice is
will be done with tape. Land measurements can be made using the tape, by means of
methods such as distances on flat (horizontal) terrain and on inclined terrain with measurement
stair-step and measurement in decline really in small-sized lands, considerably
flat and clear.

Objectives
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
Acquire the knowledge and skills necessary for the use, handling, and measurement of the tape in
measurement of distances in different types of terrain.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Measure horizontal distances using the tape on flat ground.
Measuring horizontal distances with tape on sloped terrain using themethodstaircase measurement.
Measuring horizontal distances on inclined terrain using the declining measurement method.
Manage field special operations using a tape such as stretching an angle.
perpendicular to a line (method 3, 4, 5, arch method, bisected chord method.)
Manage the measure of distances when an obstacle is presented depending on the case at hand.
To know the main causes of inaccuracy when taking measurements with a tape measure.
Equipmentandaccessories
For the efficient execution of the practice, equipment was made available andtoolstopographic ones which
they are related as follows:
A TAPE: It is a tool used in practice oftopographyto find existing points,
localize details formaps, take cross sections, etc. The tapes that are used today
to measure, they are made of differentmaterials, length and weight.

A PLUMB BOB: The plumb bobs for surveying are made of bronze and are generally from 8 to 16
ounces, it is conical in shape and has a device on the top to tie a rope or thread, this
it has by definition, theaddressvertical and thus it helps to determine in thesoilthe horizontal projection of
a point that is at a certain height.
3 PULLS: They are made of metal orwoodand
they have a tip ofsteelthat is driven into the ground. The stakes
se utilizan para visualizar puntos y para alinear al operador de la cinta, con el fin de mantenerlo en la
correct direction. Generally, their length ranges between 2 and 3 m and they are painted with alternating bands of
red and white that make them more visible.

5 STAKES: The stakes for topographic surveys should be about 30cm long.
with a carved face to mark the identification of a point that is level with the floor. The
stakes must have enough area to be noticeablebrandslegible.

6 PEGS: They are generally about 25 to 35 cm long, made of steel rod and
provided with a pointed end on one side and a ring on the other side that serves as a head. The stakes are used
to mark the ends of the tape or intermediate points while chaining and they are easily lost.

Procedure
A reconnaissance of the area is carried out and the zones where the practice will take place are identified.
Measurement of horizontal distance.
On flat ground.
Two extreme points were determined and we placed a marker at each of them.

The rear chainsetter placed the zero at the starting point, which aligned with the chainsetter.
forward advancing with the tape and the stakes towards the other point, which was
located at a convenient approximate length of 60 meters.
The front chain attendant tightened the strap as the rear chain attendant did.
kept at zero to take areadingwith less margin of error.
The rear chain holder called out to the front chain holder saying now and the chain holder placed.
a ping at the measurement site
Both chainmen advanced until the rear chainman reached the first ping.
I put on the front chainstay. And the previous ones were [Link].
Once the above was completed, the rear chain holder took the ping and both advanced.
until exhausting the distances to be measured.
 Once the previous procedures were completed, we counted the pins that were collected.
the rear chainstay and we recorded the distance that was the result of multiplying the
number of pins for the equal distances measured at 10m and we add the distance
unequal that was 27 cm
We recorded the distance obtained, which was 60.27m.

On inclined ground
Stepped measurement

We determine two endpoints on an inclined terrain and place a marker at each of them.
We measure whole distances, keeping the tape horizontal and well tensioned, and we use this for the
level of hand and a plumb line.
We carry out the same procedures ofmeasurementof flat land and we take thedata.
Measurement of slope.
We took into account the previous steps in horizontal land measurement, we took the measurement at the level.
ofearthfrom milestone one to milestone two.
We measure the distance AB, following the slope of the surface of thesoil(L).
We determined the vertical distance (d) by taking stepped measurements, we kept the tape horizontal and
with a plumb line and a tape measure we measure the vertical distances Y1, Y2, and Y3.
We found thevaluefrom H by themethodexperimental and the theoretical method (H=L-d2/2L).

Field special operations using a tape

Case I
The AB alignment was measured and for that the following steps were needed:
From A we draw a line AM
From B a perpendicular was drawn to the line AM that passed through P and the line BP was obtained.
The BP and AP distances were measured.
The distance AB was calculated using the formula

Case 2
Perpendiculars were drawn at A and B in such a way that the distance was measured to be equal to length A.

Case 3
A point C was placed, from which points A and B were seen.
The distances AC and CB were measured.
We located a point X, at a distance of C, we obtained XC.
We found and located YC in such a way that
We measure the distance XY
We calculate AB using the triangle relationship.
Theoreticalframework
Measurement with tape
The tapes used by the topsógraphsthey can be fromsteel, fabric, steel coated with PVC or fiber
ofglasswith PVC. The tapes used for measurements ofpropertyand high precision must be made of steel,
from recognized manufacturers. Currently, PVC-coated steel tapes are practical, and in
the practice ofengineeringequivalents to the old fabric ones are used, that is, made of fiber with
50-meter long PVC coating.
In topographic practice, these two elements are necessary, [Link](figure) or also
ofironremovable (7/8" pipe with a wall thickness of 2mm) oraluminumygameof needles.
Forthe workwith a tape measure, especially at ground level like theworkagronomic, it should
to have a needle game, like the one shown in the figure below, that theliteratureHave you noticed in a game of
11 needles.

These needles are used to mark the end of a "clothing" on paved surfaces, naturally.
What would be needed chalk, markers with paints or another chemical element to mark these sung 3.
The measurement of a certain distance on level ground is done by comparing our tape.
standard (for example, of 50 meters) with the problematic distance. The fractional magnitude of the aforementioned standard
In the distance problem, we will measure it directly, between the last needle and the opposite end from the beginning.
of the distance measurement problem, on the index of our measuring tape. Therefore, the measurement
the end of the distance will be equal to (the number of needles) x 50 meters plus the final fraction, according to
themethodologynot to leave a needle at the beginning of the measurement to be carried out. There are two ways to work with
the tape and the needles, one that proclaims to start the measurement by placing a needle and the other that does not leave a needle
some at the beginning.
Let's look at an example, and let's clarify that we recommend measuring without leaving the needle at the beginning and always.
we do it this way. Therefore, the final measurement of the distance will be equal to [(number of needles) x
length of the tape] + the final fraction.

If we are going to measure the distance AB, we will place the assistant at the start of the tape and the distance by
measure. We use the markers to align the route and in this case, they do not match the needles left.
the operator. The acting technician or us, carry the rolled tape with the set of needles,
we extend the tape and leave a needle at the end with a value of 50.00. We repeat theprocedurey
to reach B we will have a certain value close to 150 according to thescalefrom the figure, for the
that the distance AB = (n x 50) + fraction; where n is the number of needles delivered by the assistant, without
having not left any needle at the start or point A; in the case of the example it would be n=2.
In summary, the back assistant removes the needle after finishing each stitch, and the number of needles
what it carries, indicates the number of tape lengths that have been measured. The section of tape between the last
needle and station B, once measured, is added to the number of wraps to obtain the length
total.
This procedure can be used for any alignment, whether level or inclined; but when it comes to
to represent a distance on the plane, what is needed is the horizontal distance and thus all distance
Inclined must be converted to its equivalent horizontal distance before making the representation.
A field procedure to assess distances in very sloped terrains is shown in the
figure below.

That is, if the slope between station 1 and station 2 is very steep, the measurement is divided into three sections.
D1, D2, and D3 horizontal. To do this, the tape is placed in a horizontal position, incurring in errors of
catenary, for which the end of it will need to be tensioned to minimize that problem.
Another better common technique used to reduce inclined distances to horizontal distances or
simply distances, it is the use of the surveyor's clinometer. Indeed, the hand level allows
directly evaluate the angle of inclination of a certain section, aiming at a reference point
from the end of the section, at the same height as the observer's eyes.

That is, with the referred instrument, the angle X of the section in question 1 is obtained in the field.

In triangle ABC, AC is the measured inclined length and AB is the reduced distance, like the triangle.
it is a rectangle, then
AB = AC cosine X
So, in practice, the surveyor establishes the sectors of the land at their discretion within the measurement to
to take, where it will be necessary to evaluate the slope of the terrain in the specified manner, in order to carry out the
corresponding corrections.
Another situation, valid in practice for slopes less than 20%, is to subtract a certain amount.
amount of the distance in slope S, knowing the vertical interval between two points. Thus, if between two
points A and B, the difference between S and H = Ch
Distance correction for inclination
This means that we can establish h2=S2-H2 = (S-H)(S+H)
If the slope of the land is not very large, S + H = 2S, substituting in the previous expression h2=2S (S-
H)
From where the horizontal correction Ch = S-H = h2/2S 4.

Errorsinmeasurementswithtape
As we mentioned, mistakes are not called errors; these mistakes are due to
inexperience or incompetence, lack oftraining, carelessness or fatigue of the observer. When we talk about
errors we refer to systematic errors and accidental or random ones.
Systematic error is when working, for example, with a tape whose length is incorrect. If the tape does not
It has a normal length, it will give a false measurement, it may happen that the tape has been repaired, in which case
There may be a systematic error more or less, according to the final measurement after the
repair. It may happen that the tape is from a supplier(Brand) dand low reliabilityprice, y
it may introduce a more or less significant systematic error in the measurement.
Among the accidental errors, there are those due to thetemperatureand the applied voltage
from the tape. The steel tapes are calibrated to 20ºC and anychangethe temperature will affect your
length, just as there exists aforcestandardized to stretch them so that the length is correct. For
hello in the practice of surveying, and in cases of very precise measurements it is necessary to use
adynamometereat one end of the tape.
In summary, errors when measuring with a tape can be due to incorrect tape length,problemsof
alignment of the tape, inexperience of the observer or operator, temperature variations, variations of
tension and the catenary effect (in case of taking measurements on steps)
In practice, it is good practice to have tape from a reliable supplier, to work diligently,
caring for the alignment between joints, and applying tensions in such a way that they do not cause misalignments or
catenary if the step measurement method is used, or simply not apply that methodology directly.

Measuringangleswithatape
The measuring tape can also be used not only to measure alignments but to determine angles between
different alignments. For example, the angle is determined by the alignments OA and OB which are
Ultimately, a fixed distance materialized with stakes in the ground starting from, for example, 20 meters.
We will call the fixed or standard distance,radioFrom a known circumference, OA = OB = 20 meters = S.
Then the operation in the field will be to determine the distance AB or chord, for the replanned distance.
in the field about the alignments whose angle you want to determine.
In the diagram below, we have triangle AOC in which the following relationship holds sin ½ a = ½
AB / OA.
Or what is equal to sin ½ a = AB/2S
Therefore, arc sin AB/2 S = ½ a => 2 arc sin AB/2 S = a
Justification
The execution of this practice became necessary since it allows us to understand themethodsto carry out
horizontal medicines with tapes in different types of terrain.
The measurement of distances is the foundation of allTopography, since for the localization of points, still
When the angles can be read accurately, the length of a line must be measured. In the
topography, the distance between two points means their horizontal distance. If the points are at different
heights or elevation, its distance is the horizontal length. Between any two points, that is the measurement.
of an alignment, it can be natural or agrological, inclined or geometric and reduced distance or u
horizontal.

Horizontal distances can be measured in various ways, some methods are direct and others
Indirect. The only form of direct measurement of distance is actually the classic tape measurement.
All the other are indirect ways of calculating the distance between two points on the ground.
Tape measurement is a classic measuring method, whose accuracy varies greatly with theobjectiveof the
measurement, the elements (tape) and methodology, between precisions of the order of 1/1000 to 1/30000, although
in geodesy measurements in baseline, theprobabilitythe error was as low as 1/1,000,000.
Calculationsandresults
1. Measures of horizontal distance.
On flat ground

2. On inclined ground
Stepped measurement
3. Measurement of slope

4. Measuring distances when an obstacle is present.

Case I
Analysisofresults
The obtained results were quite accurate as efforts were made to avoid errors as much as possible;
practice is accompanied by errors whether accidental or systematic, in this case it could be
produced by:
Incorrect alignment of the tape, as in some cases it becomes a bit difficult to find the
correct alignment.
Variation in the tape tension, in order to reduce the catenary it was necessary to tension it as much as possible.
love, and at times it was not achieved.
The tape was a bit stretched due to its use, which decreased the accuracy of the measurements.
These and other factors may have influenced the fact that exact data was not obtained in practice, in this case.
the error was minimal and the obtained results are quite reliable, even though they could have been much more
exactly if the procedure had been carried out several times in order to reduce the error.
When we encounter obstacles in our measurements, we have three cases in which we can
solve this inconvenience that can be natural or artificial, allowing us to determine the distance
understood between one point and the other point whose distance passes through the obstacle, measuring a parallel
this made it very easy for us, just like with alignment and due to the relationships oftriangles. Allowing us
verify that the measurements obtained in any of the three cases are almost the same, being case I and the
case II those with the smallest margin of error between them in relation to case III than with the previous ones. I present
an error related to these 0.025 m.
All these measures could be carried out with great accuracy thanks to prior knowledge.
about drawing parallels (method 3, 4, 5; arc method and bisected cord method.)
We also put it into practice and tested its functionality when taking measurements with
love.
when we measure distances horizontally we could notice that we can rely on certain
mechanisms to facilitate these measures and help much more with their precision would be
largeutilitylos jalone y los pines en distancias grandes donde la cinta métrica no alcance para medir y el
the only measuring instrument we have at our disposal is the tape.
if the land to be measured is sloped and we need to know its horizontal measurement, we can
to assess the mechanisms with the staggered measures that add up the different measures that are
doing this way allows us to know the horizontal distance of the land being a very method
reliable when checking youreffectiveness, another very reliable method is the measurement by decline that
Knowing the heights and the distances that we measure in a stepped manner, we can find aspects of the
inclined land as are its horizontal distance, height and angle of inclination as we were able to measure in
this practice.

Conclusions
By carrying out the practice, we can conclude from the experience:
We acquired the knowledge and skills necessary for the use, handling, and cubing of the tape in
measurement of horizontal and inclined land with the presence of obstacles to carry out this type of
measures.
We measure horizontal distances by using simple methods that will make our job easier when it comes to
measure distances of this type.
We assimilate the knowledge and procedures that must be carried out at the time of
measuring distances on inclined terrain with great precision, such as measurement by the stepped method
which allowed us to find the horizontal distance of the terrain.
We perform measurements of horizontal distances on inclined terrain using method d
descending measurement which was very useful to find other important aspects in these types of
land.
We handle all theoperationsfield specials using a tape such as tightening of a
right angle or perpendicular to a line (method 3,4,5, method of arcs, method of the cord
bisected.), which served as a basis for us to carry out other measurements.
Using special angle operations, we were able to measure distances in the presence of an obstacle.
with great ease and confidence in the results obtained.
We learned about the main causes for which our measurements may present errors in this.
if the climatic factors, conditions of the track, visual errors among others are the main ones
causes of our measurements having errors, for this we need to try to work with equipment
optimumqualityso that our measurements are more reliable in this case the tape.

Bibliography
[Link] in topography. Bannister, Raymond, Baker. Seventhedition. Alfaomega.
2. General and Applied Topography. F. Domínguez García. Mundi Publishing-press. 12th edition.
[Link]://[Link]/docs/maps-info/CARTOGRAPHY/definitions
/methods_survey.pdf.
4. [Link]

Author:
Luis Carlos Sandoval Herazo
Presented to Eng. Enaldo Garrido
University of Sucre
Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Program
Subject Topography I
2010