EARTH RESOURCE SATELLITES

Shefali Aggarwal
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Division
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehra Dun

Abstract : Since the first balloon flight, the possibilities to view the earth’s surface
from above had opened up new vistas of opportunities for mankind. The view from
above has inspired a number of technological developments that offer a wide-range
of techniques to observe the phenomena on the earth’s surface, under oceans, and
underneath the surface of the earth. While the first imagery used for remote sensing
came from balloons and later from airplanes, today the satellites or spacecraft are
widely used for data collection. The uniqueness of satellite remote sensing lies in
its ability to provide a synoptic view of the earth’s surface and to detect features at
electromagnetic wavelengths, which are not visible to the human eye. Data from
satellite images can show larger areas than aerial survey data and, as a satellite
regularly passes over the same area capturing new data each time, changes in the
land use /land cover can be periodically monitored.

In order to use remotely sensed data, the user has to understand the characteristics
of the system being used. The most important system characteristic the user has to
understand is resolution. Resolution is measured in four ways, spatial, spectral,
radiometric and temporal. The article describes the characteristics of satellite orbits
and sensor systems, data capturing mechanisms and then highlights some of the
commercially available satellites and future missions to be undertaken.

INTRODUCTION

R emote sensing is defined as the science which deals with obtaining

information about objects on earth surface by analysis of data, received
from a remote platform. Since the launch of the first remote sensing weather
satellite (TIROS-1) in 1960 and the first Earth resources satellite in 1972
(Landsat-1), various platforms with a variety of remote sensing sensors have
been launched to study the Earth land cover, the oceans, the atmosphere or
to monitor the weather.

Satellite Remote Sensing and GIS Applications in Agricultural Meteorology

pp. 39-65
40 Earth Resource Satellites

In the present context, information flows from an object to a receiver

(sensor) in the form of radiation transmitted through the atmosphere. The
interaction between the radiation and the object of interest conveys information
required on the nature of the object. In order for a sensor to collect and record
energy reflected or emitted from a target or surface, it must reside on a stable
platform away from the target or surface being observed. Important properties
of sensor system are the number of spectral bands, the spectral position of
these bands, the spatial resolution or pixel size and the orbit of the satellite.

Two satellite orbits are important for remote sensing observation of the
Earth: the geo-stationary orbit and the polar orbit. The geo-stationary orbit
is such a position for a satellite that it keeps pace with the rotation of the
Earth. These platforms are covering the same place and give continuous near
hemispheric coverage over the same area day and night. These satellites are
put in equatorial plane orbiting from west to east. Its coverage is limited to
70oN to 70oS latitudes and one satellite can view one-third globe (Figure 1).
As a result it is continuously located above the same geographical position.

These are mainly used for communication and meteorological applications.

Weather satellites such as Meteosat, MSG and GOES are normally positioned
in this orbit. It enables the sensor aboard the satellite to take every 30 minutes
a picture of the weather conditions over the same locations. This geo-stationary
orbit is located at an altitude of 36,000 km above the equator.

The following are the major geo-stationary satellites:

Satellite program Current Satellite Country Operational Agency

Launch Agency
METEOSAT METEOSAT-7 International EUMETSAT ESA
INDOEX METEOSAT-5 International EUMETSAT ESA
GOMS GOMS-1 Russia
(ELEKTRO)
INSAT INSAT Series India
Feng-Yun* Feng-Yun-2B China
GMS GMS-5 Japan
GOES (WEST) GOES-10 U.S.A. NOAA NASA
GOES (EAST) GOES-8 U.S.A. NOAA NASA

* Failed mission
Shefali Aggarwal 41

Figure 1. Geo-stationary Orbit (source CCRS website)

The second important remote sensing orbit is the polar orbit. Satellites
in a polar orbit, cycle the Earth from North Pole to South Pole. The polar
orbits have an inclination of approximately 99 degrees with the equator to
maintain a sun synchronous overpass i.e. the satellite passes over all places on
earth having the same latitude twice in each orbit at the same local sun-time.
This ensures similar illumination conditions when acquiring images over a
particular area over a series of days (Figure 2). Image acquisition mostly takes
place in the morning when the sun position is optimal between 9.30 and
11.00 hr local time. The altitude of the polar orbits varies from approximately
650 to 900 km although spy-satellites are in a much lower orbit.

Satellite
Ground Track

Equator
Earth’s Rotation

Satellite Direction

Figure 2. Near Polar Orbits (source CCRS website)

As the satellite orbits the Earth from pole to pole, its east-west position
would not change if the Earth did not rotate. However, as seen from the
Earth, it seems that the satellite is shifting westward because the Earth is
rotating (from west to east) beneath it. This apparent movement allows the
42 Earth Resource Satellites

satellite swath to cover a new area with each pass (Figure 3). The satellite’s
orbit and the rotation of the Earth work together to allow complete coverage
of the Earth’s surface, after it has completed one complete cycle of orbits (Figure
4). Through these satellites the entire globe is covered on regular basis and
gives repetitive coverage on periodic basis. All the remote sensing earth resource
satellites may be grouped in this category. Few of these satellites are LANDSAT
series, SPOT series, IRS series, NOAA, SEASAT, TIROS, HCMM, SKYLAB,
SPACE SHUTTLE etc.

Figure 3. Area Coverage on each Consecutive pass (source: CCRS website)

Figure 4. Complete Coverage of Earth Surface by Sun Synchronous Satellites

Shefali Aggarwal 43

REMOTE SENSING SENSORS

Sensor is a device that gathers energy (EMR or other), converts it into a

signal and presents it in a form suitable for obtaining information about the
target under investigation. These may be active or passive depending on the
source of energy.

Sensors used for remote sensing can be broadly classified as those operating
in Optical-Infrared (OIR) region and those operating in the microwave region.
OIR and microwave sensors can further be subdivided into passive and active.

Active sensors use their own source of energy. Earth surface is illuminated
through energy emitted by its own source, a part of it is reflected by the surface
in the direction of the sensor, which is received to gather the information.
Passive sensors receive solar electromagnetic energy reflected from the surface
or energy emitted by the surface itself. These sensors do not have their own
source of energy and can not be used at nighttime, except thermal sensors.
Again, sensors (active or passive) could either be imaging, like camera or sensor,
which acquire images of the area and non-imaging types like non-scanning
radiometer or atmospheric sounders.

Resolution

Resolution is defined as the ability of the system to render the information

at the smallest discretely separable quantity in terms of distance (spatial),
wavelength band of EMR (spectral), time (temporal) and/or radiation quantity
(radiometric).

Spatial Resolution

Spatial resolution is the projection of a detector element or a slit onto the

ground. In other words, scanner’s spatial resolution is the ground segment
sensed at any instant. It is also called ground resolution element (GRE).

The spatial resolution at which data are acquired has two effects – the
ability to identify various features and quantify their extent. The former one
relates to the classification accuracy and the later to the ability to accurately
make mensuration. Images where only large features are visible are said to have
coarse or low resolution. In fine resolution images, small objects can be detected.
44 Earth Resource Satellites

Spectral Resolution

Spectral emissivity curves characterize the reflectance and/or emittance of

a feature or target over a variety of wavelengths. Different classes of features
and details in an image can be distinguished by comparing their responses
over distinct wavelength ranges. Broad classes such as water and vegetation
can be separated using broad wavelength ranges (VIS, NIR), whereas specific
classes like rock types would require a comparison of fine wavelength ranges
to separate them. Hence spectral resolution describes the ability of the sensor
to define fine wavelength intervals i.e. sampling the spatially segmented image
in different spectral intervals, thereby allowing the spectral irradiance of the
image to be determined.

Radiometric Resolution

This is a measure of the sensor to differentiate the smallest change in the

spectral reflectance/emittance between various targets. The radiometric
resolution depends on the saturation radiance and the number of quantisation
levels. Thus, a sensor whose saturation is set at 100% reflectance with an 8
bit resolution will have a poor radiometric sensitivity compared to a sensor
whose saturation radiance is set at 20% reflectance and 7 bit digitization.

Temporal Resolution

Obtaining spatial and spectral data at certain time intervals. Temporal

resolution is also called as the repetivity of the satellite; it is the capability of
the satellite to image the exact same area at the same viewing angle at different
periods of time. The temporal resolution of a sensor depends on a variety of
factors, including the satellite/sensor capabilities, the swath overlap and
latitude.

Multispectral Scanning Principle

Cameras and their use for aerial photography are the simplest and oldest
of sensors used for remote sensing of the Earth’s surface. Cameras are framing
systems (Figure 5a), which acquire a near-instantaneous “snapshot” of an area
of the Earth’s surface. Camera systems are passive optical sensors that use a
lens (or system of lenses collectively referred to as the optics) to form an image
at the focal plane, the “aerial image plane” at which an image is sharply
defined.
Shefali Aggarwal 45

Many electronic (as opposed to photographic) remote sensors acquire data

using scanning systems, which employ a sensor with a narrow field of view
that sweeps over the terrain to build up and produce a two-dimensional image
of the surface. Scanning systems can be used on both aircraft and satellite
platforms and have essentially the same operating principles. A scanning system
used to collect data over a variety of different wavelength ranges is called a
multispectral scanner (MSS), and is the most commonly used scanning system.
There are two main modes or methods of scanning employed to acquire
multispectral image data - across-track scanning, and along-track scanning.

Across-track scanners scan the Earth in a series of lines (Figure 5b). The
lines are oriented perpendicular to the direction of motion of the sensor
platform (i.e. across the swath). Each line is scanned from one side of the sensor
to the other, using a rotating mirror. As the platform moves forward over the
Earth, successive scans build up a two-dimensional image of the Earth’s surface.
So, the Earth is scanned point by point and line after line. These systems are
referred to as whiskbroom scanners. The incoming reflected or emitted radiation
is separated into several spectral components that are detected independently.
A bank of internal detectors, each sensitive to a specific range of wavelengths,
detects and measures the energy for each spectral band and then, as an
electrical signal, they are converted to digital data and recorded for subsequent
computer processing.

Figure 5. Principle of imaging sensor systems; (a) framing system, (b) whiskbroom scanner,
(c) pushbroom scanner. (source :[Link]
46 Earth Resource Satellites

Along-track scanners also use the forward motion of the platform to record
successive scan lines and build up a two-dimensional image, perpendicular to
the flight direction (Figure 5c). However, instead of a scanning mirror, they
use a linear array of detectors (so-called charge-coupled devices, CCDs) located
at the focal plane of the image formed by lens systems, which are “pushed”
along in the flight track direction (i.e. along track). These systems are also
referred to as push broom scanners, as the motion of the detector array is
analogous to a broom being pushed along a floor. A separate linear array is
required to measure each spectral band or channel. For each scan line, the
energy detected by each detector of each linear array is sampled electronically
and digitally recorded.

Regardless of whether the scanning system used is either of these two types,
it has several advantages over photographic systems. The spectral range of
photographic systems is restricted to the visible and near-infrared regions while
MSS systems can extend this range into the thermal infrared. They are also
capable of much higher spectral resolution than photographic systems. Multi-
band or multispectral photographic systems use separate lens systems to
acquire each spectral band. This may cause problems in ensuring that the
different bands are comparable both spatially and radiometrically and with
registration of the multiple images. MSS systems acquire all spectral bands
simultaneously through the same optical system to alleviate these problems.
Photographic systems record the energy detected by means of a photochemical
process which is difficult to measure and to make consistent. Because MSS
data are recorded electronically, it is easier to determine the specific amount
of energy measured, and they can record over a greater range of values in a
digital format. Photographic systems require a continuous supply of film and
processing on the ground after the photos have been taken. The digital
recording in MSS systems facilitates transmission of data to receiving stations
on the ground and immediate processing of data in a computer environment.

Thermal Scanner

Many multispectral (MSS) systems sense radiation in the thermal infrared

as well as the visible and reflected infrared portions of the spectrum. However,
remote sensing of energy emitted from the Earth’s surface in the thermal
infrared (3 µm to 15 µm) is different from the sensing of reflected energy.
Thermal sensors use photo detectors sensitive to the direct contact of photons
on their surface, to detect emitted thermal radiation. The detectors are cooled
to temperatures close to absolute zero in order to limit their own thermal
Shefali Aggarwal 47

emissions. Thermal sensors essentially measure the surface temperature and

thermal properties of targets.

Thermal Imagers are typically across-track scanners that detect emitted

radiation in only the thermal portion of the spectrum. Thermal sensors employ
one or more internal temperature references for comparison with the detected
radiation, so they can be related to absolute radiant temperature. The data
are generally recorded on film and/or magnetic tape and the temperature
resolution of current sensors can reach 0.1 °C. For analysis, an image of relative
radiant temperatures is depicted in grey levels, with warmer temperatures
shown in light tones, and cooler temperatures in dark tones.

Table 1. Thermal Sensors

HCMM TM
Operational period 1978-1980 1982 to present
Orbital altitude 620 mm 705 km
Image coverage 700 by 700 km 185 by 170 km
Acquisition time, day 1:30 p.m. 10:30 a.m.
Acquisition time, night 2:30 a.m. 9:30 p.m.
Visible and reflected IR detectors
Number of bands 1 6
Spectral range 0.5 0 - 1.1 µm 0.4 - 2.35 µm
Ground resolution cell 500 by 500 m 30 by 30 m
Thermal IR detector
Spectral range 10.5 - 12.5 µm 10.5 - 12.5 µm
Ground resolution cell 600 by 600 m 120 by 120m
60 m by 60 m in Landsat 7

Microwave Sensing (RADAR)

Microwave data can be obtained by both active and passive systems. Passive
system monitor natural radiation at a particular frequency or range of
frequency. Data may be presented numerically as line trace data or as imagery.
Active systems (like SLAR and SAR) transmit their own energy and monitor
the returned signal.
48 Earth Resource Satellites

Characteristics of such radar imagery both in SAR and SLAR and their
resolution depends on various parameters like frequency of the signal, look
direction, slant range, dielectric constant of the objects, phase, antenna length
etc. Spatial resolution in range and azimuth direction varies in different
manners.

RADAR (SAR) imageries have been obtained from satellite SEASAT, ERS
and space shuttle missions SIR-A, SIR-B and SIR-C using synthatic aperture
radar, which have all weather capability. Such data products are useful for
studies in cloud-covered region of the earth and in oceanography.

Table 2. Microwave Sensors

Seasat SIR-C/X- ESA RADARSAT ENVISAT JERS-1

SAR SAR SAR SAR ASAR

Frequency 1.275 GHz 5.3 GHz 5.3 5.33 GHz 5.33 GHz 1.275
1.275 GHz GHz GHz

Wave L band X band 3 cm C band C band L Band

length 23 cm C band 6 cm C band (23 cm)
L band 23 cm
Swath 100 km, 15 to 90 km 100 km 45-510 5 km – 75 km
Width centered Depend on km 100 km
20o off orientation Varies Varies
nadir is antenna

Ground 25 x 25 m 10 to 200 m 30 m 100x100 m 30 m

Resolution to 9x9 m Varies
Varies

LAND OBSERVATION SATELLITES

Today more than ten earth observation satellites provide imagery that can
be used in various applications (Table-3). The list also includes some failed
as well as future missions. Agencies responsible for the distribution and trading
of data internationally are also listed.

Landsat Series of Satellites

NASA, with the co-operation of the U.S. Department of Interior, began

a conceptual study of the feasibility of a series of Earth Resources Technology
Satellites (ERTS). ERTS-1 was launched in July 23, 1972, and it operated
Shefali Aggarwal 49

until January 6, 1978. It represented the first unmanned satellite specifically

designed to acquire data about earth resources on a systematic, repetitive,
medium resolution, multispectral basis. It was primarily designed as an
experimental system to test the feasibility of collecting earth resources data
from unmanned satellites. About 300 individual ERTS-1 experiments were
conducted in 43 US states and 36 nations. Just prior to the launch of ERTS-
B on January 22nd 1975, NASA officially renamed the ERTS programme as
the “LANDSAT” programme. All subsequent satellites in the series carried
the Landsat designation. So far six Landsat satellites have been launched
successfully, while Landsat-6 suffered launch failure. Table-4 highlights the
characteristics of the Landsat series satellites. There have been four different
types of sensors included in various combinations on these missions. These
are Return Beam Vidicon camera (RBV) systems, Multispectral Scanner (MSS)
systems, Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM).

After more than two decades of success, the Landsat program realised its
first unsuccessful mission with the launch failure of Landsat-6 on October 5,
1993. The sensor included on-board was the Enhanced Thematic Mapper
(ETM). To provide continuity with Landsat -4 and -5 the ETM incorporated
the same seven spectral bands and the same spatial resolutions as the TM.
The ETM’s major improvement over the TM was addition of an eighth
panchromatic band operating in 0.50 to 0.90-µm range and spatial resolution
of 15m. Landsat-7 includes two sensors: the Enhanced Thematic Mapper plus
(ETM+) and the High Resolution Multispectral Stereo Imager (HRMSI).

Spot Series of Satellite

French Government in joint programme with Sweden and Belgium

undertook the development of Systeme Pour l’Observation de la Terre (SPOT)
program. Conceived and designed by the French Center National d’Etudes
Spatiales (CNES), SPOT has developed into a large-scale international
programme with ground receiving stations and data distribution outlets located
in more than 30 countries. It is also the first system to have pointable optics.
This enables side-to-side off-nadir viewing capabilities, and it affords full scene
stereoscopic imaging from two different satellite tracks permitting coverage
of the same area. SPOT-1 was retired from full-time services on December
31, 1990. The SPOT-2 satellite was launched on January 21, 1990, and
SPOT-3 was launched on September 25, 1993. SPOT-4 was launched on
26 March, 1998. Characteristics of SPOT Satellites are presented in Table 5.
 50

Table 3. Operational Earth Observation Satellites

EUROPE MIDDLE NORTH AMERICA ASIA

EAST
France ESA Israel USA Canada India Japan
SPOT1-1986 LANDSAT5
10m -85, 30m
SPOT2-90 ERS1-92/00 LANDSAT6-
10m Radar 93
SPOT3-93/96 ERS2-95 EARLYBIRD IKONOS1- RADARSAT- IRS1C-95
Radar -98 99, 1m 95 6m
SPOT4-98 ENVISAT- LANDSAT7- IKONOS2 IRS1D-97
10m 2001Radar 99, 15m -99, 1m 6m
EROS A/ QUICKBIRD- ORBVIEW-
1-00 2m 01, 0.6m 01, 1m
SPOT5-02 EROS B/ ORBVIEW RADARSAT IRS-P6-03, ALOS-
3m+ HRS10 1-02, 1m -02, 1m -03 6MMSS 03, 2.5m

Distribution
SPOT Miscellaneous Imagesat SI-EOSAT, Earthwatch, RADARSAT NRSA- JSI
IMAGING Orbimage, USGS EOSAT
Earth Resource Satellites
Table 4. Characteristics of Landsat-1 to -7 Missions

Sensor- Spectral resolution Spatial Scan-width Time Orbital Operation period

system (µm) resolution (km) interval altitude
(m) Equator
Shefali Aggarwal

MSS Band 4: 0.5 - 0.6 79×79 185 18 days 918 km Landsat 1

Band 5: 0.6 - 0.7 79×79 23/07/1972-06/01/1978
Band 6: 0.7 - 0.8 79×79 Landsat 2
22/01/1975 -25/02/1982
Band 7: 0.8 - 1.1 79×79 Landsat 3
05/03/1978 - 30/11/1982
MSS As Landsat 3
Band 1:0.45- 0.52 30×30 Landsat 4
Band 2: 0.52 - 0.60 30×30 16/07/1982 - 02/1983
Band 3:0.63 - 0.69 30×30 185 16 days 710 km Landsat 5
TM Band 4:0.76 - 0.90 30×30 01/03/1984 -
Band 5:1.55 -1.75 30×30
Band 6:10.40-12.50 120×120
Band 7:2.08 - 2.35 30×30
TM As Landsat 4-5 30x30 185 16 days 705 km Landsat 7
Band 6:10.40 - 12.50 60×60 15/04/1999 -
Panchromatic: 0.50 - 0.90 15×15
51
52 Earth Resource Satellites

SPOT-4 includes the additional 20m-resolution band in the mid-infrared

portion of the spectrum (between 1.58 and 1.75 µm). This band is intended
to improve vegetation monitoring and mineral discriminating capabilities of
the data. Furthermore, mixed 20m and 10m data sets will be co-registered
on-board instead of during ground processing. This will be accomplished by
replacing the panchromatic band of SPOT-1, -2 and -3 (0.49 to 0.73 µm)
with red band from these systems (0.61 to 0.68 µm). This band will be used
to produce both 10m black and white images and 20m multispectral data.
Another change in SPOT-4 is the addition of a separate wide-field-of-view,
sensor called the Vegetation Monitoring Instrument (VMI).

IRS Satellite Series

The Indian Space programme has the goal of harnessing space technology
for application in the areas of communications, broadcasting, meteorology and
remote sensing. The important milestones crossed so far are Bhaskara-1 and
2 (1979) the experimental satellites, which carried TV Cameras and Microwave
Radiometers. The Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) Satellite was the next logical
step towards the National operational satellites, which directly generates
resources information in a variety of application areas such as forestry, geology,
agriculture and hydrology. IRS -1A/1B, carried Linear Imaging Self Scanning
sensors LISS-I & LISS-II (Table 6). IRS-P2 was launched in October 1994
on PSLV-D2, an indigenous launch vehicle. IRS-1C, was launched on
December 28, 1995, which carried improved sensors like LISS-III, WiFS, PAN
Camera, etc. Details of IRS series platforms are given in the following section.
IRS-P3 was launched into the sun synchronous orbit by another indigenous
launch vehicle PSLV - D3 on 21.3.1996 from Indian launching station
Sriharikota (SHAR). IRS-1D was launched on 29 September 1997 and IRS-
P4 was launched on 26 – 5-1999 on-board PSLV from Sriharikota.

IRS-P4 carrying an Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM) and a Multi-frequency

Scanning Microwave Radiometer (MSMR) was launched on May 26, 1999.
OCM has 8 narrow spectral bands operating in visible and near-infrared bands
(402-885 nm) with a spatial resolution of 360 m and swath of 1420 km.
IRS-P4 OCM thus provides highest spatial resolution compared to any other
contemporary satellites in the international arena during this time frame. The
MSMR with its all weather capability is configured to have measurements at
4 frequencies (6.6, 10.6, 18 & 26 GHZ) with an overall swath of 1360 km.
The spatial resolution is 120, 80, 40 and 40 km for the frequency bands of
Table 5. Characteristics of SPOT Satellites

Satellite Launch Sensors Types No. of Spectral Resolution Swath Revisit

Name Channels Range (metres) Width Time
(microns) (km)
Shefali Aggarwal

VMI Multi- 4 0.43-0.47 (blue)

spectral 0.61-0.68(red) 1000 600 x 120 1 day
0.78-0.89( NIR)
1.58-1.75(SWIR)
SPOT -5 May 2002 HRS Multi- 4 0.5-0.59 (green) 10
spectral 0.61-0.68 (red) 10 60
0.79-0.89 (NIR) 10
1.58-1.75 (SWIR) 20
HRG Pan 1 0.61-0.68 5 m, combined 60 26 days
to generate a 2.5
metre product.
Pan 1 0.61-0.68 10 m (re-sampled
at every 5 m along
track) 60
VMI Multi- 4 4 Same as SPOT 4 I000 26 days
spectral
SPOT-4 March 24,
1998 Multi- 4 0.5-0.59 (green) 20 60
HRV spectral 0.61-0.68 (red)
0.79-0.89 (NIR)
1.58-1.75 (SWIR)
Pan 1 0.61-0.68 10 60
53

contd...
 54

Satellite Launch Sensors Types No. of Spectral Resolution Swath Revisit

Name Channels Range (metres) Width Time
(microns) (km)

SPOT- 1990 & HRV Multi- 3 0.5-0.59 20 60 26 days

2&3 March 1998 spectral 0.61-0.68
0.79-0.89
Pan 1 0.51-0.73 10 60
SPOT-1 1986 HRV Multi- 3 Same as SPOT 2 20 -do- 26 days
spectral
Pan 1 -do- 10 -do-
Earth Resource Satellites
Table 6. Characteristics of IRS series Satellites

Satellite Launch Sensors Types No. of Spectral Range Resolution Swath Revisit
Name Bands (microns) (metres) Width Time
(km)
Shefali Aggarwal

IRS-P4 May 26, OCM Multi- 8 0.4 - 0.885 360 m 1420 km

(Oceansat) 1999 spectral 2 days
MSMR RADAR 4 6.6,10.65, 18, 21 120, 80, 40 1360 km
GHz and 40 kms
IRS-1D September, WiFS Multispectral 2 0.62-0.68 (red) 189 774 5 day
1997 0.77-0.86 (NIR)
LISS-III Multispectral 3 0.52-0.59 (green) 23 142 24-25 days
0.62-0.68 (red)
0.77-0.86 (NIR)
1 1.55-1.70 (SWIR) 70 148
PAN PAN 1 6 70

IRS-1C 1995 WiFS Multispectral 2 0.62-0.68 (red) 189 810 5 day

0.77-0.86 (NIR)
LISS-III Multispectral 3 0.52-0.59 (green) 23.6 142 24-25 days
0.62-0.68 (red)
0.77-0.86 (NIR)
1 1.55-1.70 (SWIR) 70.8 148
PAN PAN 1 5.8 70
55

contd...
 56

Satellite Launch Sensors Types No. of Spectral Range Resolution Swath Revisit
Name Bands (microns) (metres) Width Time
(km)

IRS-1B 1991 LISS-I Multispectral 4 450-520 72.5 148 22 days

0.52-0.59
0.62-0.68
0.77-0.86 (NIR)
LISS-II Multispectral 4 (same as LISS I) 36.25 74
IRS-1A 1988 LISS-I Multispectral 4 Same as above 72.5 148
LISS-II Multispectral 4 Same as above 36.25 74 22 days
Earth Resource Satellites
Shefali Aggarwal 57

6.6., 10.6, 18 and 21 GHz. MSMR will also be in a way a unique sensor as
no other passive microwave radiometer is operational in the civilian domain
today and will be useful for study of both physical oceanographic and
meteorological parameters.

FUTURE INDIAN SATELLITE MISSIONS

Encouraged by the successful operation of the present IRS missions, many

more missions have been planned for realization in the next few years. These
missions will have suitable sensors for applications in cartography, crop and
vegetation monitoring, oceanography and atmospheric studies.

CARTOSAT-1:
It will have a cutting-edge technology in terms of sensor systems and will
provide state-of-art capabilities for cartographic applications. The satellite
will have only a PAN camera with 2.5 m resolution and 30 km swath and
Fore-Aft stereo capability. The 2.5 m resolution data will cater to the specific
needs of cartography and terrain modeling applications.

RESOURCESAT-1:
Launched on 17 th October, 2003, it is designed mainly for resources
applications and having 3-band multi-spectral LISS-4 camera with a spatial
resolution 5.8m and a swath of around 24 km with across – track steerability
for selected area monitoring. An improved version of LISS-III, with 4 bands
(green, red, near—IR and SWIR), all at 23.5 meters resolution and 140 km
swath will also provide the much essential continuity to LISS-III. These
payloads will provide enhanced data for vegetation applications and will allow
multiple crop discrimination; species level discrimination and so on. Together
with an advanced wide-field sensor, WiFS with ~ 60 m resolution and ~ 740
km swath, the payloads will aid greatly for crop and vegetation applications
and integrated land and water applications. The data will also be useful for
high accuracy resources management applications, where the emphasis is on
multi crop mapping studies, vegetation species identification and utilities
mapping.

CLIMATSAT/OCEANSAT-2:
In order to meet the information requirements to study the Planet Earth
as an integrated system, satellite missions are planned which would enable
58 Earth Resource Satellites

global observations of climate, ocean and the atmosphere, particularly covering

the tropical regions, where sufficient data sets are not available. The
instruments like radiometers, sounders, spectrometers etc. for studying the
land, ocean and atmospheric interactions are being planned for these missions.

OTHER COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE SATELLITES

IKONOS:

The IKONOS-2 satellite was launched in September 1999 and has been
delivering commercial data since early 2000. IKONOS is the first of the next
generation of high spatial resolution satellites. IKONOS data records 4
channels of multispectral data at 4 m resolution and one panchromatic channel
with 1 m resolution (Table 7). This means that IKONOS is first commercial
satellite to deliver near photographic quality imagery of anywhere in the world
from space. Radiometric Resolution: Data is collected as 11 bits per pixel
(2048 gray tones).

The applications for this data are boundless: in particular, it will be used
for large scale mapping, creating precise height models for e.g. micro-cellular
radio, and for every application requiring the utmost detail from areas which
are inaccessible for aerial photography.

ENVISAT:

Envisat launched on 1st March 2002 is the most powerful European Earth-
observation satellite. Envisat is a key element of the European Space Agency’s
plans for the next decade to monitor Earth’s environment. It carries instruments
to collect information that will help scientists to understand each part of the
Earth system and to predict how changes in one part will affect others (Table
8). It is in a Sun synchronous orbit at an altitude of 800 km and carrying
10 instruments onboard.

Variety of earth resources satellites are currently commercially available

for inventorying and monitoring earth resources. These satellites are
characterised by varying spatial, spectral, radiometric and temporal resolutions
(Table 9).
Table 7. Characteristic of IKONOS Satellite

Satellite Launch Sensors Types No. of Spectral Range Resolution Swath Revisit
Name Bands (microns) (metres) Width Time
(km)
Shefali Aggarwal

IKONOS-2 September IKONOS Multi-spectral 4 0.45-0.52 (blue) 4 11 days

24, 1999 0.52-0.60 (green)

0.63-0.69 (red)

0.76-0.90 (NIR)

PAN 1 1
59
 60

Table 8. Envisat’s Instrument

(source: [Link]/export/esasa/ESADTOMBAMC_earth_O.html)

Instrument Main purpose

Global ozone monitoring by occultation of stars (GOMOS) To observe the concentration of ozone in the stratosphere.
Scanning Imaging Absorption Spectrometer for Atmospheric To measure trace gases and aerosol concentrations in the atmosphere.
Cartography (SCIAMACHY)
Michelson interferometer for passive atmospheric sounding (MIPAS) To collect information about chemical and physical processes in the
stratosphere, such as those that will affect ozone concentration in future.
Medium resolution imaging Spectrometer (MERIS) Measures radiation in 15 frequency bands that give information about
ocean biology, marine water quality, and vegetation on land, cloud and
water vapor.
Advanced synthetic aperture Radar (ASAR) All weather, day or night radar imaging.
Advanced along track scanning radiometer (AATSR) To measure sea-surface temperature, a key parameter in determining
the existence and/or extent of global warming.
Radar Altimeter (RA-2) Measures distance from satellite to Earth. So can measure sea-surface
height, an important measurement for monitoring El Nino, for example.
Microwave radiometer (MWR) Allows corrections to be made to radar altimeter data.
Doppler Orbitography and Radio positioning integrated by satellite Gives the position of Envisat in its orbit to within a few centimeters.
(DORIS) This is crucial to understanding the measurements all the instruments
make.
Laser retro-reflector (LRR) Reflects pulsed laser to ground stations to help determine the satellite’s
exact position in its orbit.
Earth Resource Satellites
Table 9. Characteristics of some more commercially available satellites
Satellite Launch Sensors Types No. of Spectral Range Resolution Swath Revisit
Name Bands (microns) (metres) Width Time
(km)
Shefali Aggarwal

QuickBird-2 Oct. 18, 2001 Multi- 4 blue (0.45-0.52) 2.5 17

spectral green (0.52-0.6)
red (0.63-0.69)
NIR.(76-0.89)
Pan 1 0.45-0.9 0.61
EROS 1 Dec. 5, 2000 Pan 1 0.5-0.9 1.8 12.5 1-4 days
EO 1 Nov. 21, 2000 ALI Multi 9 0.433-0.453
0.45-0.515
0.525-0.605
0.63-0.69
0.775-0.805
0.845-0.89
1.2-1.3
1.55-1.75
2.08-2.35 30 37 16 days
Pan 1 0.48-0.69 10
Hyperion Hyper 220 0.4 to 2.5 (10nm 30 7.5 km x
sampling interval) 100 km
61

contd...
 62

Satellite Launch Sensors Types No. of Spectral Range Resolution Swath Revisit
Name Bands (microns) (metres) Width Time
(km)
LAC Hyper 256 0.9-1.6 (2-6nm 250 185 km
sampling interval)
ASTER Multi 3 VNIR - stereo 15
(0.5-0.9)
6 SWIR (1.6-2.5) 30 60 16 days
5 TIR (8-12) 90
CERES Multi 3 SWIR, TIR, Total 20 km
Terra Dec. 18, 1999 MISR Multi 4 250-275 360
(EOS AM-1) MODIS Multi 2 250
5 0.4-14.4 500 2330
29 1000
MOPITT Multi 3 2.3 (CH4)
2.4 (CO) 22 km 640
4.7 (CO)
WFI Multi 2 0.66 (green) 260 890 5 days
0.83 (NIR)
CBERS October 14, CCD (stereo) Multi 5 0.51-0.73 (pan)
1999 0.45-0.52 (blue)
0.52-0.59 (green) 20 113 26 days
0.63-0.69 (red)
0.7-0.89 (NIR)
Earth Resource Satellites

contd...
Satellite Launch Sensors Types No. of Spectral Range Resolution Swath Revisit
Name Bands (microns) (metres) Width Time
(km)

IR-MSS Multi 4 0.5-1.1 (pan) 80 120

Shefali Aggarwal

1.55-1.75 (IR)
2.08-2.35 (IR)
10.4-12.5 (TIR) 160
KITSAT-3 May 26, 1999 CCD Multi 3 red, green, NIR 15
Pan 1 15
NOAA-K May - 1998 AVHRR Multi 5 1100
0.402-0.422 1130 2,800 1 day
0.433-0.453
0.48-0.5
OrbView-2 August, 1997 SeaWiFS Multi 8 0.50-0.52
0.545-0.565
0.66-0.68
0.745-0.785
0.845-0.885
RADARSAT November, 1995 SAR Radar 1 C-band 8-120 24 days
(HH polarization)
ERS-2 1995 AMI Radar 1 5.3 GHz(C-band) 26 99 35 days
ATSR Multi 4 1000
63

contd...
 64

Satellite Launch Sensors Types No. of Spectral Range Resolution Swath Revisit
Name Bands (microns) (metres) Width Time
(km)

NOAA-14 1994 AVHRR Multi 5 1100

RESURS- 1994 MSU-SK Multi 4 0.5-0.6 (green) 170 600 21 days
O1-3 0.6-0.7 (red)
0.7-0.8 (NIR)
0.8-1.1 (NIR)
1 10.4-12.6
(Thermal IR) 600
JERS-1 February, 1992 SAR Radar 1 1275 MHz
(L-band, HH
polarization) 18 75 44 days
OPS Multi 3 Visible NIR 18 x 24 75
4 SWIR
ERS-1 1991 AMI Radar 1 C band
(VV polarization) 26 35 days
ATSR Multi 4 1000
NOAA-12 1991 AVHRR Multi 5 1100
Earth Resource Satellites
Shefali Aggarwal 65

CONCLUSIONS

Since the launch of first earth resource satellite in 1972, various satellite
platforms with a variety of remote sensing sensors have been launched to study
the earth, the ocean, the atmosphere and the environment. These earth
resources satellites data are very useful for mapping and monitoring natural
resources and environment at various levels, such as global, regional, local and
micro level.

REFERENCES

Campbell, J.B. 1996. Introduction to Remote Sensing. Taylor & Francis, London.

Curran, P.J. 1985. Principles of Remote Sensing. Longman Group Limited, London.

Elachi C. 1987. Introduction to the Physics and Techniques of Remote Sensing. Wiley Series
in Remote Sensing, New York.

[Link]

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Joseph, G. 1996. Imaging Sensors for Remote Sensing. Remote Sensing Reviews, 13: 257-
342.

Lillesand, T.M. and Kiefer, R. 1993. Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation, Third
Edition. John Villey, New York.

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