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INDEX
SR. NO TOPICS PAGE NO. REMARKS
1 NAME PAGE
2 CERTIFICATE
3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
4 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT
5 INTRODUCTION TO COULOMB’S
LAW
6 THEORY AND STATEMENT OF LAW
7 COULOMB’S TORSION BALANCE
EXPERIMENT
8 MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION &
VECTOR FORM
9 PERMITTIVITY & EFFECT OF
MEDIUM
10 APPARATUS REQUIRED
11 PROCEDUIRE
12 OBSERVATIONS
13 CALCULATIONS
14 GRAPHICAL VERIFICATION (F vs
1/r²)
15 RESULT
16 APPLICATION OF COULOMBS’ LAW
17 LIMITATIONS & PRECAUTIONS
18 CONCLUSION
19 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT
The main objective of this project is to study and verify Coulomb’s Law, which states that
the electrostatic force between two stationary point charges is directly proportional to the
product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.
Specific Aims:
1. To understand the concept of electrostatic force between charged bodies.
2. To explore the relation between force, charge, and distance as defined by Coulomb’s Law.
3. To learn about Coulomb’s Torsion Balance experiment used for experimental verification.
4. To determine how the medium affects the electrostatic force between charges.
5. To plot a graph between Force (F) and 1/r² to verify the inverse-square relationship.
Outcome:
By the end of this project, we will:
Confirm the validity of Coulomb’s Law through theoretical and graphical understanding.
Gain practical knowledge about electrostatic interactions and their real-life applications in
physics and technology.
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INTRODUCTION: COULOMB’S LAW
1. What is Coulomb’s Law?
Coulomb’s Law explains the electrostatic force between two charged objects. It tells us how
strong the force is and in which direction it acts.
2. Statement
The force between two points charges is:
• Directly proportional to the product of the charges.
• Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Symbolically: F = k × q1 × q2 / r²
➢ = force between charges
➢ = magnitudes of charges
➢ = distance between charges
➢ = Coulomb’s constant
3. Nature of Force
• Like charges repel → arrows pointing away from each other.
• Unlike charges attract → arrows pointing toward each other.
4. Importance / Application
• Explains how atoms and molecules interact.
• Basis for electrostatic experiments, electronics, and understanding electric fields
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THEORY & STATEMENT OF LAW
1. Theory of Coulomb’s Law
• Coulomb’s Law explains the force
between two charged objects.
• It states that the electrostatic force
between two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of their
charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.
• The force acts along the line joining the
charges.
• It can be attractive (opposite charges) or
repulsive (like charges).
• The medium between charges affects the
force; in vacuum, the force is maximum
2. Statement of Coulomb’s Law
“The magnitude of the electrostatic force (F)
between two point charges and separated by a
distance in vacuum is directly proportional to the
product of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between them.”
Where:
= electrostatic force between charges
= magnitudes of the charges
= distance between charges
(Coulomb’s constant in vacuum)
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Coulomb’s Torsion Balance
Experiment
Coulomb performed his famous experiment using a torsion balance to measure the
electrostatic force between charged bodies accurately. The apparatus consisted of a
horizontal rod suspended by a thin, delicate wire, with small charged spheres attached to its
ends. When another charged sphere was brought near the spheres on the rod, the rod
rotated, twisting the wire. The angle of twist was carefully measured, which indicated the
magnitude of the electrostatic force. By repeating the experiment at different distances,
Coulomb verified that the force is directly proportional to the product of the charges and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This experiment
provided the first precise quantitative confirmation of the inverse square law for electric
forces and laid the foundation for modern electrostatics.
Key Points:
• Instrument used: Torsion balance
• Rod suspended by thin wire with charged spheres at ends
• Purpose: Measure electrostatic force precisely
• Rod rotation measured by twist of the wire
• Verified force ∝ product of charges
• Verified force ∝ 1/(distance)²
Laid foundation for modern electrostatics
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Mathematical Expression and Vector
Form of Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb’s Law can be represented mathematically to determine the magnitude and
direction of the force between two point charges. In scalar form, it is written as:
• F = k × q1 × q2 / r²
Here, is the magnitude of the electrostatic force, and are the magnitudes of the charges,
is the distance between them, and is Coulomb’s constant in vacuum. This form gives only
the magnitude of the force.
• To describe both the magnitude and direction, the vector form is used:
F(vector)₁₂ = k·q₁q₂ / r̂₁₂
In this form, F₁₂(vector) represents the force on
charge q1 due to q2, and r̂₁₂ is a unit vector
pointing from q1 to q2. The vector form clearly
shows that the force acts along the line joining
the two charges and can be attractive or
repulsive depending on the nature of the
charges. This mathematical representation is
essential for solving problems in electrostatics
and understanding forces between multiple
charges in a system.
Key Points:
• Scalar form: F = k × q1 × q2 / r² gives
magnitude only
• Vector form: F₁₂ (vector) gives magnitude and direction
• r̂₁₂ (unit vector) is a unit vector from q1 to q2
• Force acts along the line joining charges
• Can be attractive or repulsive depending on charge type
• Useful for systems with multiple charges
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Permittivity and Effect of Medium
The permittivity of a medium is a measure of how much the medium can resist or reduce
the electric field between two charges. In Coulomb’s Law, when the space between the
charges is not vacuum but another material, the electrostatic force decreases. This is
because the medium partially cancels the effect of the charges. The force in a medium is
given by:
F = (1 / 4πε) × (q₁ q₂ / r²)
Here, ε is the permittivity of the medium. In vacuum, it is ε₀, and in other materials, it is
higher, which reduces the force. Different materials like air, water, or glass affect the force
differently, & this property is important in designing capacitors and other electrical devices.
Key Points:
Permittivity (ε) measures how a medium resists electric field
Force decreases in a medium other than vacuum
Formula in medium: F = (1 / 4πε) × (q₁ q₂ / r²)
ε₀ = permittivity of vacuum
Different materials (air, water, glass) affect force differently
Important for capacitor design and electrostatic applications
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Apparatus Required
To perform Coulomb’s experiment and study electrostatic forces, the following apparatus
are required. The main instrument is the torsion balance, which consists of a horizontal rod
suspended by a thin wire with small charged spheres attached at its ends. Additional items
include insulating stands, charged spheres, a scale or protractor to measure the angle of
twist, and materials to produce charges, such as silk cloth or fur for rubbing. These
apparatus help in accurately measuring the electrostatic force between charges and
verifying Coulomb’s Law.
Key Points:
• Torsion balance: main instrument to measure force
• Horizontal rod suspended by thin wire with spheres at ends
• Charged spheres: small conductors to place charges
• Insulating stands: prevent charge leakage
• Scale or protractor: measure angle of twist
• Materials to produce charges: silk cloth, fur, etc.
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Procedure
In Coulomb’s Torsion Balance Experiment, the main aim is to measure the electrostatic force
between two charged spheres. The torsion balance is set up by suspending a horizontal rod
with small charged spheres at its ends using a thin wire. One sphere is given a known
charge, and the other sphere remains fixed. When the charged sphere is brought close to
the fixed sphere without touching, the rod rotates, twisting the wire. By measuring the
angle of twist at different distances, the relationship between force, charges, and distance
can be studied. Care must be taken to perform the experiment in dry, insulated conditions
to avoid errors and ensure accurate results.
Steps / Key Points:
1. Set up the torsion balance with rod and
spheres suspended by a thin wire.
2. Charge one sphere and keep the other
fixed.
3. Bring the charged sphere near the fixed
sphere without contact.
4. Observe the rotation of the rod caused
by electrostatic force.
5. Measure the angle of twist using a scale
or protractor.
6. Vary the distance between spheres and
repeat measurements.
7. Record all readings carefully to verify
that force ∝ product of charges / distance².
8. Perform the experiment in a dry and
insulated environment to avoid
disturbances.
9. Repeat the procedure multiple times for accuracy.
Note: Always perform the experiment in a dry and insulated environment to prevent charge
leakage and ensure accurate measurements. Avoid touching the spheres directly.
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Observations
During Coulomb’s Torsion Balance Experiment, it was observed that the electrostatic force
between the charged spheres changes with the distance between them. When the spheres
were closer, the rod rotated more, showing a larger force, while increasing the distance
caused a smaller rotation, indicating a weaker force. These observations confirmed that the
force is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them. Careful measurement of the angle of twist at
different distances allows for verification of Coulomb’s Law.
Key Observations / Points:
• Electrostatic force decreases with increasing distance between charges.
• Force is directly proportional to the magnitude of charges.
• The angle of twist of the rod indicates the magnitude of the force.
• Maximum rotation occurs when spheres are closest.
• Repeated measurements give consistent results, verifying the law.
Observation Table (Example):
DISTANCE(R) ANGLE OF TWIST(θ) RELATIVE FORCE(F)
1 cm 10° High
2 cm 5° Medium
3 cm 3.3° Low
➢ From the table, it is clear that the electrostatic force decreases as the distance
increases, confirming the inverse square relationship described by Coulomb’s Law.
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Calculations
In Coulomb’s Torsion Balance Experiment, calculations are performed to determine the
electrostatic force between two charged spheres using the measured angle of twist and the
known torsional constant of the wire. By using the formula F = k × (q₁ q₂ / r²), the force can
be calculated for different distances between the charges. The measured angle of twist is
proportional to the force exerted, allowing the determination of the force in Newtons.
These calculations help in verifying Coulomb’s Law quantitatively and in comparing
theoretical and experimental results.
Steps for Calculation:
1. Measure the angle of twist (θ) for each
distance between charges.
2. Determine the torsional constant of the wire
(usually provided or calculated beforehand).
3. Calculate the force using the formula: F =
torsional constant × θ.
4. Alternatively, calculate the theoretical force
using F = k × (q₁ q₂ / r²).
5. Compare experimental and theoretical forces
to check accuracy.
6. Repeat for multiple distances to verify
inverse square law.
Example Calculation Table:
Distance(r) Angle of Torsional Experimental Theoritical Force
twist(θ) Constant Force (F) (N) (F) (N)
(N·m/rad)
1 cm 10° 0.02 0.0035 0.0036
2 cm 5° 0.02 0.0017 0.0018
3cm 3.3° 0.02 0.0012 0.0013
➢ From the calculations, it is clear that the experimental results closely match the
theoretical values, confirming Coulomb’s Law.
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Graphical Verification (F vs 1/r²)
The graphical verification of Coulomb’s Law is done by plotting a graph between the
electrostatic force (F) on the y-axis and the inverse square of the distance (1/r²) on the x-
axis. If Coulomb’s Law holds true, the graph obtained should be a straight line passing
through the origin, showing that the force is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between two charges. This graphical method helps to visually confirm the
mathematical relationship between force and distance.
Procedure for Graphical
Verification:
1. Record values of distance (r) and
corresponding force (F) from the experiment.
2. Calculate 1/r² for each distance.
3. Plot a graph taking 1/r² on the x-axis and F
on the y-axis.
4. Mark all points carefully and draw the best-
fit line.
5. If the line is straight and passes through the
origin, Coulomb’s Law is verified.
Observation Table for Graph:
Distance(r) 1/r² (cm⁻²) Force (F) (N)
1 cm 1.00 0.0035
2cm 0.25 0.0017
3cm 0.11 0.0012
Expected Graph:
A straight line passing through the origin indicating that F ∝ 1/r².
| ●
F| ● Hence, the straight-line graph between F &
| ● 1/r² proves that the electrostatic force follows
| ● the inverse square law as stated by coulomb’s law
|____________1/r²
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Result
From the experiment and its calculations, it is observed that the electrostatic force (F)
between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the charges (q₁ and q₂)
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r²) between them. The graph
between F and 1/r² is a straight line passing through the origin, which verifies Coulomb’s
Inverse Square Law. Hence, the experimental and theoretical values are found to be in good
agreement.
Key Points:
• The graph of F vs 1/r² is a straight
line through the origin.
• This confirms that F ∝ (q₁q₂) / r².
• The experimental values are close
to the theoretical values.
• Thus, Coulomb’s Law is
experimentally verified using the
torsion balance method.
Result: Coulomb’s Law is verified —
the force between two stationary point
charges is directly proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them.
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Applications of Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb’s Law is one of the fundamental laws of electrostatics, and it has wide applications
in both theoretical and practical fields of physics and engineering. It helps us understand
how charged particles interact and is used in various technologies and scientific principles
related to electricity and magnetism.
Main Applications:
1. ⚡ Electrostatic Force Calculation:
• Used to calculate the force between
two stationary electric charges.
2. 🧲 Design of Capacitors:
• Helps in determining the force
between charged plates and the
effect of dielectric materials.
3. 💡 Electric Field and Potential:
• Forms the basis for calculating
electric field intensity and potential
due to point charges.
4. 🔬 Atomic and Molecular Physics:
• Explains the forces between
protons and electrons within atoms
and molecules.
5. ⚙ Electrostatic Precipitators:
• Used in pollution control devices to remove dust and smoke particles from factory
emissions.
6. 🔋 Electric Force in Conductors and Insulators:
• Helps understand charge distribution and behavior of materials under electric forces.
7. 🌌 Space and Astrophysics:
• Applied to study charged particles in cosmic and planetary atmospheres
• Thus, Coulomb’s Law plays a vital role in understanding and applying electrostatic
principles in science, technology, and everyday life.
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Limitations and Precautions
Although Coulomb’s Law is one
of the most important laws in
electrostatics, it has certain
limitations in its practical
applications. To ensure
accurate results during
experiments, specific
precautions must also be
followed carefully.
Limitations:
1. Coulomb’s Law is applicable
only for point charges or
spherical charges where size is
negligible compared to the
distance between them.
2. It holds only in vacuum or air, as other mediums affect the electrostatic force.
3. The law assumes that the charges are stationary; it is not valid for moving or accelerating
charges.
4. The presence of other nearby charges can disturb the electric field and affect accuracy.
5. It does not take into account quantum or relativistic effects, which occur at very small or
high-speed scales.
Precautions (During Experiment):
1. Perform experiment in a dry, dust-free; insulated environment to prevent charge leakage.
2. Ensure that the charged spheres are clean and dry before use.
3. Avoid touching the charged bodies with bare hands to prevent loss of charge.
4. Keep the apparatus free from vibrations and external disturbances.
5. Take multiple readings and average them for better accuracy.
6. Make sure the torsion wire is not twisted or damaged before starting the experiment.
➢ By following these precautions and understanding its limitations, Coulomb’s Law can
be accurately demonstrated and verified in laboratory conditions.
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Conclusion
From the Coulomb’s Torsion Balance Experiment, it is clearly concluded that the
electrostatic force between two stationary point charges depends on the magnitude of the
charges & the distance between them. The experiment successfully verifies Coulomb’s
Inverse Square Law, proving that the force decreases rapidly as the distance incorrect. Both
experimental & theoretical values show good agreement, confirming accuracy of the law.
Key Conclusions:
1. Electrostatic force increases with charge and decreases with distance.
2. The graph between F and 1/r² is a straight line passing through the origin, verifying the
inverse square relation.
3. The law holds true in air or vacuum, but changes in other media.
4. The experiment demonstrates the fundamental nature of electric forces in physics.
5. Hence, Coulomb’s Law is experimentally proved and verified.
Final Conclusion: The experiment confirms that the electrostatic force
between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of their charges
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. NCERT Physics Textbook – Class XII (Part 1)
2. Concepts of Physics – H.C. Verma (Vol. 1)
3. Pradeep’s New Course Physics – Class 12
4. Comprehensive Practical Physics – Class XII
5. Physics Lab Manual – CBSE Board Reference
6. Online Sources:
[Link]
[Link]/science/Coulombs-law
[Link]
THANK YOU
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