Physics

ALTERNATING
CURRENT
Lecture - 1
WHAT IS MEANT BY ALTERNATING CURRENT?
An alternating current is that current whose magnitude changes continuously with time and
direction reverses periodically.

A direct current is that current which flows with a constant magnitude in the same direction.

Direct Current(𝐷𝐷𝐶𝐶)
𝑖𝑖 Alternating Current(𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶)
𝑖𝑖

𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
𝑇𝑇/2 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇/2 𝑇𝑇

𝐷𝐷𝐶𝐶 Source 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 Source

+
−
An electric current which periodically reverses its direction in contrast to direct current
which flows only in one direction.

𝑖𝑖

𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡 Square Wave 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶

𝑇𝑇 3𝑇𝑇 2𝑇𝑇
2 2

𝑖𝑖

𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡 Triangular Wave 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶

2
𝑖𝑖

𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡 Sinusoidal 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶
2
AMPLITUDE
The maximum value attained by an alternating current in either direction is called its
amplitude or peak value and is denoted by Io.

TIME PERIOD
The time taken by an alternating current to complete one cycle of its variations is called its
time period and is denoted by T.

FREQUENCY
The number of cycles completed per second by an alternating current is called its frequency
and is denoted by υ.
Prove mathematically that the average value of alternating current
over one complete cycle is zero.

"
"0 " = "0 sin '(

!/2 ! 3!/2 2! '

−" 0 (
Average Value Of Alternating Current Over Half Cycle
It is defined as that value of direct current which sends the same charge in a circuit in the
same time as is sent by the given alternating current in its half time period.

"
"0

!/2 ! 3!/2 2! '(

ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) / VIRTUAL / EFFECTIVE VALUE OF A.C.

* = ""#$
2 +∆(

""#$
⇔
""#$
"%& = "0 sin '(

RMS is defined as that value of a direct current which produces the same heating effect in a
given resistor as is produced by the given alternating current when passed for the same time.
ROOT MEAN SQUARE OF AN ALTERNATING EMF
It is defined as that value of a steady voltage that produces the same amount of heat in a
given resistance as is produced by the given alternating emf when applied to the same
resistance for the same time.
 Physics
ALTERNATING
CURRENT
Lecture - 2
PHASORS AND PHASOR DIAGRAM
A diagram that represents AC and voltage of same frequency as rotating vectors (phasors)
along with proper phase angle between them.

#0
!
# "0
"
!&
%
A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING ONLY A RESISTOR

'

" = " 0 sin !&

 "0
#0
!&
%
Phasor diagram

&, (
(0 " = " 0 sin !&
&0 # = #0 sin !&

!
0 # # 3# 2#
2 2

Wave diagram
A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING ONLY A INDUCTOR
)

*"

" = " 0 sin !&

 $

"0

!&
%

&, ( #0
(0 " = " 0 sin !&
&0
Phasor diagram

!
0 # # 3# 2#
,
2 2 # = #0 sin !& −
&0 2

Wave diagram
A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING ONLY A CAPACITOR
/
− +
− +
− +
# 0 − + 0 #

" = " 0 sin !&

 $

#0
"0

!&
%
Phasor diagram
#, "
(0 " = " 0 sin !&
&0

# !
0 # 3# 2#
2
,
2 # = #0 sin !& +
&0 2

Wave diagram
A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING SERIES LCR CIRCUIT

𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿 𝐶𝐶
RESONANCE CONDITION OF A SERIES LCR CIRCUIT

| 𝑋𝑋 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑋𝑋 𝐶𝐶 |
𝜙𝜙

𝑅𝑅
CASE 1 CASE 2
I f 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 > 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 , 𝜙𝜙 ≠ 0 I f 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 < 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 , 𝜙𝜙 ≠ 0
𝑿𝑿 𝑳𝑳 − 𝑿𝑿 𝑪𝑪
𝒕𝒕𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 𝝓𝝓 = Circuit is predominantly
Circuit is predominantly 𝑹𝑹
capacitive inductive
Current leads the source Current lags the source
voltage voltage
CASE 3
if 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 , 𝜙𝜙 = 0
 Physics
ALTERNATING
CURRENT
Lecture - 3
RESONANCE CONDITION OF LCR CIRCUIT
POWER IN AN A.C. CIRCUIT

𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿 𝐶𝐶
WATTLESS CURRENT
AVERAGE POWER ASSOCIATED WITH A RESISTOR
ENERGY AND AVERAGE POWER ASSOCIATED WITH AN INDUCTOR
ENERGY AND AVERAGE POWER ASSOCIATED WITH AN CAPACITOR
 Physics
ALTERNATING
CURRENT
Lecture - 4
 TRANSFORMER

It is a device used to step up or step down AC voltage by using the concept of mutual induction.
 PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER

It works on the principle of mutual induction i.e. when a changing current is

passed through one of the two inductively coupled coils an induced emf is
set up in the other coil.
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER

A transformer essentially consists of two coils of insulated copper wire having different
number of turns and wound on the same soft iron core.

The coil P to which electric energy is supplied is called the primary and the coil from which
energy is drawn or output is obtained is called the secondary. To prevent energy losses due to
eddy currents, a laminated core is used. Because of high permeability of soft iron, the entire
magnetic flux due to the current in the primary coil practically remains in the iron core and
hence passes fully through the secondary. This also prevents the stray currents being
generated in the conductors lying around and the consequent power loss.
Two types of arrangements are generally used for winding of
primary and secondary coils in a transformer :

1. Core type: In the core type transformers, the primary and

secondary coils are wound on separate limbs of the core so
that the core is largely surrounded by the coils. Many of the
modern transformers are of closed core type as shown in Fig.

2. Shell type: In the shell type transformers, the primary and

secondary coils are wound one over another on the same limb
of the iron core. The coils are very largely surrounded by the
iron core. Transformers used in radio and TV transmitters and
receivers are of shell type, as shown in Fig.
 WORKING OF TRANSFORMER

As the alternating current flows through the primary, it generates an alternating magnetic
flux in the core which also passes through the secondary. This changing flux sets up an
induced emf in the secondary, also a self-induced emf in the primary. If there is no leakage
of magnetic flux, then flux linked with each turn of the primary will be equal to that linked
with each turn of the secondary.
Consider the situation when no load is
connected to the secondary, i.e., its Laminated core
terminals are open. Let N1 and N2 be the
number of turns in the primary and Primary winding Secondary winding

secondary respectively. Then 𝜙𝜙

𝑖𝑖𝑃𝑃 𝑖𝑖𝑆𝑆
AC
supply 𝜀𝜀𝑃𝑃 𝑁𝑁𝑃𝑃 𝑁𝑁𝑆𝑆 𝜀𝜀𝑆𝑆
EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER
Laminated core

Primary winding Secondary winding

𝜙𝜙
𝑖𝑖𝑃𝑃 𝑖𝑖𝑆𝑆
AC
supply 𝜀𝜀𝑃𝑃 𝑁𝑁𝑃𝑃 𝑁𝑁𝑆𝑆 𝜀𝜀𝑆𝑆

(Power delivered at secondary coil )

Efficiency(𝜂𝜂) = × 100%
(Power supplied at primary coil )

𝜀𝜀𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑖𝑆𝑆
(𝜂𝜂 ) = × 100%
𝜀𝜀 𝑃𝑃 𝑖𝑖 𝑃𝑃
 ENERGY LOSS IN TRANSFORMER

1. Copper loss. Some energy is lost due to heating of copper wires used in the primary and
secondary windings. This power loss (= I R) can be minimised by using thick copper wires of low
2

resistance.
2. Eddy current loss. The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron core which
leads to some energy loss in the form of heat. This loss can be reduced by using laminated iron
core.
3. Hysteresis loss. The alternating current carries the iron core through cycles of magnetisation and
demagnetisation. Work is done in each of these cycles and is lost as heat. This is called hysteresis
loss and can be minimised by using core material having narrow hysteresis loop.
4. Flux leakage. The magnetic flux produced by the primary may not hilly pass through the
secondary. Some of the flux may leak into air. This loss can be minimised by winding the primary
and secondary coils over one another.
5. Humming loss. As the transformer works, its core lengthens and shortens during each cycle of the
alternating voltage due to a phenomenon called magnetostriction. This gives rise to a humming
sound. So some of the electrical energy is lost in the form of humming sound.
 USES OF TRANSFORMER

1. Small transformers are used in radio receivers, telephones, loud speakers, etc.

2. In voltage regulators for TV, refrigerators, air-conditioners, computers, etc.

3. In stabilised power supplies.

4. A step-down transformer is used for obtaining large current for electric welding.

5. A step-down transformer is used in induction furnace for melting metals.

6. A step-up transformer is used for the production of X-rays.

7. In the transmission of electric energy from the generating stations to the consumers.
 Physics
ALTERNATING
CURRENT
Lecture - 5
 AC GENERATOR

An a.c. generator or dynamo is the device which produces a current that alternates or
changes its direction regularly after a fixed interval of time i.e. it is a device which converts
mechanical energy into alternating form of electrical energy.

Strong magnets Armature

Slip rings

Carbon brushes
 PRINCIPLE OF AC GENERATOR

The working of an a.c. generator is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

When a closed coil is rotated in a uniform magnetic field with its axis perpendicular to the
magnetic field, the magnetic flux linked with the coil changes and an induced emf and
hence a current is set up in it.
 CONSTRUCTION OF AC GENERATOR

It essentially consists of the following main parts:

1. Field magnet: It is a permanent magnet of the horse

shoe shape which produces a strong magnetic field in the
region between its pole-pieces.

2. Armature: It consists of a rectangular coil PQRS having

a large number of turns of insulated copper wire wound on a
soft iron cylindrical core. The core is laminated one to avoid
losses due to eddy currents. The soft iron core concentrates
the lines of force to increase the flux density B. The
armature can be rotated in the magnetic field of the field
magnet about an axis perpendicular to field B.
3. Slip rings. The two ends of the armature coil are connected to
two coaxial brass rings S1 and S2 called slip rings. The rings are
rigidly fixed to same shaft which is used to rotate the coil. The
slips are insulated from each other as well as from the shaft. As
the armature coil rotates, the slip rings also rotate about the
same axis of rotation.

4. Brushes. Two graphite or flexible metallic rods called brushes

are lightly pressed against the two slip rings. The brushes B1
and B2 remain fixed in their positions and maintain sliding
contacts with the rotatable slip rings S1 and S2 respectively. It is
through these brushes that the current induced in the armature
coil is fed to the external circuit by means of line wires.

5. Source of energy. The armature coil is rotated about its axis with
the help of turbine or any other device connected to it. It is the
rotational kinetic energy of the turbine which is ultimately
converted into electrical energy by the a.c. generator.
WORKING OF AC GENERATOR
• As the armature coil rotates, the magnetic flux linked with it
changes and so an induced current flows through it.

• Suppose initially the coil PQRS be in the vertical position and it

is rotated in the clockwise direction. The side PQ moves
downward and SR moves upward.

• According to Fleming's right hand rule, the induced current flows

from Q to P and from S to R. So during the first half rotation of
the coil, the induced current flows in the direction SRQP, with
brush B1 acting as positive terminal and brush B2 as negative
terminal.

• During the second half-rotation, the side PQ moves upward and

SR moves downward. The direction of induced current is
reversed, i.e. it flows along PQRS, so that the brush B2 now
functions as the positive terminal and brush B1 as the negative
terminal.

• Thus the direction of current in the external circuit is reversed

after every half cycle.

Hence alternating current is produced by the generator.

Let N = number of turns in the coil
A = face area of each turn
B = magnitude of the magnetic field
θ = angle which normal to the coil makes with field B at any instant t
ω= the angular velocity with which coil rotates
 𝜀𝜀 = 𝜀𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡

Induced emf

Time

𝑇𝑇/4 𝑇𝑇/2 3𝑇𝑇/4 𝑇𝑇

Induced emf

Time
 Advantages of a.c. over d.c. Disadvantages of a.c. over d.c.
[Link] generation of a.c. is more economical [Link] value of a.c. is high (𝑰𝑰𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟐𝑰𝑰𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 ) It is
than d.c. dangerous to work with a.c.
[Link] alternating voltage can be easily stepped [Link] phenomena like electroplating,
up or stepped down by using a transformer. electrorefining, electrotyping, etc; a.c. cannot
[Link] alternating currents can be reduced by be used.
using a choke coil without any significant 3.A.C. is transmitted more from the surface of
wastage of energy. conductor than from inside. This is called skin
[Link] alternating currents can be transmitted to effect. Therefore, several fine insulated wires
distant places without any significant line loss. (and not a single thick wire) are required for
[Link] a.c. can be easily converted into d.c. by the transmission of a.c.
using rectifiers.
6.A.C. machines are simple and robust and do
not require much attention during their use.