DEMOCRACY
INTRODUCTION
Democracy is one of the most familiar yet one of the most misunderstood
ideas and practices of politics. Since the end of World War II, virtually
everyone has claimed to be a democrat and to be supporting, working
toward, or preserving democracy. Attempts have consistently been made for
its effective realization and in so doing various prefixes have been added to
it in the form of liberal democracy, constitutional democracy, participatory,
direct democracy, representative democracy and many more. Thus it is
essential to understand the various conceptions of democracy, its normative
grounds, and challenges while examining contemporary debates
surrounding its application to global politics.
WHAT IS DEMOCRACY
● The idea of democracy emanates from the Greek word, “demo" and
“kratos” meaning “people” and “rule”.
● In its simplest form and understanding democracy is defined as a form
of government by the people in which the supreme power is vested in
the people and exercised directly by them or by their elected agents
under a free electoral system."
● In the phrase of Abraham Lincoln, democracy is a government "of the
people, by the people, and for the people.”.
EVOLUTION
● Democracy first took shape in the Greek city-states, particularly
Athens, during the 6th and 5th centuries BC, though it excluded
women and slaves.
● After the fall of Greek democracies, "democracy" became a negative
term until the late 19th century, though some popular participation
existed in the Roman Republic and medieval Italian city-states.
● The idea of representative democracy emerged after the French and
American Revolutions, but women were still excluded, with full
political equality achieved only in the 20th century.
● Today, political theory often focuses on how representative democracy
can achieve its foundational ideals.
TYPES OF DEMOCRACY
Democracies fall into two basic categories, direct and representative.
In direct democracy, all citizens participate in decision-making without
elected officials, making it feasible only in small communities or groups.
Ancient Athens, the first democracy, practiced direct democracy with an
assembly of 5,000-6,000 people, likely the maximum for such a system.
In modern society, with its complexity, direct democracy is rare. Most
countries use representative democracy, where citizens elect officials to
make decisions, create laws, How such officials are elected can vary
enormously.
● On the national level, for example, legislators can be chosen
from districts that each elect a single representative.
● Alternatively, under a system of proportional representation,
each political party is represented in the legislature according
to its percentage of the total vote nationwide.
Whatever the method used, public officials in a representative democracy
hold office in the name of the people and remain accountable to the people
for their actions.
THE PILLARS OF DEMOCRACY
SALIENT FEATURES OF DEMOCRACY
● The Centrality of Man in Democracy
Democracy aims to promote individual interests, with the government
serving as an instrument for this purpose, not as a sanctified, supreme
entity.
● Constitutional, Limited, and Accountable Government
Government is based on the consent of the people through elections
and operates within constitutional limits, ensuring checks and
balances.
● Accountability and Public Opinion
The executive is accountable to the legislature and the people, with
public opinion holding significant influence in democracies.
● Democracy is the art of reaching compromise and consensus.
Democracy fosters compromise and consensus through debate and
negotiation, reducing conflict and tensions. It values fundamental
rights, especially freedom of expression, as essential for individual
development, as noted by J.S. Mill. Davis highlights that liberal
democracy relies on rational, active citizens working towards the
common good through collective decision-making, with elected
officials implementing majority decisions. Peter H. Merkel identifies
four principles of liberal democracy: government by discussion,
majority rule, recognition of minority rights, and constitutional
governance, ensuring the majority governs without overriding
minority rights.
FORMS OF DEMOCRACY
1. Liberal Democracy
Liberal democracy emphasizes individual freedom as the primary goal of the
state. The state exists to protect the life, liberty, and property of the
individual, as advocated by philosophers like John Locke. The liberal model
has evolved through three phases: classical liberalism, elitist democracy,
and pluralist democracy. It focuses on maximizing individual freedom and
minimizing state interference, viewing the individual's well-being as closely
tied to their freedom.
2. Participatory Democracy
Participatory democracy advocates for the active involvement of citizens in
decision-making, aiming for an equal distribution of power. Developed by
scholars like Carole Pateman and C.B. MacPherson, this model opposes
mere representation and encourages direct forms of self-government and
responsibility. It emphasizes full participation, as opposed to “pseudo-
participation,” where citizens are given the illusion of involvement. This
model often calls for decentralization, neighborhood assemblies, and
increased citizen engagement through mechanisms like referendums.
3. Deliberative Democracy
Deliberative democracy emphasizes the role of public deliberation in
legitimizing democratic decisions. Unlike models that rely on aggregating
individual preferences, deliberative democracy holds that citizens should
justify their political claims to each other in open discussions. Influential
theorists like Jürgen Habermas and Joshua Cohen argue that decisions
should be rationally acceptable and based on shared reasons. This model
values reasoned discourse and believes that democratic legitimacy comes
from collective deliberation rather than the mere expression of preferences.
4. Communitarian Democracy
Communitarian democracy emerged in response to globalization and market
economics, focusing on community participation and shared moral values.
Advocated by thinkers like Amitai Etzioni and Michael Sandel, it critiques
liberalism for overemphasizing individual rights and neglecting the social
and cultural needs inherent in human nature. Communitarian democracy
asserts that the common good is best achieved through strong civic
institutions, moral leadership, and active participation in community life. It
favors consensus over majority rule and stresses the importance of shared
values, social obligations, and community bonds in governance.
PERSPECTIVES IN DEMOCRACY
● Socialist View
Socialists argue that power in democracies serves a minority, not due
to natural attributes but because of control over production. They
claim capitalism creates systemic inequality, making political equality
in democracy incompatible with capitalist markets. Marxists challenge
the idea of the state as neutral, asserting it serves capitalist interests.
They believe liberal democracy cannot address systemic inequality,
advocating for participatory democracy and economic cooperation.
Marxists acknowledge the potential of liberalism but argue it neglects
class issues. Social democracy seeks gradual reform through policies
like economic regulation and social security.
● Indian Debates on Democracy
In India, democratic ideas emerged from anti-colonial struggles.
Nehru, influenced by liberal democracy and Fabian socialism,
emphasized individual freedoms and social justice, while advocating
for state-led economic planning. Lohia critiqued both communism and
Nehru’s model, arguing for decentralized power and active
participation, particularly to address caste and gender inequalities.
● Feminist View
Feminists critique liberal democracy’s distinction between public and
private spheres, highlighting gendered power dynamics, especially in
family roles. They argue for recognizing gender differences in policies
and promoting active participation to empower women and challenge
exploitation.
● Deliberative View
Deliberative democracy emphasizes decision-making through rational
deliberation and consensus, rather than aggregating individual
preferences. It values open dialogue, where participants transform
their views through mutual persuasion. However, achieving consensus
is challenging in diverse societies, and ensuring equality in
communication remains a concern.
CRITICISM OF DEMOCRACY
Critics of democracy fall into two categories: those who seek to improve
specific practices and those who criticize democracy as a whole.
● Inefficient Government: Plato argued that governance should be left
to experts, not the general population, as democracy assumes
everyone can govern, leading to incompetence. He recommended rule
by trained "philosopher-kings."
● Popular Rule vs. Public Interest: Some critics argue democracy
often prioritizes populist policies over the public good, as seen in
India, where policies are designed to secure votes rather than make
rational decisions. Aristotle viewed democracy as impure, where the
masses rule for their own interests.
● Fear of Majority Rule: Early liberals like Tocqueville and J.S. Mill
feared mass suffrage could lead to "tyranny of the majority,"
suppressing liberty and marginalizing minorities. Mill proposed
reforms like proportional representation to address these concerns.
● Elite Theory: Critics like Pareto, Mosca, Mills, and Michels argued
that true democracy is impossible, as power will always be
concentrated in the hands of an elite minority. Mills described a
"power elite" controlling decision-making, while Michels noted that
even socialist movements concentrate power.
● Dynastic Politics: In countries like India, dynastic politics
concentrates power within a few families, supporting elite theory's
view of limited political access.
● Competitive Elitism: Joseph Schumpeter proposed that democracy
should function as competitive elitism, where citizens vote for elites
who govern. This model legitimizes government without requiring
active participation in decision-making.
CONCLUSION
REPRESENTATION VS PARTICIPATION
Representation
Most democracies are representative in nature, but what does
representation mean? The concept of whether representatives should act as
delegates, simply reflecting the wishes of their electors, is debated. In
territorial constituencies, merging diverse interests is challenging. J.S. Mill
rejects the delegate model, believing representatives should act based on
their own judgment rather than being bound by the electorate’s preferences.
However, they must still act on behalf of the people. This raises the
question: How much control can the electorate have over their
representatives?
Another view is that citizens mandate political parties or representatives to
implement specific policies, but election manifestos are often general, and
parties tend to be vague to appeal to a broad electorate. Elections are
usually media-driven, and political parties, which constitute the political
elite, are strategic in their policy proposals. In systems like First-Past-The-
Post (FPTP), the winning party often does not secure a majority of votes,
creating a mismatch between seats won and votes secured. This highlights
the inadequacy of elections in directly converting public views into concrete
policy actions.
Participation
Due to the limitations of electoral systems, there is a renewed focus on
increasing citizen participation to ensure effective representation, prevent
abuse of power, and maintain accountability. Mechanisms like the Right to
Information Act in India and the advocacy for decentralization through local
self-government bodies (such as panchayats) are steps towards more active
participation. These measures aim to address bureaucratization, corruption,
and centralization of power.
A key objection to increased participation is the difficulty of implementation
in large, diverse societies. However, advancements in technology, media,
and the Internet, along with public hearings, local self-governance, and
citizen groups like resident welfare associations, are making broader
participation more feasible. The idea is that representative and participatory