1.

CENTRAL PRINCIPLE / GOAL The right action is the one that produces the greatest happiness for
the greatest number.
Virtue Ethics (Aristotle)
• Focus: Virtues and moral character Philosophers
• Goal: Eudaimonia—human flourishing • Jeremy Bentham – introduced the idea of maximizing
• Key idea: Becoming a good person results in doing good pleasure and minimizing pain; created the hedonic calculus.
actions. • John Stuart Mill – refined it by distinguishing higher
• Emphasizes developing habits such as courage, honesty, (intellectual) and lower (physical) pleasures.
temperance, and generosity. Application Example:
Application Example: A city decides to build a public hospital instead of a private
A student finds a lost wallet. Instead of returning it because it’s a recreational park because the hospital will benefit more people,
rule, they do so because honesty is already part of their character. especially in emergencies.
Natural Law Theory (Aquinas) 2. DEFINITION OF “GOOD” / “MORAL”
• Focus: Basic goods, reason, and divine purpose
Virtue Ethics
• Goal: Act according to God’s design using human reason
• Good actions are those that reflect virtues.
• Basic goods include life, reproduction, community,
• You judge morality using the Golden Mean (balance
knowledge, etc.
between extremes).
• Actions are good when they promote these basic goods.
• Guided by practical wisdom—the ability to choose the right
Application Example:
action in the right situation.
A nurse refuses to harm a patient even under pressure because
Application Example:
protecting life is a basic good rooted in natural law.
Courage means facing danger appropriately—not running away
Deontology (Immanuel Kant) (cowardice) and not rushing in recklessly (rashness).
• Focus: Duty and categorical imperatives
Natural Law Theory
• Goal: Follow universal moral rules regardless of
• Good actions are those that protect or promote basic goods.
consequences
• Morality is based on fulfilling your natural purpose.
• Moral worth depends on one’s intention to do one’s duty.
• Wrong actions violate natural goods (e.g., killing violates the
Application Example: good of life).
A cashier gives the correct change even if the customer wouldn’t Application Example:
notice because she believes lying or stealing is always wrong. Cheating in school is wrong because it violates the basic goods of
knowledge and community trust.
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is a moral theory that judges actions based on their Deontology
consequences. • Good actions obey moral laws; wrong actions violate them.
 • A moral rule must be universalizable (applies to everyone). • Responsibility: Act out of duty, not personal interest.
• People must be treated as ends, never as mere means. Application Example:
A judge decides a case fairly, even if the defendant is a friend,
Application Example:
because duty demands impartiality.
You cannot lie to get what you want because if lying became
universal, trust would collapse—violates the categorical imperative. Utilitarianism
• Humans naturally seek happiness and avoid pain.
Utilitarianism
• We are capable of calculating the effects of our actions on
• “Good” = what increases overall happiness or utility.
ourselves and others.
• “Bad” = what increases pain or suffering.
• Think not only about your own well-being, but also the well-
• Morality is judged by outcomes, not intentions.
being of everyone affected by your actions.
Application Example:
• Be impartial—everyone’s happiness counts equally.
A company donates funds to a local school not out of duty or virtue,
Application Example:
but because it leads to greater social benefit, making it morally
When deciding whether to fire an employee, an employer considers
good in utilitarian terms.
the impact on the employee, the business, other staff, and
3. VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE & RESPONSIBILITY customers—choosing the outcome that maximizes total welfare.

Virtue Ethics 4. STRENGTHS IN DIVERSE SOCIETIES

• Humans are naturally capable of developing virtues through
Virtue Ethics
practice.
• Encourages empathy and personal growth
• Responsibility: Shape your character, become virtuous.
• Flexible—doesn’t require strict rules
Application Example:
• Works across cultures because many virtues are universal
An athlete practices discipline daily because they believe moral
Example:
character is built through constant effort.
Countries with different beliefs can still agree on promoting
Natural Law Theory compassion and integrity.
• Humans are rational beings created by God for a purpose.
Natural Law Theory
• Responsibility: Use reason to pursue basic goods and fulfill
• Based on universal human goods
divine intention.
• Provides strong basis for rights (e.g., right to life)
Application Example:
• Appeals to reason, not only religion
Parents care for their children because nurturing life and community
Example:
is part of natural human purpose.
Human rights declarations use ideas similar to natural law—e.g.,
Deontology every person deserves life and dignity
• Humans are rational and free, capable of recognizing duties.
 Deontology Deontology
• Clear universal rules promote fairness • Too rigid—rules may lead to harmful outcomes
• Protects individual rights • Ignores consequences completely
• Prevents discrimination because rules apply equally to all • Universality may not always fit cultural context
Example: Example:
Laws against discrimination (race, gender, disability) reflect Kantian Telling the truth to a murderer asking where someone is hiding
universal moral duties. would be required by strict Kantian ethics—even if it leads to harm.
Utilitarianism Utilitarianism
• Focuses on happiness—a value shared across cultures. Can justify immoral actions
• Adapts to different situations; useful for policymaking, law, If harming one person benefits many, it may still be considered
economics, and healthcare. “moral.”
• Considers the welfare of all, not just personal interests. Example:
Application Example: Sacrificing one healthy person to save five patients needing organs
would maximize utility—but is clearly unethical.
Public health decisions (like vaccination programs) use utilitarian
reasoning to protect the greatest number of people. Hard to predict consequences
We cannot always calculate future outcomes accurately.
5. LIMITATIONS IN DIVERSE SOCIETIES
Can ignore individual rights
Virtue Ethics
• Different cultures disagree on what counts as virtue People may be treated as means to an end.
• Does not give exact rules for hard cases
• Risk of being too subjective Application Example:
Example: A government might censor certain news “for the greater good,”
What one culture sees as “courage,” another might see as violating freedom of speech.
“recklessness.”
Natural Law Theory
• Assumes belief in a shared human nature or divine purpose
• Can conflict with modern views on freedom and rights
• Sometimes seen as inflexible
Example:
Debates on contraception, sexuality, or reproductive rights show
clashes between natural law and modern values.