4

1. CHANNEL DESIGN
The hydraulic design of channels involves carrying out the sizing and the
geometric shape of the channel based on the flow it transports according to the
demanda de agua requerida por el sistema de riego. El diseño comprende la ingeniería
of trace: alignment, background slope, cross-sections, as well as the shape
and dimensions of the channel section, its lining and the determination of the
hydraulic characteristics such as velocity and the depth that allow to establish the
water flow regime in the channel.

1. COATED CHANNELS OR NON-ERODIBLE

Most of the artificial lined and constructed channels can

to resist erosion satisfactorily, and consequently they are considered not
erodible, except for those excavated in firm foundations. The designer of
these channels calculate the dimensions of the artificial channel using an equation of
uniform flow and then decides on the final dimensions based on the
hydraulic efficiency, practical construction arrangements and economy.

Some of the factors to consider in the design of these are:

1. Material that makes up the body of the canal

2. Slopes of the cross-section

3. Expansion joints

4. Confluence of the current in the channel

5. Maximum and minimum speeds

6. Roughness coefficient

7. Free edge

8. Curvature in channels

9. Optimal hydraulic section

10. Excavation volume

11. Coating surface

 5

The excavation volume and the surface lining are the most important factors.
important when talking about the cost of the channel, the first depends on the area of the
section and the second of the wet perimeter. Optimizing these factors will reduce
the cost at 'minimum'.

On the other hand, the section of maximum hydraulic efficiency or hydraulic section
the optimal shape will be the one with the minimum wet perimeter for a given area, because
it will have the minimum resistance to runoff, as well as the minimum cost of
coating, although not necessarily the minimum excavation. For a given expense the
The optimal hydraulic section will be the one for which the area is minimized.

1. Slopes of the cross section

The slope represents the degree of inclination of the sides that make up the
channel box with respect to the horizontal. It is the relationship of the projection
horizontal to the vertical of the side of the channel.
The trapezoidal section is the most commonly used in channels, the slope
The section is not chosen arbitrarily as it is subject to what can be.
resist the excavation material.

Table
No. 1 Side brackets suitable for channels built in different classes of
materials

2. Roughness of the channel box

It is the resistance to the flow of water that coatings present.
artificial channels and the geology of the riverbed in natural conduits, do
 6

primarily relates to the conditions and the state of conservation of the

coatings. The roughness coefficient depends on the material, its
finish and its deterioration over time.
The roughness depends on the channel and the slope, given to the side walls.
of the same, vegetation, irregularity and layout of the channel, hydraulic radius and
obstruction in the channel, usually when designing earth channels
assume that the channel is recently opened, clean, and with a layout
uniform, however, the initially assumed roughness value is hardly
it will be preserved over time, which means that in practice
constantly will face a continuous change in roughness.
3. Roughness coefficient
According to the standards and guidelines for the drainage project (INOS,
1975) the values of the roughness coefficient 'n' according to the material in sections
rectangles can be obtained in the following table:

Table No. 2 Values of n in collectors and channels

If the channel has surface irregularities, variation in shape and its

section size, obstructions, vegetation, and meanders could be used
the Cowan method.
If the channel as a whole does not show surface irregularities,
variation in the shape, or size of the section, obstructions, or meanders.
(Manning's "n" coefficients).
 7

4. Maximum and minimum speeds

The INOS standards (INOS, 1975) recommend a minimum speed for
Aqueduct and sewage at 0.6 m/s, on the other hand, for drainage they recommend 0.75 m/s.
The second point is to verify that the circulating speed is lower.
that the maximum speed.
The maximum permissible speeds: the maximum permissible speed or
non-eroding speed is the maximum average speed that will not cause
erosion in the body of the channel. This speed is very uncertain and variable, and only
It can be estimated based on experience and judgment.

5. Expansion joints

It is an element that allows relative movements between two parts

of a structure or between the structure and others with which it works. In general
expansion joints are used to prevent deformations of structures
or rather control them, and to reduce the increases in the efforts due to
to the deformations of the materials.

The expansion joints can be longitudinal and transverse, they

they allow independent vertical and horizontal movements between the
attached parts of the structure and help to minimize cracks when these
movements are restricted.

They can be executed in structures, walls, floor, in order to avoid

mass disaggregation due to contact stress, reiterating that the more
the larger the structural surface, the greater the expansion will be. The joints
we find them on, roads, paths or streets when the radius of a curve
sea below 200 m. In general, and especially on roads or streets through which
traffic circle, the slabs will be rectangular, adapting to the area at
paving, and with suitable dimensions. In special cases (for
example in plazas or pedestrian areas) these slabs can have shapes
different. In any case, it is advisable to plan the layout in the project.
from the joints, respecting the mentioned rules regarding dimensions,
minimum angles, presence of rigid elements, continuity of the joints,
etc.

The sealing of the joints aims to prevent water from entering through
the same ones, which could affect both the pins and the
Additionally, the sealing also prevents the entry of elements.
incompressibles. Therefore, sealing of all joints is recommended, both
longitudinal and transverse, where pins are arranged. The
 8

Sealing products can be, depending on their mode of operation, as follows

types:
1. Products that work by adhesion, such as silicones of one or
two components, placed in cold.
2. Products that work on compression, such as preformed profiles of
polychloroprene (neoprene).

3. Confluence of flow in channels

The confluence of currents in channels are important elements, without

embargo have received limited interest due to the complexity and the number of
parameters that participate in the phenomenon, such as the number of channels that
they converge, the intersection angles, the shape, the slope of the channels, the
directions, the flow rates, the rounding of corners in the
confluence, the type of flow, etc. One of the major problems that arises
they present in the design of the discharge works at a confluence between
two channels is the estimation of runoff heights in the
confluence. Both the heights to be determined and the edge conditions.
they will be different depending on the regime that occurs in the stretch that
contains the confluence.

At the confluence of both lined and unlined channels the

the lower angle must be less than or equal to 20°, if possible the current less
must be downloaded to a level higher than N.A.N (normal water level) of the
main current. If the slope is not possible, angles should be sought.
menores a 20°, realizar protecciones de acuerdo a los taludes y un estudio de la
situation.

4. Free border

It is the space between the crown's edge and the water surface, it does not exist.
no fixed rule that can be universally accepted for the calculation of
freeboard, due to the fluctuations of the water surface in a channel,
It can be caused by uncontrollable factors.

In the design of channels, it is necessary to leave a certain slope between the

free water surface and the crown of the edges as a safety margin
since they can exceed the flow levels. The U.S. BUREAU OF
RECLAMATION recommends estimating the freeboard using the following formula:
= √

Where:
Clear board = is expressed in feet.
 9

C = 1.5 for flow rates less than 20 feet3/seg., and up to 2.5 for flows of
order of the 3000 feet3/seg.
Y = Channel span (feet)
There are also other criteria for selecting the value of the freeboard:

Flow (m)3/s) Free border

Less than 0.50 0.30

Greater than 0.50 0.40

Table No. 3 Relationship of flow with freeboard

Width of the flange Free board

Up to 0.80 0.40

From 0.80 to 1.50 0.50

From 1.50 to 3.00 0.60

From 3:00 to 20:00 1.00

Table No. 4 Relationship of the sole with the free edge

Flow m3/seg Revestido (cm) Uncoated (cm)

£ 0.05 7.5 10.0

0.05–0.25 10.00 20.0

0.25–0.50 20.0 40.0

0.50–1.00 25.0 50.0

1.00 30.0 60.0

Table No. 5 Freeboard as a function of the flow lined and unlined

5. Curvature in Channels

The horizontal alignment in both lined and unlined channels

coated is drawn following the same principles of alignment of an axis
of a roadway; in fact, a large number of drainage channels maintain a
alignment parallel to the road infrastructure. The geometric elements of
 10

the curves (generally circular) are calculated following the expressions

known:

Fig. 1 Horizontal alignment in channels

When the waters follow a curved path, the centrifugal force
creates an elevation on the outer contour and a depression on the inside
generating a secondary flow and a local loss of energy. The
elevation can be estimated as:

2
∆ = <
0

Where:
C= According to Bolinaga (1979)–See table

V = Mean speed of the section (m/s)

B= Average width of the cross section of the water (m)
R0Radius of the Symmetrical Circular Section

Type of Regime Transversal Section Type of Curve C

Susbcritic Rectangular Circular 1.0

Subscribe Trapezoidal Circular 1.0

Supercritical Rectangular Circular 2.0

Supercritical Trapezial Circular 2.0

 11

Supercritical Rectangular Spiral Transitions 1.0

Supercritical Trapezial Spiral Transitions 2.0

Supercritical Rectangular Spirals and background tilt 1.0

Table No. 6 Elevation Coefficients in Curves

Experimentally there is a relationship Caudalvs. Curvature radius that

it can be useful in practical design:
Q (m3/s) 20 15 51 0.5

Rmin(m) 100 80 20 10 5

Table No. 7 Relationship Expense vs Rmin

6. Coating thicknesses
According to Torres (1981), the thicknesses in lined channels are obtained
according to figure 2 and in the uncoated channels are obtained in figure 3. In
The concrete-lined channels with the minimum steel area are sufficient.
motivated by the fact that generally the acting forces are small. It is
It is important to highlight that if the cladding material requires a layer
gravel or rock protector to prevent undermining or erosion, the excavation is
it must be enlarged to accommodate the designated thickness of the lining plus the
thickness of the gravel or rock layer.
 12

Fig. 2 Thicknesses of Hard Surface Coatings for Channels

Fig. 3 Typical Section with Earth Coating

The most commonly used materials for channel lining are:
1. Masonry (Stone, brick, blocks, etc.): these can be used
materials when they are abundant and the labor is cheap
recommended.
2. Concrete: they are used when the channel is built in sites whose
temperature changes are extreme. Reinforcing steel is used for
avoid cracking of the concrete as a result of such changes
temperature controlling the leaks. It has a higher cost
high, but at the same time it presents multiple advantages, since it is very
 13

durable, the maintenance costs are minimal and its capacity

increases because the surface is relatively smooth.
3. Mortar: based on cement gun is used in small channels,
but the procedure leaves the surface rough which must be finished to
hand if you want a first class one. They are also more prone to
hydrostatic pressure failures. Its thickness is not greater than 5cm on slopes.
strong.
4. Asphalt concrete: asphalt concrete is a mixture of sand, gravel,
cement and asphalt, carried out at temperatures of 160°C or higher, according to the
type of asphalt. This coating has flexibility and resistance to
erosion.
5. Reno mattresses: they can act as margin protection and as
partial or total covering of the bottom, when necessary
mattresses can be used to promote quick recovery from
the vegetation, integrating the channeling into the environment.
6. Permanent mantles: open earth channels are susceptible to
erode due to the dragging force of the water flow it generates
shear stresses on its surface, causing detachment of the
material, which leads to the loss of the section and the reduction of the
hydraulic performance.
7. Gabions: it is a form of mattress 20-30 centimeters thick.
Its main applications are the coating of margins of
canals and rivers, protection of bridge abutments, formwork platforms
foundational and consolidation of slopes in roads and pathways
communication.
8. Procedure for the design of lined channels
1. Q (hydrological study), n (Cowan method), S0
(topography).
2. According to the topography, the geometric shape of the section is determined.
transversal.
3. The optimal equations are substituted into the Manning equation.
we found 'y' and 'b'.
4. It is checked that Vmin≤Vdesign≤Vmax.

5. The Freeboard (FB) is obtained, the rock cover limit or

concreto (TRr o c) and the soil cover cap (TRt).

6. The curves are checked.∆ < ) if there are any.

7. The coating thicknesses are calculated.

8. Adjustments would be made if the speed is met and∆ in curves, dependent

of operating conditions during construction.
 14

1. UNLINED CHANNELS
Unlined channels are those that are excavated in material
resistant to the erosive action of water, respecting a maximum speed
permissible. The problem with this type of channel is the stability of the section, due to
which should prevent erosion and sediment transport.
There are fundamentally two types of problems in channel design.
erodible according to the conditions that must be met and for its
stability.
1. Channels transporting clean water or fine material in suspension
2. Channels transporting solid sediment over the bottom

Design methods

3. Method of maximum permissible speed

The maximum permissible speed or the non-eroding speed is the
maximum speed that does not cause damage in the channel surroundings, according to Maza
(1967) tables no. 8 and 9 determine the permissible average speeds for
non-cohesive and cohesive soils.

Table No. 8 Average speeds of the water current that are admissible (not
erosive) for non-cohesive soils in m/s
 15

Suelos
Slightly compacted soils, Moderately soils compacted, very compact soils
Percentage of
Denomination volumetric weight of compressed, weight volumetric weight volumetric weight of
content of
of the soils dry material up to 1.20 volumetric of the material of dry material, dry material, 2.04 a
particles 3 3 3
ton/m dry, 1.20 to 1.66 tons/m 1.66 to 2.04 2.14 tons/m
3
ton/m

Medium straps in m

0.005-
<0.005
0.05
0.4 1.0 2.0 3.0 0.4 1.0 2.0 3.0 0.4 1.0 2.0 3.0 0.4 1.0 2.0 3.0
(mm)
(mm)

30-50 70-50
Clays and soils
0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.7 0.85 0.95 1,1 1 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.1
very clayey
20-30 80-70

Lands
slightly 10-20 90-80 0,35 0,4 0,45 0.5 0.65 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.95 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.1

clayey

Alluvial soils
and clays 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.85 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.3 1,1 1.3 1.5 1.7

margosas

Sandy lands 5-10 20-40 According to fig. 3.4 based on the size of the sandy fractions

Table No. 9 Permissible average speeds (non-erosive) for cohesive soils, in m/s

Procedure for designing by the M.V.M.P

a) Q is obtained (hydrological study), n (Cowan method; where n0it could be
obtain by the formula n0(d75)1/6/26 in case of having the granulometry and S0
(topography). D75it is expressed in meters.
b) According to the topography, the geometric shape of the cross-section is determined.
If the section is trapezoidal or triangular, 'm' is obtained from Table No. 1 Slopes.
 16

appropriate sides for channels built in different classes of

materials.
c) With the particle size (d50) and soil type, a depth and a
maximum speed on table n°8 and n°9 depending on the type of material; in your
defect Vmax is obtained in table No. 10
3/2
=( ) = , =
( ) 1/2

Table No. 10 Recommended maximum speeds in unlined channels

Using the expressions for A and P in terms of the width b of the base and
the depth and (figure 2.5), 'b' and 'y' are solved. If 'y' is different from
yassumedwith the value of 'y' in tables 3.8 and 3.9, a new Vmax is obtained
goes to step c) until approximately andlastbe equal to ypenultimate. If the
Vmax was obtained from table 3.6 (there is no granulometry) simply the first
real solution of the system of equations (Area and Perimeter) represents the
solution of 'b' and 'y'.
d) Continue the same as lined channels

4. Method of the critical tangential effort or pulling force

 17

Thetractive force or shear force, drag or tangential is the force

that acts on the particles that make up the perimeter of the channel and is
produced by the flow of water over these particles. In practice, the force
Attractive acts on a peripheral area and not on an individual particle. The
average value of thetractive force per unit of wet area also called
unitary tractive force is equal to:

Where:

Weight of water

Hydraulic radio

Channel slope

The method of the tractive force or tangential effort is based on that

the tensile force must be less than the permissible tensile force. The force
Tractive is mainly a function of hydraulic flow variables, and the force
The permissible traction is determined by the properties of the soil material.
which shapes the body of the channel.

Distribution of tractive force. Thorough studies that have been

realized reveal that it does not develop uniformly throughout the
section; thus for a trapezoidal section its distribution is more or less of
this way:

Fig. 4 Distribution of the tractive force

 18

Permissible tractive force

The maximum allowable pulling force is the one that will not cause erosion of the
material that forms the bed of the channel.

For winding channels, reduction percentages must be considered.

as suggested by:

1. 10% for slightly winding channels

2. 25% for moderately winding channels

3. 40% for very winding channels

Generally, for unlined channels, the tensile force is not

uniformly distributed around the perimeter and therefore it must be estimated the
distribution of the tractive force over the perimeter of the channel.

4. The problem of slopes

If the angle of repose of a certain material is ᶲ, the criterion of

equilibrium for that material on a slope over which still water acts (without
movement) is established with reference in this way:

Fig. 5 Equilibrium condition of a slope

 19

If there is no movement where P is the weight of water per unit area,

about a particle.

If there is movement, on the particles resting on the slopes of

In a trapezoidal channel, two forces per unit area act: the tangential force
of drag and the component of weight in the direction of the maximum slope
of the slope, which cause the particle to tend to move. The resultant of
these forces are balanced by the frictional force exerted on it, which
it is equal to the product of the normal component to the slope corresponding to the weight
from the particle multiplied by the internal friction coefficient.

1. CHANNEL PROJECT

The design of a given section is simply a part of the project of

a rod, a good study both qualitative and quantitative of the situation
It would give a better project, in reality there are various factors that influence the
preparation of a project for which a preliminary project must be carried out.
Most important steps (from a technical point of view) in the preparation of
a project:

1. Information gathering
2. Survey and inspection of the land to detect any anomalies
3. Tentative axis layouts in plan seeking a logical route,
economic and of maximum utilization.
4. Draw the horizontal curves and longitudinal profile of the terrain
5. Trazar la rasante del canal
6. Draw the cross sections (graph paper)
7. Locate the designed (optimal) typical section
8. Calculate the areas and volumes
9. Determine the earthworks and mass diagram
10. It is determined to obtain a balance and the necessary volume of material.
the surplus according to the result of the mass diagram.

11. Properties of the Mass Diagram

1. Any horizontal line parallel to the baseline allows you to identify a

volume.
2. An upward branch in the mass curve means a cut in the profile.
longitudinal.
3. A descending branch in the mass curve indicates a filling in the
longitudinal profile
4. When the cross sections are halfway up the slope of a branch
Ascending of the mass diagram indicates a dominance of the cut over the
 20

embankment, otherwise indicate a greater dominance of the embankment over

the cut.
5. In general, a maximum or minimum point in the mass diagram indicates
in the longitudinal profile a cut-to-fill transition to cut
respectively.

CONCLUSION

One of the fundamental problems of modern civilization is that of

water, as a consequence of the infinite uses to which it is destined. The water
it is essential for man, who uses it for drinking, cleaning, and
waste disposal, as well as for energy production,
transportation and in particular as a basic element of agriculture.

Hydraulic engineering projects are increasingly acquiring greater

importance to the extent that the availability of water as a resource
It is starting to be a limitation for maintenance and growth of the
population. Knowledge of channel hydraulics is essential for the
development and the exploitation of hydraulic resources because it affects the
distribution, preservation and in general in the efficient use of water.

The countless number of uses to which they can be applied

channels make these a large-scale hydraulic work, serving to
as artificial channels for navigation, up to fluid transport, their
The importance for the development and evolution of the human being is very notable.
channel lining is a practical and increasingly used solution in
function of its advantages, such as ease of installation and durability
 21

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Beltrán, L. (2013). Course on Open Channel Hydraulics. Venezuela, Puerto

the Cross.

Cóndor, H. (2015). DISEÑO DE CANALES. [Link]. Página web

available in:
[Link] Date of
consultation: 04/26/17.

Gámez, R. (2016). JUNTAS DE DILATACIÓN. Sanposl. Página webdisponible

[Link]
[Link]. Date of consultation: 04/27/17.

Vinces, C. (2014). REVESTIMIENTO EN [Link]. Página web

available at: [Link]
channels. Date of consultation: 04/24/17.

Agostini, L. (2007). CANALES ABIERTOS. Página web disponible

[Link]
[Link]. Consultation date: 04/25/17.

Wikipedia. (2016). TRACTIVE FORCE. Wikipedia. Website available at:

This link leads to a Wikipedia page about hydraulic traction force.
Consultation date: 04/25/17.

Duques, G. (2015). TRACTIVE FORCE. [Link]. Website available at:

[Link]
Consultation date: 04/26/17.