Destructive Testing

Recommended bibliography
SOUZA, SÉRGIO. A.; Ensaios Mecânicos de Materiais Metálicos.; Rio de Janeiro: Blücher, 5ed,
286p.
Telecurso 2000 vocational training, mechanics, Mechanical Tests.

Introduction

In ancient civilizations, the quality of a steel blade, the hardness of a nail, or the...
painting of an object, through its time of use. The quality of a component was based on its
behavior after it's done.
Access to new raw materials and the development of processes of manufacturing
they forced the creation of standardized production methods. At the same time, developments were made
processes and methods of product quality control.
Currently, it is understood that quality control needs to exist both to evaluate the raw material
first as the production process. This quality control includes inspection and testing
finals in finished products.
Given the need to control the quality of the products, the importance of testing is found.
of the materials, to which one can verify if the materials exhibit the properties that will make them
suitable for your use.

Definition

When acquiring a material, there is a need to know its properties, as they

they must respond safely to the imposed request. The tests are essential to determine and
consequently evaluate the mechanical properties of materials, whether they are metals, composites or
polymers.
Mechanical tests are important tools for assisting engineers and designers.
industries and users in general.
Mechanical tests can be defined as the standardized procedures that
they understand tests, calculations, graphs, and queries to tables, which aim to acquire characteristics regarding
mechanical resistance of the material. All these procedures must be in accordance with standards
techniques.
The tests are conducted to assess the capacity of the component or material to withstand.
specific loading request. Every component must be designed to withstand
request imposed on it.
Requests can be:

1
Types of essays

Mechanical tests can be classified as destructive or non-destructive tests.

Destructive tests are those tests that promote the rupture or unfitness of the material.
tested. In some cases, destructive tests only leave marks on the component, without its
disuse.
Como estes ensaios tendem a inutilizar o componente testado, normalmente eles são executados
in proof bodies, which does not prevent its application in finished components.
The tests classified as destructive tests are: tensile tests, bending tests,
flexural test, torsion test, fatigue test, impact test, and compression test.
Non-destructive ultrasound tests are used to determine some physical properties of the metal, or
detect internal failures of finished components. These tests leave no marks or signs on
components, consequently, do not render it useless. They can be applied to finished products.
The tests classified as non-destructive tests are: X-ray tests, Ultrasonic testing
some, Electric tests, Liquid penetration test, Magnetic particle test, Visual test.

Elements of the essays

The tests can be conducted on the manufactured component, on prototypes, or on test specimens.
Prototypes are components manufactured in the preliminary phase of production, intended for testing.
mechanical or not.
Proof bodies samples of the material in pre-established dimensions within the
standards of technical norms.
Testing on prototypes allows for assessing whether the product is suitable for the intended function, but
your result cannot be generalized. They serve as a basis for similar products.
The tests on test specimens are material tests, which can be generalized to others.
applications.

Properties of the tests

All fields of technology are linked to materials, as well as their properties.
Materials have two types of properties:
Physical Properties: the material deforms without changing its composition
Chemistry. Example of the change in shape of plastic material due to heating.
Chemical Properties: the material undergoes a change in its chemical composition. Example a
corrosão.
The mechanical properties are determined from specific tests.
Mechanical tests are based on applying a load to a material in order to determine
the material's resistance in relation to this effort. The efforts can be tensile, compressive, bending,
twisting, shearing, internal pressure, creep...
Mechanical resistance is the ability of a material to withstand external stresses without breaking.
breaking. All those that act on the component can be considered external efforts.
The choice of the appropriate mechanical test is made according to the type of demand to which the
component will be submitted.
The production of test specimens for the tests and the execution of the tests must follow
certain pre-established standards in order to make their results representative.
The technical standards describe the procedure for performing a specific mechanical test,
in addition to determining the geometry and dimensions of the test specimens.
The most commonly used technical standards by testing laboratories belong to the following
associations:
ABNT Brazilian Association of Technical Norms

2
 ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
ASME - American Society of Mechanical Engineers
DIN German Institute for Standardization
JIS Japanese Industrial Standards
AFNOR - French Association for Standardization
BSI British Standards Institution
ISO International Organization for Standardization
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
COPANT - Pan American Commission on Technical Standards
Specific regulations of industries or government companies.

Exercises
1–Why perform mechanical tests?
2–Can I perform destructive tests on a finished piece? Justify.
What are technical standards used for?
4–Define Mechanical Resistance.
5–Cite 3 ensaios destrutivos e 3 não destrutivos.

Tensile Tests
The tensile test has become important due to its ease of execution and reproducibility. The
tensile tests relate stress to strain rate. These tests consist of applying
a uniaxial tensile load on test specimens (CP), which will undergo elongation until rupture.
The test specimens have standardized shapes and dimensions, allowing for comparison and...
necessary for the reproduction of the results.
The test consists of the following procedure: The test specimen is fixed in the tensile machine and
Increasing axial loads are applied to it and simultaneously the deformations are measured.
resulting from these applied loads. The test maintains uniformity in the variation of the deformation until the
restriction (for ductile materials), which allows its measurement with fewer errors. The rupture always
it happens in the central region of the CP, unless there is some abnormality in the CP in order to weaken it
other regions.
In the tensile test, it is possible to determine the material's tensile and rupture limits. The load
applied in the tensile test must be aligned with the longitudinal axis of the CP. A misalignment of the
the load will generate asymmetric stresses that will lead to errors in the results. The speed of the test is
determined by technical standards and must be constant. Normally, this speed is 1 kgf/mm².
If a body is under the action of a force applied in the direction of the longitudinal axis, we say that
this is an axial force. The axial force is perpendicular to the cross section of the body. When the axial force
tends to increase the length of the body and reduce the cross-sectional area, it is a force of
tension. When the force tends to reduce the length of the body and increase the cross-sectional area,
it is a compression force.

Normal Tension

The concentrated load does not guarantee the stability of the structure. To know about the
structural stability requires knowing the applied force, the cross-sectional area, and the
material of the component.

3
 So:

Where:
ζ = Average normal stress (Pa)
P = Axial force (N)
A = Cross-sectional area (m²)

Deformation

δ = elongation (m)
result of the stretching of all elements of the material through the volume of the bar.

Where:
LFit is the final length (m)
Liit is the initial length (m)

The specific normal strain (ε) represents the elongation per unit of
length. The deformation is dimensionless.
L L
F i
you
L I
L i

Types of deformation

Elastic deformation is not a permanent deformation. When the

loading is removed the component returns to its initial condition.

Plastic deformation is a permanent deformation when the

loading is removed the component remains deformed.

Types of materials

Ductile material is one that can be elongated, bent, or twisted without breaking. It
it allows permanent plastic deformation, after elastic deformation.
Structural steel, aluminum, copper, bronze...

Fragile immaterial has practically no plastic domain, indicating its little

ability to absorb permanent deformations.
concrete, cast iron, glass, ceramic...

4
Equipment used

The tensile test is performed on the universal machine.

where the CP is fixed on the machine by its ends,
in a position that allows the equipment to apply you a
axial force outward, in order to increase its
length. The traction machine is hydraulic, powered
by the oil pressure, and it is connected to a dynamometer that
with the force applied to the test body. The machine of
the rehearsal has a graphic recorder that traces the
stress-strain diagram, as the test is
completed.

Stress-strain diagram - Elastic Region

Stress and strain are proportional and present a linear relationship.
Equation of the line defined by Hooke's Law.

E = modulus of elasticity (Pa) - Represents a measure of

rigidity.
"E" represents the slope of line OA. Greater magnitude.
smaller elastic deformation more rigid material.
The line ends at the limit of proportionality, where the tension
it ceases to be proportional to the deformation.
After the limit of proportionality, deformation is greater for
same voltage increase.
σlpLimit of proportionality stress

Flow.
Determined by the flow limit of the material.
Flow is a transition between elastic deformation and
plastic deformation.
High strain rate with little increase in load.
Beginning of plastic deformation, that is, the beginning of permanent deformation.
Material becomes perfectly plastic deforms without load increase.
There can be two flow limits: an upper and a lower.
It is a region of high deformations.
σEYield strength

Encrustation
Incrustation Hardening by cold deformation.
Recovery Area crystalline change increase in resistance to deformation.
5
 An increase in load is necessary for an increase in
deformation.
Point D = Limit of the material's resistance.
Final tension = Tension where the stricture begins.
The final tension is the highest tension used in the test.
Deformation along the specimen.
The material's resistance limit is important for materials.
fragile.
σULast normal tension.

Restriction
Striction is the reduction of the cross-section of the test specimen in
region of rupture.
Loss of local resistance.
Cross-sectional area is reduced in a localized region.
Deformations caused by shear stress.
Smaller area lower loading to maintain deformation.
Breaking tension is the tension at which the specimen will break.
σrupNormal rupture tension

Conventional and real stress-strain diagrams

6
Exercises
1–What is the importance of the tensile test in the mechanical industry?
2–Defina, com suas palavras, material dúctil e material frágil? Exemplifique
3–Determine whether the alternatives are true (T) or false (F). If the alternative is false, justify.
( Encruamento is the softening of the material through cold deformation.
( Striction is the reduction of the cross-section of the test specimen in the rupture region.
( Yield strength is the minimum stress of the elastic regime.
( The limit of proportionality defines where the stress begins to be proportional to the strain.
( ) A conventional stress-strain diagram is important in engineering because it allows
obter dados sobre a resistência à tração ou a compressão do material, sem considerar o tamanho ou a
physical form of this material.
4 - Describe in your own words the tensile test. Construct the stress x strain diagram and
identify the main properties acquired with it.

Compression test
Compression is an axial force that tends to reduce the length of the body subjected to it.
effort. The compressive effort on a body is uniformly distributed across its cross-section.
The compression test is also performed on the universal testing machine, where the specimen of-
the test is subjected to loading that gradually increases. As a result, the same results are obtained.
relations obtained for traction.
Under compression, the test body exhibits two stages of deformation: an elastic stage, where the
the test specimen returns to its initial condition after loading, and another plastic phase, where the test specimen
remains deformed after loading.

Elastic deformation Plastic deformation

For the plastic region, the compression diagram also follows Hooke's law and is valid.
strain, stress, and tensile elongation equations.
The compression test is not commonly used on metals due to difficulties in
determination of mechanical properties.
The methods for determining the mechanical properties are the same as those for testing
traction.
The plates must be parallel to ensure the axiality of the applied force.
The difficulty in determining the properties is due to:
Friction between the test specimen and the machine plates.
Possibility of buckling.
Difficulty in measuring some variables.

The testing conditions vary according to the material.

Ductile material:
It is possible to determine only the properties of the elastic zone.
Impossible to measure the rupture load.

7
 The cylindrical proof body increases its cross-section with the increase in load.
consequently, the cross-sectional area is increased and the stress in the section is reduced, thus the
resistance increases.
O material dúctil tende a não se romper, com isto ele pode ser transformado em um disco.
The below outlines the shape of a ductile test specimen.
The ratio between length/diameter should vary between 3 and 8. It should not be too small to
avoid friction with the plates not to be so large to prevent them from flaring.

The most detected properties in ductile material tests are: limit of

proportionality, flow limit and modulus of elasticity.

Fragile material
The compression test is more commonly used for this type of material.
Because it is very small, it is difficult to determine characteristics of the phase.
elastic.
Does not have appreciable lateral deformation.
The rupture occurs due to shearing and sliding.
As it has a fracture, properties of the zone can be determined.
plastic. Among the properties is the limit of resistance or the
break limit (are coincident).

In some steels, the proportional limit and the yield limits for compression and
traction is tabulated.

The compressive strength limit is about eight times greater than the tensile strength limit.
traction.

Considerations on buckling and friction during compression

Next to the plates, the lateral deformation of the test specimen is limited by the friction between the plate and the
test body. This friction generates stresses that slow down the flow near the area, producing
a tension gradient along its length.

8
 For this reason, the reference measure for the deformation in the compression test must be taken at the
central region of the test body.
To minimize friction between the parts, the ends of the specimen can be lubricated.
with paraffin, grease, Teflon or other lubricants.
The instability in the compression of ductile metal causes buckling in the component, which consists of
lateral deformation of the test specimen during compression.

Buckling occurs mainly in test specimens with very large lengths in

in relation to the diameter, this effect can be avoided by reducing the length/diameter ratio and
ensuring uniaxiality of the applied load.

Compression tests on finished products

Tube tests can verify the ductility of tubular products, even without measuring the
applied loads. The test consists of applying a longitudinal compression load to the bodies-
de-prove until the tube is flattened.
The severity of the test is measured by the distance.
final between the plates formed by the wall of the tube and the
visual analysis of the external traction zone, that is, evaluates-
the emergence of cracks, fissures, or splits in the part of
tube that remains outside the contact with the machine plates.
This test can be performed in tubes with
sewing to evaluate the ductility of the weld, in this case the
the solder is positioned in the area out of contact with the
Plates. Greater deformations without cracking indicate greater ductility.

Tests on springs

It aims to determine the elastic constant of the spring and verify its resistance.
to determine the spring constant, it is fully compressed three times and on the fourth compression it does-
as a function of the height deformations, with these measurements related to the applied stress, it is calculated the
modulus of elasticity (the slope of the line).

9
To verify the spring's resistance, predetermined loads are applied and the height of the spring is measured after.
the discharge.

Shear test
Every material exhibits some resistance to shear. Knowing the extent of this resistance is
very important, especially in printing, which involves sheet cutting, or in the unions of sheets
by welding, by rivets or by screws, where the shear force is the main stress that the joints will experience
to endure.
The force that causes shear is a force applied parallel to the section area being addressed.
evaluating. This force is parallel to the cross section.

Shear Stress or Cutting Stress is a type of stress generated by applied forces in

opposite senses, yet in similar directions in the analyzed material.
Shear stress is defined by:

Where η is the shear stress (Pa)

V is the shear force (N)
A is the shearing area.

Types of shear

In the shear of pins or screws, there are basically two types of shear (or cut): the
simple and the double. The difference between them lies in the number of parts that the pin/screw can break.
The following will present illustrations of each of the two types of shear:

Simple shear double shear

10
The shear test

How shear resistance is influenced by the shape of the product to be evaluated, its test
tends to be carried out in finished components, such as rivets, screws, cords
of the solder, bars, ...
There are no standards for the specification of test specimens. When is it
necessary, each company develops its own models based on its
need.
In the same way as in tension and compression tests, the speed
The application of the load should be slow, so as not to affect the results of the test.
Typically, the test is carried out on the universal testing machine, to which
some devices are adapted, depending on the type of product to be tested.
For testing pins, rivets, screws, or welds, the following is used
device.

The device is fixed to the testing machine and its moving parts are secured by the components.
what is intended to be evaluated. When tensile stress is applied to the device, it will be transmitted in the form of
shear for the joints where the shear strength of the material will be determined.
For welds, the same assembly is used, but welded.

To test bars, fixed along their length, with one free end, a
device below:

In the case of sheet testing, a die is used for cutting, like the one shown below.

In this test, only the shear stress is normally determined, that is, the value of the force
that causes the rupture of the cross section of the tested body.

The realization of successive tests showed that there is a constant relationship between the tension of
shear and tensile stress. In practice, shear stress (TC) is considered equivalent to
75% of the tensile stress (T). In mathematical terms, this is the same as: TC = 0.75 T.

11
Exercise

1 - It is necessary to join 2 plates that are under a load of a force F=20000N. The plates are joined
por rebites de 4mm de diâmetro. Sabendo que a tensão de tração suportada pelo rebite é de 650MPa.
Determine the necessary quantity of rivets to maintain a secure union.

Hardness
The meaning of the property hardness can be defined in different ways, according to the area.
of the performance of those who define it (Souza, ). The Brinell hardness is represented by HB (hardness Brinell).

Metallurgist: Hardness means resistance to permanent plastic deformation.

Hardness is the resistance to the penetration of one hard material into another.
Designer: hardness is considered a baseline measure for understanding resistance and
thermal or mechanical treatment of a metal and its wear resistance.
Machining: hardness provides a measure of the metal's cutting resistance.
Mineralogy: hardness is measured by the resistance to scratching that one material can make on another.
The hardness test can be divided into three types:
1. By penetration.
2. By shock.
3. For risk.

Hardness for risk Standard Mineral Mohs scale

The hardness by scratch relates to minerals Talc 1 Scratch the:
regarding the possibility of one scratching the other
Gypsum 2
Considerations about metals:
Calcite 3
 Annealed copper has a Mohs hardness
Fluorite 4
3.
 Martensite has a Mohs hardness of 7. Apatite 5
 Most metals are found between Orthoclase 6
hardness 4 and 8.
 The method is not sensitive to small Quartz 7
hardness variations. Topaz 8
Sapphire 9
Diamond 10 The element:

12
Hardness by penetration
Brinell hardness (HB)
Most commonly used method for measuring hardness.
The Brinell hardness test consists of slowly compressing a sphere of
tempered steel, with diameter D, on a flat, polished, and clean surface of a
metal, through a load F, for a time t, producing a spherical cap
of diameter d.
Brinell hardness (HB) is the ratio between the applied load (F) and the area of the indentation.
spherical printed on the tested material (Ac).

Where: p = printing depth (mm).

D = diameter of the sphere (mm).
d = diameter of the printed cap (mm).
Example:
A sample was subjected to a Brinell hardness test in which a 2.5 sphere was used.
mm in diameter and a load of 187.5 kgf. The measure of the print diameter was 1 mm. What is the
hardness of the tested material?

The unit (kgf/mm²) is not used due to the fact that hardness is not a well-defined physical concept.
defined, as the equation does not consider the average value of the pressure over the entire surface of the print.
To facilitate the determination of the material's hardness, tables can be used that convert,
automatically, the diameters of the cap in Brinell hardness.
The test proposed by Brinell is standardized with a load of 3,000 kgf and a hardened steel sphere.
with a diameter of 10 mm with a load application for 15 seconds.
For non-standardized measurements, the following precautions should be taken:

 The load is determined in such a way that the printing diameter d is in the range of 0.25D to
0.5D.
 The load factor must remain constant, that is, the ratio: F/D².
 The maintenance of this relationship ensures the diameter is within the mentioned diameter range.
According to the hardness range and the type of material, the load values are set, as shown
on the table.

13
 The diameter of the sphere is determined based on the thickness of the tested specimen. The standard
Brazilian standards establish that the minimum thickness of the tested material must be 17 times the depth of the
cap

Example
A company purchased a batch of carbon steel plates with the following specifications:
 thickness: 4 mm
 Brinell hardness (HB): 180
These plates must be submitted to the Brinell hardness test to confirm if they are in compliance.
with the specifications. These sheets can be tested with a 10 mm sphere.
For carbon steel and sphere D = 10 mm F/D² = 30 F = 30. 10² = 3000 kgf.
Depth calculation

Material thickness e>17.p = 17.0,53 = 9.01 mm

But the thickness of the sheet is 4mm, so it cannot be tested by a 10 mm sphere.
one should use a smaller one.

14
Representation of the obtained results
The Brinell hardness number must be followed by the symbol HB, without any suffix, whenever
It is about the standardized test, with the application of the load for 15 seconds.
Under other conditions, the symbol HB receives a suffix made up of numbers that indicate the
specific test conditions, in the following order: diameter of the sphere, load and application time of the
load.

Example:
Write a Brinell hardness value of 85, measured with a sphere of 10 mm in diameter and a
a load of 1,000 kgf, applied for 30 seconds.
85HB 10/1000/30

Limitations of the essay

 The test is limited to materials with a hardness of up to 500 HB, as hardness greater than this will damage the
sphere.
 Whenever the load is removed, there is an elastic recovery, so the printing diameter will not be
the same as that in contact with the sphere, increasing its radius of curvature.
 Very hard metals have a reduced plastic zone, therefore they have little plastic deformation.
With this, elastic recovery is a source of errors in determining hardness.
 The test should not be conducted on cylindrical surfaces with a radius of curvature
less than 5 times the diameter of the sphere used, because there would be a flow
the lateral of the material and the measured hardness would be lower than the actual one.

 Error due to material distortion

Relationship between Brinell Hardness and conventional tensile strength

The empirical relationship between the yield strength of steels and hardness is determined by the equation
.
For hardness greater than 380 HB, there is a tendency for hardness to increase more rapidly than the
limit of resistance, probably due to the deformation of the sphere or due to effects of compressive stresses
residual in printing, originating from very hard steels.

Advantages and disadvantages

Compared to other methods, the Brinell test sphere causes the deepest and most
large. With this, the hardness measured in the test covers a larger portion of the material, resulting in an average
of more precise measurement, taking into account possible polycrystalline structures and heterogeneities of
material.

15
 This method is the best for measuring the macro-hardness of a material, especially
for materials with heterogeneous structures.

Rockwell Hardness
Advantages and techniques of the test

It is the second type of hardness by penetration, and it was introduced by Rockwell in 1922. This method
became widespread due to its advantages over the Brinell hardness process. The hardness
Rockwell is symbolized by HR (Hardness Rockwell).
This is a faster test because the hardness is measured directly and
automatically on the machine, eliminating personal errors.
In addition to this, because it has smaller penetrators, it can be applied to finished components, because
damages your surface less.
It is applied in production lines, in the verification of heat treatments or surface treatments, due to
its application speed.
The penetrators used in the Rockwell test can be of the type
spherical or conical. Spherical type penetrators are made of steel
tempered and the conical ones are made of diamond with a 120° conicity.
In this hardness measurement process, the load is applied in two stages.
A pre-load that ensures firm contact with the surface of the test specimen.
and to firmly fix the same. Right after, the higher load is applied, that which is proper
for the test. After the removal of this last load, the printing depth is
given directly on the machine's display, in the form of a hardness number
after returning to the lower load value.

The hardness degree reading is done directly on a display attached to the testing machine.
according to a predetermined scale, suitable for the hardness range of the material.

16
 The dial displays two measurement scales that are related to the type of
penetrator used. For diamond cone penetrators, the result should be read on the scale
external of the display. For the spherical penetrator, the result is read on the internal scale.
The measured hardness value is a dimensionless value, and corresponds to the depth reached by
penetrator, subtracted from the elastic recovery of the material, after the removal of the higher intensity load, and
the depth resulting from the application of the pre-load.
Rockwell hardness testing equipment
The machines for Rockwell testing can be of two types,
one for overall hardness evaluation and another for surface hardness,
onde é avaliada a dureza de camadas superficial do material, sendo
indicated for hardness evaluation in thin sheets.
In normal Rockwell hardness tests, a pre-
load of 10 kgf and the maximum load can be 60, 100 or 150 kgf.
In the Rockwell superficial hardness tests, the pre-load is
3 kgf and the maximum load can be 15, 30, or 45 kgf.
To compare hardness values of different materials,
It is necessary to take care that all the hardnesses are the same.
scale. The Rockwell hardness measurement scales can be
visualizadas na tabela .

Note: loads in kgf

17
 Note: loads in kgf.

Representation of Rockwell hardness

The hardness value must be followed by the symbol HR, with a suffix indicating the scale used.

Example: The hardness result is 64 HRC

Hardness = 64 HR
Essay in the C scale

The hardness result is 50HR15N

Dureza = 50 HR
Superficial testing on the 15N scale

Example: A company acquired a material with the following specification: 70H15T. What are the conditions?
Is the test carried out to confirm if the material complies with the specification?
Type of machine: surface test
Type/ size of the penetrator: steel sphere with d=1.5875mm
Pre-load: 3 kgf
Maximum load: 15 kgf
Color of the scale on which the test is performed: red.

Determination of penetration depth

18
 To rehearse sheets or any component, it is necessary to determine the maximum depth that
the penetrator will reach in order to establish whether the test can or cannot be conducted at that
component. To estimate the minimum depth of the penetrator, the following equations can be used:
1–For diamond penetrator
Common HR profundidade = 0,002.(100 - HR)
Superficial HR depth = 0.001.(100 - HR)

2–For spherical penetrator

Common HR depth = 0.002.(130 - HR)
superficial HR profundidade = 0,001.(100 - HR)

The thickness of the tested component must be at least 17 times the estimated measurement of
depth.

Thickness≥17. depth

Example: What will be the approximate depth of penetration achieved when testing a material with
estimated hardness of 40HRC.
Rockwell C scale test - normal
Diamond penetrator
Estimated hardness = 40 HR
depth = 0.002.(100 - HR) = 0.002.(100-40) = 0.12 mm

Example: What should be the minimum thickness of a plate that will be subjected to the hardness test?
Rockwell for a material with an expected hardness of 80HRB?
Rockwell B scale testing – normal
Spherical penetrator in steel
Estimated hardness = 80 HR
profundidade = 0,002.(130 - HR) = 0,002.(130–80) = 0,1 mm
Thickness ≥ 17. Depth = 17. 0.1 = 1.7 mm
The plate must have a minimum thickness of 1.7 mm.

Final considerations
The surface to be tested must be free of irregularities to avoid measurement errors.
The initial load also serves to minimize the effect of surface irregularities or
adhesion of the metal edges on the penetrator.

19
 If the surface is not flat, a correction must be made since this test is based on
depth of the print and not in its area. The correction is made through standards or research
previous.
Usually, the first measure is discarded, serving only to adjust the penetrator in
machine.
The Rockwell test has limitations in the discontinuity of hardness scales. For materials that
they present hardness at the limit of one scale and at the beginning of another cannot be compared between
as for hardness.
Another important limitation is that the hardness result in the Rockwell test has no relation to the
tensile strength value, as occurs in the Brinell test.

Vickers hardness
Technique and advantages of the test

This study was introduced by Smith and Sandland in 1925 and was named Vickers hardness.
due to the machine manufacturer for this type of testing, Vickers-Armstrong.
The penetrator is a pyramid with a square base, with an angle
of 136° between the opposite faces.
This essay presents print values similar to
Brinell hardness, as the ideal ratio of diameters for this hardness
(d/D = 0.375) happens when the tangents to the sphere, starting from the
The edges of the print make an angle of 136° with each other.

Vickers hardness tests can be applied to all types

of materials.
As the penetrator is a diamond, it is practically
indestructible and how
The Vickers hardness value (HV) is the quotient of the applied load.
(F) by the print area (A) left on the tested body.

The machine that performs the Vickers test does not provide the value of the area of
impression of the pyramid, but allows obtaining, through a microscope
coupled, the measures of the diagonals (d1 and d2) formed by the vertices
opposites of the base of the pyramid.

Knowing the measures of the diagonals, it is possible to calculate the area of the
square base pyramid (A), using the formula:

20
Então

Where
The force is calculated in kgf and

Representation of the test result

The Vickers hardness is represented by the hardness value, followed by the symbol HV and a number.
that indicates the value of the applied load.

Example: The representation 440 HV 30 indicates that the Vickers hardness value is 440 and that the applied load
it was 30 kgf.

The normal application time of the load ranges from 10 to 15 seconds. When the duration of the application
The load is different, the application time after the load is indicated.

Example: In the representation: 440 HV 30/20, the last number indicates that the load was applied for 20
seconds.

Loads used in the Vickers test

In this method, unlike what occurs in Brinell, the loads can be of any value, as
the impressions are always proportional to the load, for the same material. Thus, the hardness value
it will be the same, regardless of the load used.
For the sake of standardization, the recommended loads are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80,
100, 120 kgf.

Vickers Microhardness
For specific applications, aimed primarily at
treated surfaces (carbonitriding, hardening) or for the determination of
hardness of individual microconstituents of a microstructure is used
the Vickers microhardness test.

21
 Vickers microhardness involves the same practical procedure as the Vickers test, but
use loads less than 1 kgf. The load can have values as small as 10 gf.
In microhardness, since the applied load is small, the impression produced is microscopic.

Printing defects
A perfect impression in the Vickers test must show straight sides.
Meanwhile, printing defects may occur due to sinking or metal adhesion.
around the faces of the penetrator.

Advantages
The Vickers test provides a continuous scale of hardness, measuring all hardness values.
in a single scale.
The impressions are extremely small and, in most cases, do not make the parts unusable.
even the finished ones.
The penetrator, being made of diamond, is practically indestructible.
This test applies to materials of any thickness, and can also be used to measure
surface hardness.

Limitations
Special care must be taken to avoid measurement or load application errors, which
they greatly alter the real values of hardness.
The preparation of the test specimen for microhardness must be done, obligatorily, by
metallography, preferably using electro polishing, to avoid surface hardening.
When using loads less than 300 gf, there may be elastic recovery, complicating the
measure of the diagonals.
The Vickers hardness machine requires constant calibration, as any error in the speed of
The application of load brings significant differences in hardness values.

22
Bending and Flexural Tests

Initial concepts
Consider the elements subjected to the shown force.

With the application of forces, they acquire this shape:

The bending effort generates the occurrence of elastic deformation.

The bending effort generates the occurrence of plastic deformation.
Both the flexural and bending tests use the same setup, a knife and two rollers with
diameters determined according to the test specimen.

The bending and folding tests are performed on the universal machine.
For ductile materials, it is more important to know the ductility of the materials.
More resistant materials require knowledge of bending properties.

Folding Test

The folding test provides a qualitative indication of the ductility of the material.

This type of test does not provide a numerical value, but it allows for the establishment of mechanical properties of the
material.
The test body has a straight axis and a circular, tubular, rectangular, or square cross-section.
The distance between the supports is determined according to the size of the specimen.
There is no need to measure the applied load.
The diameter of the cleaver (D) varies according to the severity of the test.
Typically, the diameter of the knife is determined based on the diameter or thickness of the specimen.
Speed is not a determining factor in the folding.

23
The folding angle (α) also indicates the severity of the test, and can take the values of α
90°, 120° or 180°.

Criteria for the approval of the test: The pulled region in the test must not contain cracks or fissures.

The test reveals the ductility in any region of the material.

The test can be carried out in a single step or two steps.

Two stages are carried out when the diameter of the cleaver is very small or null.
Of D, where D' is the smallest possible.

Folding processes

Free bending: The bending is obtained by applying force at the ends of the test specimen.
without applying force at the maximum bending point.

Semi-guided bending: One end is anchored in some way and the bending is performed in the
other end or in another location of the evidence body.

Bending test
The bending test is primarily performed on brittle materials and on strong materials such as cast iron.
concrete structures, steel tool, ....

The bar used in the bending test must have the length specified by the standard. The cross-section
it can be anything.
The body is supported at two equidistant points.
The load during the test is slowly increased until the specimen breaks.

24
In this experiment, it is possible to measure a deflected beam.

Flexure (f) is the length between the deformed neutral axis and the initial one.

Assessed properties
Bending stress

The bending of the bar depends on the applied force and its location.

Flexural moment (M)fIt is the product of the force and the distance at which it is applied. This is in the case of bending.
The equation for calculating the bending moment is:
F L FL
M x M
2 2 4
f f

Moment of inertia (I)

For a circular section, the moment of inertia is defined by the equation:

d 4

I
64

Where d is the diameter of the bar.

For a rectangular section, the moment of inertia is defined by the equation:

bh 3

I
12

25
 Where b is the base of the cross-section.
h is the height of the cross-section.

Section modulus (W) is resistance to a moment.

I
W
c

Ondec = radius, for bodies with a circular cross-section.

c = 0.5 h, for bodies of rectangular section.

Logo the bending moment equation (T)f) é:

M
T f

W
f

After measuring the test variables, the bending stress can be obtained.

For ductile materials, the force obtained at the yield limit is considered.

For fragile materials, the force recorded at the breaking limit is considered.

Maximum flex (f)

FL 3

f
48EI
Modulus of elasticity (E)
FL 3

E
48fI
Example: After a bending test on a test specimen with a circular section, 50 mm in diameter and
685 in length, an arrow of 1.66 mm was recorded and the load applied when the limit was reached
The elastic was 1600N. It asks:
a) The bending stress in the test specimen.
b) The modulus of elasticity in the material.
Exercises
1–Describe the bending and flexural tests.
2–Because the bending test is considered qualitative.
A test specimen with a diameter of 30 mm and a length of 600 mm was subjected to a test.
from bending, presenting a deflection of 2 mm under a load of 360 N. Determine:
a bending stress;
b) o modulus of elasticity.

26
Fluency Workshop

Definitions
Fluency is the plastic deformation that occurs in a material under constant or nearly constant stress,
in function of time.
For metallic materials, temperature has a strong influence on this factor.
Fluency occurs due to the movement of dislocations, which always exist in the crystal structure of.
metals.
They can be divided into three types:
Fluency test: the load and temperature remain constant, measuring the deformation.
over time.
Creep rupture test: the test is conducted until the material fractures, measuring the
break time, allowing for the measurement of deformation over time.
Relaxation test: The temperature and deformation are kept constant and the drop is measured.
initially applied tension for obtaining deformation over time.

Considerations
In real use conditions, the products undergo various demands for long periods of time.
In some situations, products exhibit permanent deformation even under load.
below your elastic limit, this occurs more frequently when there is temperature involvement.
The creep rate is greatly influenced by temperature: Whether it is a carbon steel
under a tension for 1000 consecutive hours:
–Se tensão=3,5 kgf/mm² e T = 500ºC ε = 0.04%
–Se tensão=3,5 kgf/mm² e T = 540ºC ε = 4%

Fluency Theory
The flow mechanism involves 4 processes.
Stage I - Slippage of disagreements.
There is a hardening that decreases the creep rate in the material.
The flow mechanism becomes more difficult to operate as the trial progresses.
The slips of disagreements are prevented by barriers that arise during the course of
time.
Initially, when tension is applied to the metal at a given temperature, the dislocations are
first prevented from slipping by small barriers, but they encounter larger barriers than
will only be overcome after longer times.

Stage I–Rise of disagreements causing the

formation of subgrains.
The recovery process is fast enough to
balance the stiffening.
The higher the temperature, the greater it will be
recovery and less stationary will be stage 2.
Stage II - Grain Boundary Sliding
-It is characterized by a great movement of the
disagreements.
A clear formation of micro-cracks appears in the material.
There is a marked increase in the narrowing of test specimens subjected to tensile testing.

Description of the essay

27
 Usually, the test specimen is subjected to tensile stress.
Evidence bodies used are similar to those used in
traction.
A constant tensile load is applied to the test specimen,
that stays in an electric oven at a constant temperature and
controllable.
Before the rehearsal, the cp must go through a warm-up, without
that it be overheated.
The machine for the creep test is shown below.

Description of the fluency essay

This essay consists of applying a certain load to a
test body, at a given temperature, and assess the deformation that
it occurs during the performance of the rehearsal.
Charge and temperature are kept constant throughout
process.
This essay has a long duration, averaging 1000 hours.
The result of the test is given by a strain curve.
(fluency) for the duration of the rehearsal.

Creep rupture test

Same previous principle, but with test specimens being taken to rupture.
As larger loads are used, greater creep velocities are obtained.
The proof body undergoes greater deformations: in the creep test ε 1%, in the rupture tests
Due to fluency, ε can reach 50%.
The tension and temperature are kept constant in this test.
The results obtained in the test are: time to rupture of the test specimen, measurement of deformation and
measure of constriction, in certain cases.
It has an average duration of 1,000 hours.
Many test bodies, tested with different loads, are needed to obtain results.
significant.

Relaxation Rehearsal
They produce data on fluency/tension speed across a range of speeds, with only
a body of proof.
It is carried out while maintaining constant deformation, through the reduction of the tension applied to the body of
test over time.
Most relaxation tests have a duration of 1,000 to 2,000 hours.
The results have no direct relation to practical application and are empirically extrapolated to
real situations.
Need for close control of the temperature of the environment where the equipment is located.
The main disadvantage of this essay relates to the equipment requirements, whose system of
force measurement should allow precise measurements of small load variations over time.

28
Fatigue Test

Initial concepts
Fatigue is the rupture of components, under a load well below the maximum load supported by
material, due to repeated cyclical requests.
Fatigue fracture begins from a crack (nucleation) or small superficial defect, which
propagates by expanding its size, due to cyclical requests.
When the crack increases to the point that the remaining area of the material can no longer withstand the stress being applied.
when applied, the piece suddenly breaks.
Fatigue failure occurs due to repeated cyclic stresses (These are cyclic stresses).

The figures below show photos of elements fractured by fatigue.

Types of Fatigue Tests

The fatigue testing devices consist of a load application system that allows
change the intensity and direction of effort, and by a cycle count.
The test is interrupted as soon as the specimen breaks.
According to the type of request, the essay can be defined as:
Twisting;
Tension-compression;
Flexion;
Rotary bending.

Flexo-rotary test
The figure below shows a setup for fixing the test specimens, where they are
bent before being rotated. During the rotation, the central region of the test specimen is
requested by traction and compression efforts, alternately.

29
Proof bodies
The proof body must be machined.
It must have a good surface finish.
The shape and dimensions of the test specimen vary and constitute the manufacturer's specifications.
equipment used.
The environment where the test is conducted is also standardized.

S–N curve
The results of the fatigue test are usually presented in a stress-number curve.
cycles, or simply S-N curve.

Fatigue strength limit is the maximum stress value at which the material has a considered lifespan.
infinite.

Factors that influence fatigue resistance

 Roughness.
 Surface defects caused by polishing.
 Superficial treatments.
 Chemical composition.
 Granular structure.
 Mechanical conformation.
 Heat treatment.
 Chemically aggressive environment.
 Shape or geometry of the component.

Factors that improve fatigue resistance

 The encroachment.
 Lack of stress concentrations.
 Elimination of pores or crystalline effects.
 Stable microstructure.

30