METHODS OF INTEGRATION

1) METHOD OF INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION:

Before seeing the variable change or substitution formula, we will solve some
simple exercises
which will naturally lead us to the aforementioned formula.
Let's take the first formula from the table of integrals from the previous chapter:

from this we can find integrals like

However, if the variable does not appear straightforwardly in the function to be integrated,
we can affirm that

The answer is NO, as deriving the right side does not yield the integrand.

the correct thing would be

or well

Similarly, can we affirm that

Again the answer is NO, because when differentiating the right side we do not obtain the
integrating

the correct thing would be

In the calculation of these two integrals

as a variant of the formula

We warn that if the variable x is replaced by a function u(x), for the integral
calculate by substituting u(x) for x, in the integrand u'(x) must appear multiplying
u(x)∞, that is

and we change the variable x for the differentiable function u(x), such that u'(x) is continuous,
we obtain THE CHANGE OF VARIABLE FORMULA

We can easily verify its validity by deriving the right side.

This last step uses the fact that g is an antiderivative for f.

If in the previous formula we write u = u(x) and u'(x)dx = du, the change of formula for
Variable would be left as:
In all the examples we will see below, we will try to reduce the degree of
Difficulty of the integral by means of a change of variable, so that the integral
The result should be easier to integrate or be a known integral.

Example 1. Find

Solution. In this simple case, we can observe that this integral 'looks like'

∫u4du, which suggests we take the change of variable u = 3x-5

Substituting in the integral,

Coinciding with the previous result.

Example 2. Find

Solution. In this case, we can observe that this integral "looks like" , it
which suggests us to take the change of variable u = cosx

Substituting in the integral,

Coinciding with the previous result.

Example 3. Find
Solution. We note the presence of the function lnxy and its derivative 1/x, which leads us
sugiere tomar el cambio de variable:

Substituting in the integral,

In turn, this integral would have to be solved by substitution, taking w = 3u-5.

as was done in example 1, obtaining:

However, to avoid making two or more variable changes, we must realize that
what's important is that the expression 1/x appears, which is the derivative of ln(x), which also
it is of (3lnx-5), except for constants.
More precisely, we can take the change of variable:

and by substituting in the original integral:

2) METHOD OF INTEGRATION BY PARTS:

This method will allow us to solve integrals of functions that can be expressed as
a product of a function by the derivative of another. More precisely, we will deduce the
integration by parts formula based on the rule for deriving a product of two
functions.

Integrating on both sides

We obtain:

and solving the second integral:

We finally obtain the INTEGRATION BY PARTS FORMULA.

Next, we will see in some examples how to use this formula.

Example 1. Find

Solution. In order to use the previous formula, we will take f(x) = xy g'(x) = cos(x),
that is, the integrand x cos(x) = f(x) g'(x)

Note that we could also have made the following choice defyg':

only that the function to integrate on the right side has a greater degree of difficulty
to resolve that the original.

NOTATION. In order to be consistent with the notation used in most of

the books of the market, we will call them

u=f(x) y v=g(x) and consequently du=f'(x)dx as well as dv=g'(x)dx. With this new
notation we will solve the following exercises.
Example 2. Find

Solution. We will use the following table.

Note that with this notation, instead of taking g'(x) = e^x, we take its differential.
and similarly conf, allowing a part of the integrand to be
resto seadv.

In these first two examples, an appropriate choice leads us to a single

I will proceed to solve our integral by reducing it to an easier integral to solve.

There are other situations, as will be seen in the following examples, in which although the
the integral on the right side has a lower degree of difficulty, it is not an integral
immediate, requires a new process of integration by parts or solve it by
change of variable, or some other procedure.

Example 3. Find

Solution. We will use the following table

In this case, the integral on the right side is solved by a change of variable.
obtaining:

and consequently:
3) INTEGRATION METHOD BY FUNCTIONS
TRIGONOMETRIC:
Next, we will see some rules for integrating certain types of functions.
Trigonometric functions, which will later be used in the substitution method
trigonometric.

I. Powers of sines and cosines

To solve this type of integrals, we will consider two cases:

A) If n is odd, that is, n = 2k + 1, we factor the integrand, for example

We use the identity sin²x + cos²x = 1 and we take the change of variable u = cosx.

Similarly in the case of the powers of the cosine, taking the change of
variableu = sinx.

B) If n is even, that is n = 2k, we factor the integrand, for example

or in the case of the cosine

and we use the trigonometric identities:

Example 1. Solve

Solution:

if seau = cosx, then du = -senx, and upon substituting in the integral we obtain:
Example 2. Solve

Solution:

let u = sinx, then du = cosx, and by substituting into the integral we obtain:

Example 3. Solve

Solution:

II. Products of powers of sines and cosines

A) If my sons stop, we will use the identities:

B) If the angles are odd, we will use the identity sin²x + cos²x = 1

II. Products of powers of tangents and secants

a) If we need to, we use the identity: sec²x = 1 + tan²x.

b) If odd multiples, we use the identity: tan2x = sec2x - 1.
c) For odd sines and even m, we use some other method such as integration.
in parts.

4) METHOD OF INTEGRATION BY FRACTIONS

PARTIALS:
This method will allow us to integrate a certain class of rational functions (quotients of
polynomials)
As an illustration, let us consider the following integral:

Note that we could hardly approach it with any of the methods that
we have. We will proceed by dividing the polynomials:

Subsequently, we apply the division algorithm and obtain:

To obtain on the left side of the equality the function we want to integrate,
we divide both sides by (x - 2):

breaking down our "complicated" fraction this way into a sum of

simple fractions, which we will call partial fractions, which are easy
to integrate.

In general, if we want to integrate a quotient of polynomials in which the degree of

P(x) is greater than or equal to the degree of Q(x), we will proceed as in the previous case,
applying the division algorithm

Thunder(x) = 0 or grad(x) < gradQ(x)

Dividing by Q(x), we obtain:

where the sought integral,

it reduces to calculating the integral of a polynomial q(x) and the integral of a function
rational in which the numerator has a degree less than the denominator.

Next, we will describe several cases of decomposition of rational fractions.

(in which the numerator polynomial has a degree less than the denominator) as
a sum of partial fractions which are easy to integrate

First case.

Q(x) has all its roots real and distinct

When the factorization of the polynomial Q(x) is in linear and distinct factors, that is:

We make the following decomposition:

Where A1, A2, A3,...An are real constants.

Note that once the decomposition is carried out, the integration is immediate because:

and therefore:

Example 1. Calculate
Solución:En este ejemploQ(x) =x² -16 = (x-4) (x+4).

The decomposition into partial fractions would be:

in which it will be sufficient to determine the two constants A and B to be able to find our
integral.

We will proceed to the determination of the constants, carrying out the sum of the side
law

We observe that the first and the last fraction are equal and have the same
denominator, so their numerators must necessarily be equal, that is:

or well

Where do we obtain the following system of two linear equations with two variables:

that solving it leaves us

So B = 1/8, and substituting into the first equation, A = -B = -1/8.

Once we have determined our constants A and B, we substitute them into the decomposition.
Initial, obtaining:
finally leaving the integration:

or well, using the properties of logarithms:

Observation: This integral is a particular case of the formula presented without

demonstration in the variable change method

5) METHOD OF INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION

TRIGONOMETRICAL:
This method, which is a special case of variable change, will allow us to integrate.
certain types of algebraic functions whose indefinite integrals are functions
trigonometric, such as our well-known formula:

la cual "resolveremos" con el fin de motivar el uso del método.

Note that if we take the change of variable

and consequently dx = cosθ dθy

Since cosθ > 0 in the interval -π/2 < θ < π/2

Substituting x in terms ofθ,we obtain an integral in the variable Ø, which

we easily solve it and express the change of variable in terms of x.

As we can see, when dealing with this type of integrals we will always have to
to solve a trigonometric integral, like those solved in the previous section.

First case.

If there is a radical of the form in the integrand we take the change of

Variable

As mentioned earlier, the variation of x in the interval (-a,a) is

corresponds to the variation of θ in the interval (-π/2, π/2)

In this first case, the expression of the radical in terms of θ will be:

this last equality since cosθ > 0 in the interval (-π/2, π/2)
We also obtain the value from the change of variable

Well, the inverse function def(x) = sin(x) is precisely defined in the interval
(-a,a) with values in (-π /2, π /2).

Example 1. Find the area of the circle with a radius of 2.

Solution. The equation of the circle with radius 2 and center at the origin is:

Whose graph is:

Clearly, this graph does not correspond to a function, but we can restrict ourselves to the
Interval [0, 2], calculate the area under the graph and multiply it by 4 to obtain the area.
Desired.

We obtain the function of the figure by solving for a in terms of x, in the equation of
the circumference:

Thus the sought area will be:

First we will find

In this integral, we take the trigonometric substitution.

Substituting in the original integral, in terms of the new variable.Q, and integrating,
We obtain:

From the change of variable x = 2sin, we obtain that sinθ = x/2, that is, θ =
arcsin(x/2)

Likewise, from the change of variable, we can construct the triangle:

In this particular case sinθ = x/2 and cosθ=

Thus, the integral solved in terms of the variableθ,we express it in terms of

the original variable, x.

Let's now calculate the definite integral

and finally the area will be: